Understanding the Entrepreneurial Learning Process of Immigrant Entrepreneurs Background & Rationale Immigrants are quite often considered as a threat to local society (Costello & Hodson, 2011; Kwak & Wallace, 2018; Lucassen, 2005), and in some cases they are directly linked to higher crime rates and social segregation (Kubrin et al., 2018; Kubrin et al., 2019; Zang, 2000) as well as triggering anti-immigrant sentiments (Brettell & Nibbs, 2011; Paxton & Mughan, 2006; Wallace & Young, 2018) Interestingly, relatively little attention is paid by general public and policy makers to the positive side of new immigrants in society Academic researchers, on the other hand, have repeatedly demonstrated that immigrants from certain ethnic groups are more likely to be involved in entrepreneurial activities, creating jobs and greater wealth, in comparison to their indigenous counterparts (Clark & Drinkwater, 2010; Ram et al., 2010) What is more interesting and relevant to the current economic environment is the apparent ability of some new immigrants to start up their own businesses under adverse conditions - when there appear to be major limitations in respect of language barriers, finance and resource availability (Aviram, 2009; Basu & Goswami, 1999; Bird et al., 2016; Scott et al., 2011; Storti, 2014) Since the economic turmoil started in 2008, many companies are downsizing or closing down altogether, thus raising the unemployment rate Governments from different parts of the world have attempted to set out emergency plans to rescue their own economies as well as the global economy (Barrett, 2011; Chavan & Taksa, 2017; Storti, 2014) As such seeking to foster entrepreneurship, which contributes to job creation, increases national income and eases the economic and social pressures resulting from a prolonged recession, appear to be a down-to-earth and sustainable medium-term policy to tackle the economic crisis (Falavigna et al., 2019; Schramm & Litan, 2010; Wang & Warn, 2019) The debate relating to the higher entrepreneurial propensity of new immigrants of different ethnic origin has focussed around the traditional “push” and “pull” factors, which continue to dominate the extant literature (Bauder, 2008; Falavigna et al., 2019; Godley, 1996; Wallace & Young, 2018) Yet there is no conclusive evidence on how and why immigrants from certain ethnic groups manage to achieve higher entrepreneurial activity rates This proposed research argues that by adopting an entrepreneurial learning lens within the theoretical perspectives of Weick’s (1969, 1995) sense-making and enactment theory, a more comprehensive understanding will emerge to explain why certain new immigrants demonstrate greater success in entering entrepreneurship despite unfavourable economic, social and cultural conditions Designing a coherent methodological framework capable of exploring how and why entrepreneurial learning takes place in immigrants from different ethnic groups will provide new insights to this phenomenon Such results will help to inform public policies on the appropriate business support strategy to boost entrepreneurship which in turn will contribute to economic recovery in the medium term At an individual level, the research outcome will contribute to empowering and/or inspiring entrepreneurs and potential entrepreneurs during difficult economic times Literature Review & Conceptual Framework 2.1 Immigrant Entrepreneurship Explanations and reasons for factors giving rise to differential rates of immigrant entrepreneurship are many and varied, attracting the interest of policy makers and scholars from different disciplines (Bratti et al., 2019; Haugen & Carling, 2005; Marger, 2001; Nee & Sanders, 2001; Ram et al., 2010; Robertson & Grant, 2016; Wang & Warn, 2019) Traditional debates on immigrant entrepreneurship have been the “push” and “pull” factors which continue to dominate the extant literature Such studies argue that immigrants are “pushed” to start up their own business due to unfavourable opportunities in the job market, language barriers, unfavourable judicial efficiency; lack of recognised educational qualifications or relevant work experience in the host country (Basu & Goswami, 1999; Falavigna et al., 2019; Haugen & Carling, 2005) In other words, new immigrants are pushed to start up their own business because they lack alternative sources of income This view is challenged by studies which suggest immigrants start up their own business when they are able to so, not when they have no alternatives Nee and Sanders’ (2001) study suggest that the longer an immigrant lives in a host country, the higher their social, human and finance capital and therefore the higher level of entrepreneurial activities In short, they are not pushed but pulled into entrepreneurship The “pull” factor studies, argue that opportunities or resources emanate from the ethnic community itself, the unique “ethnic resources” such as financial, human and social capital are crucial to the success of immigrant enterprise (Boyd, 1990; Godley, 1996; Marger, 2001) Early studies relating to ‘opportunities’ argue that the initial market opportunities for immigrant entrepreneurs typically arise from product/service demands, specific to the ethnic group (Chan & Chiang, 1994), this view is supported by recent studies which argue that immigrant entrepreneurship are related to export to their country of origin (Bratti et al., 2019) Other researchers argue that unique “ethnic resources” such as financial, human and social capital are crucial to the success of immigrant enterprise (Godley, 1996; Katila & Wahlbeck, 2012; Marger, 2001; Wang & Warn, 2019) For example, some studies indicate that one of the key sources of start up capital is family savings (Basu & Goswami, 1999; Bird et al., 2016), whilst others suggest that family involvement (e.g financial and human resources) account for the high rates of business activity in some ethnic groups, and low rates in others (Boyd, 1990; De Luca & Ambrosini, 2019; Katila & Wahlbeck, 2012) A common assumption is that new immigrants bring with them certain values, beliefs or resources that give rise to their entrepreneurial activities in the host country (whichever country it is) As such new immigrants are considered to operate within ‘a closed system’ and their ongoing interplay with the host environment is irrelevant to their potential entrepreneurial activities Likewise how new immigrants learn to identify opportunities and manage resources during the creation of new ventures, given the social, financial and linguistic barriers, is largely ignored A few studies attempt to address this knowledge gap by examining the interaction between immigrants’ human and social capital and their environment (Jones et al., 2010; Ram et al., 2010) Jones et al.’s (2010) study emphasises the importance of "conditioning factors" in explaining the "integration" of new arrivals This shifts the focus from traditional pull and push factor to the process of interaction between the new immigrants and their new environment Another relevant research study in this area, undertaken by Lam & Ritchie (2007), points out that different ethnic groups are engaged in different patterns and experiences relating to entrepreneurial learning, from childhood to adulthood, engendering positive attitudes to entrepreneurship These attitudes are further reinforced through their ongoing social interactions which help them to actively identify opportunities and accumulate the resources required to enter entrepreneurship This is echoed by Lee and Jones’ (2008) study which argue that constant interaction with social ties (both face-to-face and electronically) help to enhance entrepreneurial learning of nascent entrepreneurs during the start-up process These findings help to illuminate immigrant entrepreneurship as part of a complex, dynamic social process and highlight the importance of understanding contextualised entrepreneurial learning processes to shed new light on immigrant entrepreneurship 2.2 Entrepreneurial Learning The theory underpinning this research identified entrepreneurial learning as a social process: it is ongoing, dynamic and interactive (Fletcher, 2007; Hunter & Lean, 2018) In this study, entrepreneurial learning refers to the process in which immigrants enhance awareness, acquire knowledge and skills about business start-ups and also running a business (Cope, 2005) A significant proportion of the entrepreneurial learning literature focuses on when, what and more recently, how entrepreneurs learn (Bonfanti et al., 2019; Breslin, 2019; Pittaway et al., 2015; Politis, 2005; Rae, 2000; Zozimo et al., 2017) Researchers argue that entrepreneurial learning is a lengthy, developmental, life-long learning process that takes place pre and post business start-up and continues throughout the life of a firm (Smilor, 1997) Others go further and suggest that entrepreneurial learning takes place in one’s early childhood, mid-career and is a lifelong process (eg Christianti et al., 2015; E Hamilton, 2011; Mbebeb, 2009; Rae, 2005) Lam & Ritchie’s (2007) study suggests that members of different ethnic groups learn about entrepreneurship differently in their upbringing and have significantly different levels of exposure to entrepreneurship in their social context This study will explore these aspects further by examining immigrants from different ethnic groups and exposure to entrepreneurial activities in their childhood, upbringing and ongoing social interactions Our research will explore whether or not there is any major difference in terms of the different immigrant groups’ learning experiences If so, how are they different and most importantly, what gives rise to the differences in the first place? As discussed, entrepreneurial learning refers to the process in which individuals enhance awareness, acquire knowledge and skills about business start-ups and also running a business This suggests that what entrepreneurs learn is a key component of the learning process (Lamont, 1972) This content is best summarised by Cope (2005) who lists five key elements of the content of entrepreneurial learning: 1) learning about oneself; 2) learning about the business; 3) learning about the environment and entrepreneurial networks; 4) learning about small business management; and 5) learning about the nature and management of relationships In this present study, several questions will be addressed: What differences are there in the knowledge base concerning business ownership between immigrants from different ethnic groups and how does this vary at different stages in their upbringing and throughout their adult life? What are the informants’ experiences in learning about themselves in relation to entrepreneurship? In what way (formal, informal, intentional or unintentional) does entrepreneurial learning take place? Are there any major differences or knowledge and skills gaps between different ethnic groups in terms of what they have learned about entrepreneurship? If so, what are the factors that contribute to such differences and how significant are they in generating different levels of entrepreneurial activity? Another significant area of interest concerning entrepreneurial learning is how entrepreneurs learn A dominant form of entrepreneurial learning is learning from experience Rae (2000) points out that it is the dynamic process of learning that stimulates the learning content In other words, how the entrepreneurs learn is interdependent with what they learn Taking this forward, a dynamic learning perspective is proposed by Cope (2005) which incorporates three distinctive, interrelated elements that explains how entrepreneurial learning takes place – dynamic temporal phases, interrelated processes and overarching characteristics Central to this dynamic view of entrepreneurial learning is the interactive role individuals play in the learning process This argument that learners play an active role is well supported in the learning literature (eg Kim & Baylor, 2006) Applying this to the entrepreneurial learning process, Fletcher (2007) argues that “people label, categorise and construct things as ‘entrepreneurial’ in relation to understandings they have derived from different exposures – interpretation and understandings which they ‘bring into being’ and ‘take forward’ through dialogue and interaction.”(p.665) Fletcher (2007) goes on to bridge the link between entrepreneurial learning and social context and argue that entrepreneurial learning is an ongoing, complex, interactive social process between the individuals and their social context The interrelationship between individual and environment is emphasised in Weick’s (1969) enactment theory: “individuals not react to an environment, but they enact it” (p.64), such that the relationship between the enacted environment and its creators is one of mutual influence, that is, they are interdependent However, it must be noted that the enacted environment is not synonymous with the concept of a perceived environment because “if a perceived environment were the essence of enactment then, … the phenomenon would have been called enthinkment, not enactment” (Weick, 1969 p.164) The assumption underlying enactment theory is that individuals not just perceive their environment differently, but such perceptions influence `their decisions and actions which, in turn, help to shape their environments Applying this to entrepreneurial learning, the literature tends to focus on learners (in most cases entrepreneurs) related to when, what and how they learn A smaller number of studies have focused on the environment for learning (McKeon et al., 2004) An underlying assumption of the literature is that learners are passive in the learning process, therefore when, what and how they learn is determined by what is available in the environment for them to learn An enactment perspective of entrepreneurial learning, on the other hand, emphasises the interactive role the individual learner plays in making sense, interpreting and negotiating their learning environment This is echoed by Rae’s (2000) social constructionist view of entrepreneurial learning, which sees learning as a social and contextual process While the active role that individuals play in entrepreneurial learning is not a new concept there are few studies which investigate this empirically The majority of studies focus on identifying the related elements and factors but fail to investigate the interaction between the learner and the learning environment (eg McKeon et al., 2004) This study is aimed at address this knowledge gap by investigating the dynamic interplay between learner and the learning environments of immigrants from different ethnic groups 2.3 Research Objectives The key objectives of the research are: To investigate the interaction between immigrants (entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs) and the new environment (social, cultural & institutional context of the host country) in the entrepreneurial learning process To compare the entrepreneurial learning experience of immigrants from different ethnic groups Investigate the factors that give rise to the similarities and differences by exploring the institutional, historical, social and cultural context of the different ethnic groups Methodology As discussed, the majority of studies focus on identifying the elements and factors that are believed to be essential for entrepreneurial learning but fail to investigate the interaction between the learner and the learning environment A major limitation is the lack of a coherent methodological framework to address the research questions posed in this study 3.1 Research Approach & Data Collection Methods The research will adopt a longitudinal in-depth qualitative approach An “inside-looking-out” approach, which allows the researcher to “goes into the field to learn about a culture from the insider out” will be adopted (Schwartzman, 1993 p.3-4) An “inside-looking-out” approach fits comfortably with the enactment perspective of entrepreneurial learning adopted by this study as it allows researchers to unravel the complexities, tensions and relationships in the entrepreneurial learning process (Watson, 2000) In addition to the “inside-looking-out” perspective, another feature of this research is the unit of analysis As discussed, research into entrepreneurial learning tends to focus on entrepreneurs in isolation, largely ignoring their social context and social interactions The adoption of the network as a unit of analysis allows an exploration of the construction of meanings arising from the social interactions and exchanges within which learning takes place (Anderson & Jack, 2002) Network as unit of analysis is not new in immigrant entrepreneurship literature In Storti’s study, (2014) two micro-immigrant entrepreneur groups were studied to investigate the interconnection within two types of businesses, ice cream palour and pizzeria, from a mixed-embeddedness perspective A network is defined here as the individual and their social relations (Boissevain, 1974) This includes the immigrant entrepreneurs themselves and their social relations including their family members, friends, relatives, employees, customers and suppliers (and probably other immigrant entrepreneurs) In this study, a network of first generation immigrants from China will be included in the fieldwork It is expected that at least 30 informants in the network will participate in the project, over the complete fieldwork period of months The multi-stages of the fieldwork include initially, detailed interviews with informants to gain a ‘feel’ for the social context, followed by more in-depth exploration of the informants’ entrepreneurial learning experience for a month Subsequently, regular visits for a period of one year will be undertaken, allowing the researchers to follow the learner’s progress and more importantly, to further investigate the issues that emerge from the initial fieldwork analysis The main data collection method used in this project will be topic-oriented unstructured interviewing with the aid of observation Where possible, the interviews will be recorded, and notes will be taken by the author The fieldwork data will be transcribed, coded and formatted for data analysis program The data will be analysed independently by the researcher and double check with the informants to minimise possible bias from a single analyst’s perspective 3.2 Gaining access & sampling According to the latest National Statistics, there are at least eight main ethnic groups in the UK Ram et al’s (2010) recent study suggest that immigrant entrepreneurs in the UK has no fewer than 22 national origins, and there is vast diversity in terms of immigration status and migration motives Although ideally all the immigrant entrepreneurs from each ethnic groups (and subgroup) should be included, the consequence would be sacrificing depth of understanding for breadth of representation Ram et al’s (2010) study found that although there are superdiversity” in terms of new immigrant population, the new immigrant entrepreneurs tend to ‘reproduce many of the features of predecessor minorities, a case of “new crew, same boat” (p.6) As such it can be inferred that there are certain commonalities between immigrants from different ethnic groups that to focus the study on the entrepreneurial learning process of small number of ethnic communities should be of value to wider ethnic communities As the study requires in-depth engagement and regular contacts between the researchers and informants, it is more feasible to choose the ethnic group that the author has the strongest ties In this study, first generation immigrants from China have been selected on the basis that first, ethnic Chinese repeatedly display higher entrepreneurial engagement levels than their white counterparts {Lee, 1998 #71;Leung, 2001 #1069;Collins, 2002 #1811}{Pan, 2018 #2710} and a significant proportion of their businesses demonstrate outstanding financial performance (R Hamilton et al., 2008){Pan, 2018 #2710} Secondly, a significant number of studies relating to ethnic Chinese have suggested that they have distinguishable characteristics, culture and social structures that are reflected in their entrepreneurial behaviour (Redding & Witt, 2007) Notably, this is a longitudinal study and requires regular visits to the informants’ social setting, therefore it is not feasible to focus the study on emerging new immigrant groups which has scattered population and is more mobile in terms of their location A major obstacle associated with researching ethnic minority businesses is gaining access to informants from different ethnic groups It is suggested that the researchers’ own ethnicity, personal network and position in relevant social networks will help in gaining trust and access to informants This is especially likely if the researcher can be viewed as an ‘insider’ (Ram, 1996) Consequently, the author’s previous research projects (SMEs, ethnic minority enterprises and Chinese entrepreneurship) and close personal networks in chosen ethnic group and regional business communities, suggests that a good level of access will be secured for this project Research Outcomes & Impact This project has a significant potential impact on a variety of interest groups First, understanding how and why immigrants from certain ethnic groups learn to be more entrepreneurial will contribute to the development and implementation of more effective and efficient policies to foster entrepreneurship in all communities Secondly, it will help entrepreneurs and potential entrepreneurs develop a better understanding of the perceived barriers and constraints on entrepreneurship by demonstrating how ‘disadvantaged’ immigrants (Ram et al., 2010) overcome such barriers under less favourable conditions Thirdly, the expected research findings will help educators in curriculum design and delivery to enhance students’ enterprise skills and employability Finally, the associated conceptual and theoretical development has the 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