478 Zoos and Zoological Parks a time fixated on the ‘‘ark’’ paradigm of conservation That is, like the biblical Noah, they talked about saving species in captivity until sometime in the future when the flood of human population shall recede and there will again be the space, and also the will, to restore Nature Zoos have actually had some success saving species this way The list of species that have been rescued from extinction by taking refuge for some time in zoos is ever-growing and includes black-footed ferret, California condor, European bison, Mongolian wild horse, Arabian oryx, Partula snails, and Guam rails However, some species have become extinct during their captive sojourn and no opportunity has arisen to restore some others – for example, several bird species of Hawaii We are seeing that restoration of a fauna may be only a remote possibility and the utility of reintroduction overstated in some ways Where species have been rescued by breeding and reintroduction techniques, it is nothing short of miraculous and remains a model worth pursuing and perfecting The Post-Ark Paradigm Maintenance of captive stocks has several functions, but the singular purpose is not, as it is popularly misperceived, for future reintroduction efforts Zoos may indeed rescue individual animals and sequester them in the safety of captivity As zoo professionals look beyond the ark, they are developing many other ways to contribute to the conservation of exotic animals Exciting, educational exhibits are potentially zoos’ preeminent contribution to conserving animals and their habitats Worldwide, zoos are estimated to attract over 600 million visitors annually The majority of these visitors live in urban areas and otherwise have little contact with wildlife Zoos are beginning to study and develop approaches for mobilizing visitors for conservation through innovative exhibit and educational programs North America’s accredited zoos report that each year 12 million students visit and enjoy onsite education programs, and in addition 85,000 teachers profit from teacher training Some zoos are even developing ‘‘museum schools’’ in which a zoo or museum actually serves as an alternative school for a small number of students who typically combine rigorous college preparatory curricula with hands-on or applied learning in the zoo setting (more information about museum schools can be found at http:// www.astc.org) Zoo-based conservation education programs need not end at the exit gates Zoo educators and graphic artists can also develop conservation curricula that can be used in other parts of the world, including the native range of some endangered species There is a remarkable dearth of educational materials about most endangered species within their native ranges, and any effort that zoos can make to redress this problem will be most helpful Zoos may also need to develop curricula that more directly address the biodiversity crisis, and they may need to reach out more effectively to decision makers (politicians) and leaders of commerce Zoos can serve as refuges for displaced, injured, or confiscated wildlife Thus, zoos help wildlife authorities enforce regulations by providing homes for seized wildlife In addition, many zoos maintain patches of artificial or natural habitats for native wildlife and can provide significant breeding refuges for some birds and butterflies, and for fish and small animals that need relatively little space for a viable population The Amphibian Ark, an international program (see http://www.amphibianark.org/), now addresses the amphibian crisis by engaging zoos in field research and conservation as well as inexpensive captive propagation programs Zoos sponsor significant basic research, often studies that would be difficult or impossible to accomplish with animals in the wild Furthermore, zoos invest a considerable amount of money in research; for example, accredited zoos in North America spent $51 million on scientific research in 1998 While developing technology and methodology for captive animals under relatively controlled conditions, zoos create expertise that is useful in situ – for example, guidelines for medication dosages Direct financial support of field conservation is another way that zoos are helping preserve biodiversity (Gusset and Dick, 2011) Since 2006, accredited North American zoos have been involved in more than 3700 conservation projects in 100 countries, spending approximately $90,000,000 Another form of in situ conservation funding is for zoos in the wealthier nations to help improve the conservation impact of zoos in less-developed nations Many zoos also sponsor member tours to see wildlife in nature, and they try to make arrangements that will have a positive impact on conservation The Ark Revisited Human populations are still increasing and wildlife will continue to disappear More direct conservation measures will be needed from all zoos Zoos will be called on to provide refuge for more species as the wild populations dwindle Shrinking wild populations in postage-stamp parks may need to be managed more like zoo populations, with infusions of unrelated lineages, potentially from zoo stocks Intensive, joint, metapopulation management of in situ and ex situ wild animals will require both scientific and political innovation Zoos may indeed help to save some wildlife from the flood of humanity, but they probably will not be acting as closed vessels Rather, expect to see zoo-based conservation continue to become increasingly dynamic and interactive Appendix List of Courses Zoology Conservation Biology Population Biology See also: Breeding of Animals Captive Breeding and Reintroduction Conservation Efforts, Contemporary Education and Biodiversity Ethical Issues in Biodiversity Protection In Situ, Ex Situ Conservation Natural Reserves and Preserves