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640 Index ecosystems (continued) cooperation 2:328–329 coral reef ecosystems 2:330–346 biodiversity diversity patterns 2:333–334 extinction risks 4:664 interspecific interactions 2:334 major groups 2:331 species diversity 2:331–333, 2:332T, 2:333T biodiversity-rich countries 1:500T Census of Marine Life project 2:15F, 2:16 climate change effects 3:449–450, 4:664, 6:150–151 conservation practices greenhouse gas emissions 2:344 local management and restoration 2:343–344 conservation status 3:171–173T, 3:174 corals algal overgrowth 2:338 anthropogenic causes 2:340 characteristics and classifications 2:334–335 classifications 4:381T climate change effects 5:37 conservation practices 2:343–344 coral bleaching 2:338, 2:338F, 2:339F, 2:340F, 2:709–710, 3:160–161, 3:160F coral-dwelling microbes 2:335 corallivore explosions 2:337–338 direct destruction 2:340 disappearance 2:336–337, 2:336F, 2:337F disease incidence 2:338–340, 2:339F, 2:340F diversity 2:334–335 ecosystem goods and services 2:343 evolutionary relationships 2:334–335 greenhouse gas emissions 2:341–342, 2:342F, 2:344 indicator species 7:206–207F infectious diseases 2:531–532 invasive species 2:341 loss patterns and extent 2:337 mortality agents 2:337–338 nutrition and growth 2:335–336 overfishing 2:341, 5:61 photosynthetic symbioses 5:118–120, 5:119F poor water quality 2:340–341 reproduction and recruitment 2:335–336 species loss 2:342–343, 5:597 threatened species 7:206–207F disappearance anthropogenic impacts 2:336–337, 2:336F, 2:337F loss patterns and extent 2:337 ecosystem diversity 3:452–453, 5:52 ecosystem engineers 4:201 ecosystem services 1:334T, 5:465–466 El Nin˜o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events 3:160–161, 3:160F fish stocks 3:481–482 global species richness 3:710 grazer-based ecosystem restoration and management 4:16 grazing effects 4:8–9, 4:9F, 4:10F, 6:40 habitat destruction 3:404, 3:405F, 3:447–448 indicator species 7:206–207F Late Devonian extinction event 5:169–170 Late Permian extinction event 5:171 loss consequences ecosystem goods and services 2:343 species loss 2:342–343 marine sedimentary habitats 5:108T mortality agents algal overgrowth 2:338 anthropogenic causes 2:340 coral bleaching 2:338, 2:338F, 2:339F, 2:340F corallivore explosions 2:337–338 cyanide fishing 4:156 direct destruction 2:340 disease incidence 2:338–340, 2:339F, 2:340F greenhouse gas emissions 2:341–342, 2:342F invasive species 2:341 overfishing 2:341, 5:61 poor water quality 2:340–341 nature-based coastal protection strategies 5:452–453, 5:453T, 5:454F nitrogen cycle impacts 5:543 overfishing 3:452–453, 5:54 protection and restoration models 5:465–466 spatiotemporal distributions 2:330–331, 2:331F species numbers 5:108–109 threatened species 7:201T, 7:206–207F cultural ecosystem services 1:332–340 basic concepts 1:333–335, 1:333F, 2:490T, 7:315–316 cultural diversity effects 1:335–336, 1:335F cultural services 1:334T desertification 2:490T esthetic services 5:353–354 general discussion 1:333 habitat services 1:334T marine ecosystems 5:451–452, 5:452T modeling frameworks 5:353 nature-based recreation models 5:353 provisioning services 1:334T regulating services 1:334T spiritual services 5:354 sustainable development 1:337–339 valuation language/value articulating institutions 1:336–337, 1:337T definition 3:59, 3:169–170 disturbance ecology 2:562–567 anthropogenic impacts 2:566–567 basic concepts 2:562–563 carnivores 2:565–566 herbivores 2:565–566 interaction impacts 2:566 intermediate disturbance hypothesis 2:115–117, 2:563, 4:79 mechanical disturbances 2:563–564 physico–chemical disturbances 2:564–565, 2:565F dune ecosystems 5:452–453, 5:453T ecological perspectives 3:6–7 ecosystem boundaries analytical studies 3:241–242 basic concepts 3:238–239, 3:238F control mechanisms 3:241, 3:241F food web–trophic level relationship 3:240–241, 3:241F historical perspective 3:238–239 trophic dynamic concept 3:239–240 ecosystem diversity 1:402, 3:6–7 ecosystem function 3:90–95 basic concepts 3:90 ecological succession 3:93, 3:93T ecosystem productivity 3:91–92, 3:91T, 4:156–158 ecosystem services 3:90–91, 3:90T ecosystem stability 3:93–94 energy flow 3:237–238 fire/fire regimes 3:439 keystone species 3:92–93, 3:92F, 3:246–247 Liebig’s law of minimum 3:91–92 nutrient cycling 3:93 research areas 3:91, 3:91T research summary 3:94–95 ecosystem function measurements 3:64–71 basic concepts 3:64 biogeochemical cycles 3:68–70 comparison studies 3:64–65 new and regenerated production 3:69–70 nutrient cycling 3:68–70 primary production carbon-14 (14C) measurements 3:66 carbon-based measurements 3:65–66 data interpretation and analysis 3:66–67 fluorescence measurements 3:66 measurement approaches 3:65 oxygen-based measurements 3:65 secondary production bioenergetic analysis 3:67 biomass accrual 3:67 birth and death rate analysis 3:67–68 egg ratio analysis 3:68 functional type analysis 3:68 instar analysis 3:68 measurement approaches 3:67 stable isotope studies 3:70–71 terrestrial ecosystems 3:72–89 analytical and measurement approaches 3:72–73, 3:74–75T, 3:76F biodiversity 3:84–86, 3:84F field manipulations 3:86F, 3:87F, 3:88 functional diversity (FD) 3:84 monitoring networks 3:86F, 3:87F, 3:88
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