642 Index ecosystems (continued) cost-effectiveness measures 5:356–357, 5:357F, 5:459–463 crop production 5:349–350 cultural ecosystem services 5:353 decision-making strategies 5:358 esthetic services 5:353–354 nature-based recreation models 5:353 nutrient retention 5:355–356 provisioning services 5:350–351 regulatory services 5:351–352 software 5:357–358 spiritual services 5:354 storm peak management 5:352–353 summary discussion 5:358–359 supporting services 5:354–355 uncertainty monitoring 5:356 nature-based recreation 7:253 payment for agrobiodiversity conservation services (PACS) 3:40–41, 3:41F payment for ecosystem services (PES) 2:226–227, 2:298, 3:40–41, 3:432–433, 5:151, 7:353–355 plant communities 6:76 population diversity general characteristics 6:170–171 global population diversity 6:171 local population diversity 6:171 regional population diversity 6:171 priority management 6:261–272 carbon sequestration 5:351–352, 6:264F carbon storage 5:351–352, 6:264F challenges 6:270–271 cost–benefit analyses 6:265–266, 6:266F economic factors 6:266–269, 6:267F, 6:268F, 6:269F ecosystem service targets 6:263–265, 6:264F land-use patterns 6:265–266, 6:266F, 6:268F, 6:269F livestock 6:264F mapping and modeling approaches 6:263–265 research summary 6:269–271 systematic conservation planning 2:293, 6:261–263 water provisions 6:264F provisioning services basic concepts 2:490T, 7:315–316 cultural ecosystem services 1:334T desertification 2:490T landscape scale 1:344 marine ecosystems 5:451–452, 5:452T modeling frameworks 5:350–351 sustainability 7:76T regulating services basic concepts 2:490T, 7:315–316 cultural ecosystem services 1:334T desertification 2:490T global status 3:46–47, 3:46T landscape scale 1:344 marine ecosystems 5:451–452, 5:452T modeling frameworks 5:351–352 structure–function relationship 3:46–47, 3:47T sustainability 7:76T relationship characteristics and shape 1:345, 3:351 relationship examples agricultural food production 1:346, 3:345 general discussion 1:346 human infectious disease regulation 1:348–350, 3:349 pollination 1:348, 3:347 soil productive potential regulation 1:346–348, 3:347 research areas 3:91, 3:91T research summary 1:355 river–floodplain connectivity benefits 7:145–146, 7:150 fisheries 7:146–147 flood attenuation 7:147–150, 7:148F, 7:149F floodplain agriculture 7:146 flow levels and events 7:150 hydrological connectivity 7:150 overbank flooding 7:145–146 spatial variables 7:150 service disruptions 2:454 service providers 1:345 social value 7:314–326 compensated versus uncompensated demand 7:321–322, 7:322F contingent valuation method 7:324–325 estimation methods 7:322 hedonic valuation estimation methods 7:322–324 Hicksian demand function 7:321–322 historical perspective 7:314–315 Marshallian demand function 7:321–322 revealed-preference estimation methods 7:322–324 stated-preference estimation methods 7:324–325 summary discussion 7:325 travel cost estimation methods 7:322–324 valuation measures 7:317–318, 7:317F value definition 7:316–317 value quantification 7:318–321 spatially variable ecosystem services 3:53 spatial scale analyses experimental manipulation effects 3:349 landscape scale 1:351–353, 3:353, 3:354 local scale 1:350–351, 3:349 plant functional diversity 3:354 regional to global scale 1:353–355 spatiotemporal scales 1:345–346 structure–function relationship 3:46–47, 3:47F supply–demand–value relationship 5:348–349 supply–service–value metrics 3:98, 3:98F supporting services animal pollination 5:354–355 basic concepts 2:490T, 7:315–316 desertification 2:490T marine ecosystems 5:451–452, 5:452T modeling frameworks 5:354–355 nutrient retention 5:355–356 sustainability 7:76T sustainable agriculture 1:114 temperate forests 7:124–125 terrestrial ecosystems 5:347–361 biophysical measures 5:349 cost-effectiveness measures 5:356–357, 5:357F decision-making strategies 5:358 landowner decisions 5:347–349 land use/land cover (LULC) patterns 5:348–349, 5:351–352 modeling approaches 5:349–350 summary discussion 5:358–359 supply–demand–value relationship 5:348–349 uncertainty monitoring 5:356 valuation measures 7:167–179 accounting price 7:172 biological resource exploitation 7:167–168 discontinuous value functions 7:175–177, 7:177F ecological functions 7:168–169 gross domestic product (GDP) 7:173–174, 7:174F institutional failure 7:170–172 local versus global stability 7:170–172 market failure 7:169–170 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) 7:168–169 necessity versus luxury perspective 7:173–174 option value 7:172 project evaluation 7:172–173 resource evaluation 7:172–173 social cost–benefit analysis 7:172–173 substitution possibilities 7:174–175 summary discussion 7:177–178 water funds 7:352–366 basic concepts 7:352–353 Brazil 7:363–364 Colombia 7:362–363 design and implementation guidelines 7:360 Ecuador 7:361–362 financial sources and management 7:357F, 7:359 governance 7:359–360 historical perspective 7:355–357 Latin America and the Caribbean region 7:354–355F, 7:356T