Index spices Europe 2:662–663 food selection 1:42 Mediterranean Basin 2:662–663 North and South America 2:663–664 plant defense system uses 2:432–433 Southeast Asia 2:663 southwest Asia 2:662–663 Sub-Saharan Africa 2:663 Spicotermes 4:409T spider crickets 3:730 spider mites 6:587–588 spider monkeys 2:590T, 6:251T spiders 1:202–217 adaptive radiation 1:32, 1:33F alpine ecosystems 1:155F Amazon ecosystems 1:246T Arctic ecosystems 1:231T characteristics 1:202–204, 1:205–206, 1:205F, 4:392 ecological characteristics 1:205–206 endangered species 3:225–226 feeding behaviors 1:204 food webs 7:266F, 7:267T forest canopies 3:512–513 habitats 1:204 insecticide resistance 4:298–299 major lineages araneomorphs 1:206–207 Entelegynae 1:207 Haplogynae 1:207 Liphistiidae 1:206 mygalomorphs 1:206 Near East ecosystems 5:460T, 5:463T overharvesting/overcollecting 3:223 paleontology 1:204–205 phylogeny and taxonomy 1:204, 1:206 reproduction and growth 1:203–204, 1:206 riparian zones 6:462–463 subterranean ecosystems 7:53 Spiegelman, Solomon 5:632 spike-nosed frog 1:173F Spilanthes acmella 4:289T spilled oil 3:255, 3:255T spillover effects 2:154 Spilosoma lutea 6:159F spinach beet 3:131–132 spines and thorns 2:428 spinifex 2:468 Spinitermes 4:409T spinner dolphins 3:192 spiny lobsters 4:516, 5:315, 6:233 spiny octopus 7:223 Spionida 7:417F Spionidae 7:417F Spiraea 1:269 Spiraea trilobata 1:271–272 Spiratrella coccinea 5:124F spirit sanctuaries 7:229 spiritual services human well-being 1:437 valuation measures 5:354 Spirochaetes 2:611F, 2:613–614 Spirogyra 3:358 Spiroloculina 6:291–292 Spirostachys africana 1:67 Spix’s macaw 7:187 Spizella pusilla 4:490F Spizellomyces 5:573–574T splay-footed crickets 3:730, 3:730F Spodoptera littoralis 5:474–475 Spodosols 6:123T Spondias lutea 1:161–162 Spondias mombin 4:286–287, 4:288T sponges classifications 4:381T convergent evolution 3:615F global diversity 4:385T hydrothermal vent ecosystems 7:329–330 mangrove ecosystems 5:20T marine environments 4:382F number of species 4:371T protective compound production 5:124–125, 5:124F river ecosystems 6:478T symbiotic relationships 5:124–125, 5:124F spongillaflies 4:371T Spongospora subterranea 3:631 spontaneous thelytokous speciation 6:626 spoon-billed sandpipers 7:185 spores 3:650 Sporobolus marginatus 1:69 Sporobolus pyramidalis 1:52 Sporobolus robustus 7:153–154 Sporobolus virginicus 3:115–116 Sporothrix schenckii 3:634T sporotrichosis 3:634T sporozoans 6:296–297 sportive lemur 6:251T SPOT program 6:393–394 spotted eagles 5:474 spotted flycatcher 5:474 spotted hyenas 2:190, 2:190F, 2:190T spotted knapweed 4:94, 4:363 spotted mantis squid 2:356 spotted owls 2:264, 4:564, 7:186 spotted salamander 1:10T, 6:153F spotted seal 5:90 spotted turtles 7:390 springbok 1:487–488 spring communities 7:58 springs 7:50 springtails Antarctic ecosystems 1:184T Arctic ecosystems 1:231T characteristics 4:393F, 6:586 lake and pond ecosystems 4:374F number of species 4:392T soil fauna 6:590T subterranean ecosystems 7:53, 7:55F sprossers 1:616F spruce boreal forests 1:628–630, 1:632T, 1:633F, 7:218F, 7:219F climate change effects 6:150T geographic boundaries 1:629F, 1:630T greenhouse effect impacts 4:28F habitat–bird species diversity relationship 1:612 North America 7:118 819 soil properties and nutrients 6:124F whitebark pine forests 2:571 Spumella 6:293, 6:294F spurge 3:262–263 spur-winged plover 5:476–477 squacco herons 5:476–477 Squamata 6:401–402, 6:406–408, 7:340–341 squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) 7:302 squash 2:383, 2:663–664 squash bugs 7:294 squat lobster 7:330 squids bioluminescence 5:123–124 microbial symbionts 5:281F physical characteristics 5:379–380, 5:380F squidworms 2:19F Squilla mantis 2:356 squirrelfish 3:467–471 squirrel galagos 6:251T squirrel monkeys 6:251T squirrels 1:631–632, 2:190, 2:584F, 2:590T, 4:564 squirting cucumber 2:543 Sri Lanka animal species 1:261T botanical gardens 6:519 ecosystems mangroves 1:275T monsoon forests 1:263–266 threatened species 1:278T threatened wetlands 1:276T tropical dry forest 1:266–267 tropical moist forest 1:277T tropical rain forests 6:314T tropical/subtropical humid mountain areas 1:267 vegetation types and coverage percentage 1:264–265T fish diversity 3:473 invasive species 4:346–347 nitrogen deposition 5:526T plant species 1:259T, 6:82T primate endemism 6:252T stability 7:1–11 basic concepts 7:1–2 changing environmental conditions chaos–stability relationship 7:8, 7:8, 7:9F deterministic stability 7:7–8, 7:8F temporal niches 7:7 temporal stability 7:5–7, 7:6F, 7:7F deterministic stability 7:7–8, 7:8F disturbance considerations 7:2–3 diversity–stability hypothesis 7:2 evolutionary stability 7:10 spatial stability 7:9–10, 7:10, 7:10F structural stability characteristics 7:8–9 eutrophication effects 7:9 Lotka–Volterra predator–prey system 7:8–9, 7:9, 7:9F temporal stability 7:5–7, 7:6F, 7:7F theoretical perspectives algebraic interpretations discrete-time models 7:5, 7:8