726 Index Malayan tiger 1:518F, 1:519F Malayan white-handed gibbon 6:256–258T Malaysia animal species 1:261T botanical gardens 6:519 butterflies 1:658, 1:659T deforestation 1:677F, 4:562–564, 4:563F ecosystems deserts 2:468 genetic richness 1:514T mangroves 1:275T, 1:277, 1:513T threatened species 1:278T threatened wetlands 1:276T tropical moist forest 1:277T tropical rain forests 6:314T, 6:317T vegetation types and coverage percentage 1:264–265T endangered mammals 3:194T endemism 3:232T indigenous peoples 4:270T invasive species 4:353–354 oil-palm plantations 1:540–541, 5:601 plant species 1:259T species richness 1:499T termites 4:432T see also Southeast Asia Maldanidae 7:417F Maldives animal species 1:261T botanical gardens 6:507T ecosystems mangroves 1:275T threatened species 1:278T plant species 1:259T Malesherbiaceae 5:216–217 Malgas Island 5:57–58, 5:60F Mali botanical gardens 6:507T energy efficiency measures 3:254F intercropping systems 2:382–383 rice production 1:88 seasonal rainfall 2:465F urbanization 4:560F malic acid 2:363–364, 2:363F mallards 6:689–690 Mallee emu-wren 7:183–184 Mallet, J 6:620–621 Mallomonas 6:293 Mallophaga Antarctica 1:184T number of species 4:392T Mallotus 1:263 Malpighiaceae 5:489, 5:621–625, 5:623F, 6:316T Malpighiales 2:374T Malta botanical gardens 6:519 vegetation surveys 3:341–344T Malthusian overfishing 3:445 Malthus, Thomas 1:695, 2:420–421, 6:204–206 Maludam swamp forest 1:276T Malus pumila 2:662–663 Malvaceae 6:81 Malva parviflora 4:364 Mammalia/mammals 4:681–707 air pollution impacts 1:139 alpine ecosystems 1:154–155 anthropogenic activities and impacts 3:401F, 7:307T Arctic ecosystems 1:231T Asia dry Asian regions 1:268 endemic species 1:261T temperate grasslands 1:269 threatened species 1:278T tropical rain forests 1:263 Australia 1:302F average lifespan 4:656T biodiversity 3:188 biodiversity–population density relationship 7:74F biogeographical models 1:565–566, 1:566F boreal forests 1:631–632, 1:633F Cenozoic mass extinctions 5:176 Central America 2:25T characteristics 4:681–682, 7:341 classifications diagnostic characteristics 4:681–682 Eutheria 4:683 general characteristics 4:681–682 Metatheria 4:683 Monotremata 4:682, 4:682F Theria 4:682–683 climate change studies 2:66 climatic tolerance 4:701–702 conservation efforts 4:708–720 captive breeding programs 3:196–197 Caribbean hutias and solenodons background and characteristics 4:713–714, 4:713F, 4:714F, 4:715F conservation practices 4:715 general discussion 4:713–714 major threats 4:714–715 case studies Caribbean hutias and solenodons 4:713–714 cheetahs and African wild dogs 4:715–716, 4:717F general discussion 4:711 important themes 4:717–719 saiga antelope 4:711 cheetahs and African wild dogs background and characteristics 4:715–716, 4:717F conservation practices 4:716–717 major threats 4:716 range areas 4:718F conservation types captive breeding programs 3:196–197, 4:710–711 charismatic species 3:197–198 economic incentives 3:197 government regulation 4:710 habitat/population management 4:710 protected area systems 3:196, 4:710–711 reintroduction programs 3:196–197 species protection 4:710 sustainability 4:710 umbrella species 3:197–198 general discussion 4:708 government legislation and regulations 3:195 human impact 4:709–710 needs assessments 4:708–709 protected area systems 3:196 research summary 4:719–720 saiga antelope background and characteristics 4:711, 4:711F conservation practices 4:712–713 general discussion 4:711 major threats 4:711–712, 4:712F population decline 4:712F range area 4:712F Species Survival Commissions (SSC) 3:195–196 threat assessment 3:191–192, 4:709–710 convergent evolution 3:613, 3:614F deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) evolution 2:56F, 2:57 desert ecosystems 2:470T, 2:472–474, 2:474F diagnostic characteristics 4:681–682 domesticated ruminants 1:710 elevational range shifts 4:605T El Nin˜o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events 3:156–158 endangered species 3:188–198 conservation practices captive breeding programs 3:196–197, 4:710–711 charismatic species 3:197–198 economic incentives 3:197 government legislation and regulations 3:195 protected area systems 3:196, 4:710–711 reintroduction programs 3:196–197 Species Survival Commissions (SSC) 3:195–196 umbrella species 3:197–198 future outlook 3:198 geographic locations endemism 3:193–194 top ranked countries 3:193, 3:194T historical perspective early/prehistoric era 3:188–189 Pleistocene extinctions 3:189 recent extinctions 3:189–190, 3:189F major threats causal factors 3:190 disease 3:191 exploitation 3:191–192 genetic diversity loss 3:190–191 habitat loss and fragmentation 3:190 interference 3:192 introduced species 3:193 livestock 3:191 multiple threats 3:193 persecution 3:192 physiological factors 3:190 pollution 3:192–193