Index threats and challenges 1:241–242 topographic impacts 1:236–238, 1:237F vegetation zones 1:229F, 1:230T Asia 1:254–280 alpine life zone 1:149T animal species 1:258, 1:261T artificial ecosystems 1:279 biogeographic provinces 1:262–263T biomes 1:258–260, 1:262–263T boreal and polar Asia boreal forest 1:262–263T, 1:273–274 characteristics 1:273–274 polar and mountain tundra 1:262–263T, 1:274–275 climatic zonation 1:257T, 1:258, 1:262–263T conservation status 1:279 dry regions characteristics 1:267–268 Dzungaria 1:270 Gobi Desert 1:270 Mediterranean ecosystems 1:262–263T, 1:268–269 Middle Asian deserts 1:270 subtropical deserts 1:262–263T, 1:267–268 Tarim Basin 1:270 temperate grasslands 1:262–263T, 1:269 temperate semi-deserts and deserts 1:262–263T, 1:269–270 Tibetan Plateau 1:270 evolutionary history 1:256T geographic characteristics 1:255 geologic history 1:256, 1:256T humid monsoon region characteristics 1:262–263T, 1:270–271 laurel forests 1:270–271 mountain regions 1:272–273 pine forests 1:272 temperate deciduous forests 1:271 physiographic characteristics 1:255–258, 1:255F plant species 1:258, 1:259T, 1:260T regionalization 1:258–260 tropical Asia characteristics 1:260–263 humid tropical forest 1:260–263, 1:262–263T, 1:266T monsoon forests (moist deciduous forests) 1:262–263T, 1:263–266 tropical dry forest, scrub, and savanna 1:262–263T, 1:266–267 tropical moist forest 1:277T tropical/subtropical humid mountain areas 1:262–263T, 1:266T, 1:267 vegetation belts 1:266T vegetation types and coverage percentage 1:264–265T wetlands and coastal ecosystems 1:275–279, 1:275T, 1:276T Australia alpine life zone 1:149T biogeographic regions 1:297–298, 1:298F, 1:299F characteristics 1:291–292 floristic groups biogeographic regions 1:298–300 diagnostic species 1:292–297 Mediterranean-type climate ecosystems 5:221 TWINSPAN floristic groups 1:292, 1:294T, 1:300F plant communities 1:291–306 biogeographic regions 1:297–298, 1:298F, 1:299F characteristics 1:291–292 community diversity 1:300, 1:300F evaporative aerodynamics 1:292, 1:293F floristic groups 1:292, 1:294T Mediterranean-type climate ecosystems 5:221 research summary 1:304 species richness 1:300, 1:301T structural characteristics 1:301T Southern Hemisphere 6:612–619 angiosperms 6:617–618 background information 6:612 biotic dispersal 6:616 climate change effects 6:617 climatic patterns 6:614 continental drift 6:616 dispersal ability 6:613–614 fossil record 6:615–616 general area cladograms 6:614 geographic distribution patterns 6:613–614 high southern latitude plant growth 6:618 historical research 6:612–613 long-distance dispersal 6:616–617 relaxed clock molecular dating analyses 6:614–615 research summary 6:618–619 vicariance biogeography 6:616 species richness dryland vegetation continua 1:302, 1:303F invasive species 1:303 invertebrates 1:300–302, 1:303T isolated rainforest stands 1:303–304 overstory and understory strata 1:300, 1:301F, 1:302F postfire succession 1:302–303, 1:304F vertebrates 1:300–302, 1:302F wetland vegetation continua 1:302 basic concepts 3:59–60 black box model 3:60, 3:60F, 3:61F Central America 2:23–32 biodiversity climatic regions/latitudinal range 2:24–26 endemism 2:26 floristic elements 2:25–26 species richness 2:25, 2:25T biogeography 2:23–24, 2:24F global environmental change 639 climatic change 2:30 general discussion 2:30 land use change 2:30–31, 2:31F high-elevation ecosystems 2:30 life zones 2:26–27 mangroves 2:29 seasonally dry tropical forests 2:28 temperate forests 2:29–30 tropical cloud forests 2:28–29 tropical rain forests 2:27–28 coastal beach ecosystems 2:128–136 sandy beaches alongshore distribution 2:131–133 background information 2:128 beach index (BI) 2:129 future research areas 2:135 macrofauna surveys 2:129–131, 2:130F macroscale patterns 2:131 mesoscale patterns 2:131–133 microscale patterns 2:133 microtidal regimes 2:128–129, 2:129F morphodynamic states 2:128–129, 2:129F research summary 2:135 species richness hypotheses 2:133–134 threats and challenges 2:134–135 tidal regimes 2:129 two-dimensional model 2:129, 2:130F zonation patterns 2:131–133 coastal ecosystems Asia 1:275–279, 1:275T, 1:276T Australian plant communities 1:292–297 biodiversity restoration 6:456–457 Census of Marine Life project 2:15F, 2:16, 2:17F climate change effects 6:150–151 coastal wetland restoration 7:375–378 conservation status 3:171–173T, 3:174 ecosystem services 1:334T, 3:96–98 global extent 7:370T myriapods 5:430–431 nature-based coastal protection strategies 5:451–458 biodiversity impacts 5:453–456, 5:455F current status 5:452–453, 5:453T historical perspective 5:452 importance 5:451–452 research summary 5:456 nitrogen cycle impacts 5:543 predation effects 6:237–239 salt water plants 6:77 tropical Africa 1:55 conservation status assessment methods 3:169–170 coastal ecosystems 3:171–173T, 3:174 freshwater ecosystems 3:171–173T, 3:174 marine ecosystems 3:171–173T, 3:174 terrestrial ecosystems 3:170–174, 3:171–173T