INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
Vietnam has a complex history of language policies toward English Before
In 1986, English was less prevalent in Vietnam compared to French, Russian, or Chinese Between 1986 and 2002, it became a compulsory subject in upper secondary schools and an elective in lower secondary schools, though the focus was primarily on grammar, with limited research on effective teaching methods Following Vietnam's economic reforms and open-door policy at the start of the 21st century, the importance of English language education (ELE) increased significantly In 2002, the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) launched a national project introducing a new curriculum and textbooks, making English a compulsory subject in both lower and upper secondary schools, while also offering it as an elective in primary education.
As Vietnam enters the new century, it faces unprecedented opportunities and challenges in a competitive global environment With its accession to the World Trade Organization and the anticipated freer movement of labor within the ASEAN community, English has emerged as a crucial tool for national development and individual success Proficiency in English is increasingly recognized as essential for national industrialization, modernization, and integration into the global economy For individuals, mastering English opens doors to higher education, international study opportunities, desirable jobs in various sectors, and career advancement The rapid pace of globalization has intensified the demand for English language education, leading to a phenomenon known as "English Fever," where many Vietnamese are investing significant resources in learning English This commitment to enhancing English proficiency was further solidified by the Vietnamese Prime Minister's issuance of Decision 1400/QD-TTg on September 30, signaling a national effort to improve English language education.
In 2008, Vietnam launched the National Foreign Language Project 2020, a significant initiative aimed at enhancing English education and teacher development with a budget of approximately 9.378 billion VND (5 billion USD) This project mandates English as a compulsory foreign language for all students from primary school onwards, with the goal of improving the English proficiency of the labor force by 2015 By 2020, the aim is for most non-English major graduates to achieve level three on Vietnam’s English proficiency scale, demonstrating a solid understanding of the language and the ability to communicate effectively in basic situations The Management Board for Project 2020 was officially established in 2011 to oversee the implementation of these objectives.
The Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has mandated that English be a compulsory subject starting from grade 3 in primary schools across Vietnam, with optional exposure in grades 1 and 2 Students typically receive over 40 hours of English instruction annually at the primary level and 80 hours at both lower and upper secondary levels, resulting in more than 647 hours of English exposure over a decade However, disparities persist within Vietnam's English education system, lacking coherence from primary to tertiary levels Moreover, access to English education is increasingly inequitable, particularly between urban and rural areas In underdeveloped or remote regions, where resources and trained teachers are scarce, English instruction often begins in the 6th grade (approximately 525 hours) or even the 10th grade (around 240 hours), in stark contrast to urban students who typically receive a comprehensive 12-year curriculum.
Students in the 3-year English education set, typically starting from 3rd grade, face a significant achievement gap compared to those in the 7-year set, who begin their English studies in 6th grade Despite these differing educational paths, all students must take the same national exam to graduate from upper secondary schools, where English is a mandatory subject This requirement highlights the disparities in English proficiency among students.
The National Foreign Language 2020 Project, initiated in 2008, prioritizes enhancing learners' communicative competence and adopting a learner-centered approach This has led to significant revisions in curricula, teaching methodologies, and assessment practices Textbooks for primary and secondary education have been redesigned to ensure continuity across all levels and achieve language proficiency goals Additionally, English teachers nationwide are required to participate in re-training courses that emphasize language skills over mere knowledge Traditional testing and assessment methods are also undergoing reform to align with these innovative objectives.
1.1.2 KNLLNNVN standards/ National standards on FL proficiency or six-level proficiency framework
The lack of synergy in English education and inconsistent measurement of learners' proficiency in Vietnam has highlighted the necessity for a standardized language framework This framework, known as KNLNNVN, was initiated in 2013 and officially published by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) on January 24, 2014, through Circular No.01/2014/TT-BGDĐT It aims to tailor English teaching and learning to align with Vietnamese capabilities and the varying demands of different work environments Based on the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), established by the Council of Europe in 2001, KNLNNVN serves as a reliable benchmark for language proficiency, promoting uniformity in foreign language education across the country.
- unify the language proficiency of all second/ foreign languages being taught nationwide;
The explicit objectives and content of second and foreign language education play a crucial role in shaping curriculum design, syllabus development, and the creation of textbooks and supplementary materials These elements also establish criteria for testing and assessment across various levels, ensuring consistency and quality in foreign language education.
- provide a basis for comparing second/ FL curricula, textbooks, courses and exams; as well as to support the design of curricula, teaching programmes, learning materials and assessment instruments
- provide learners with adopts an action-oriented approach, describing language learning outcomes of different level of language proficiency;
- provide checklists of “I can” descriptors which enable any language learners to self-rate their levels on the journey of language achievement and see the required levels of different qualifications;
- enable the educational cooperation and exchange, as well as the recognition of qualifications and certificates among countries adopting CEFR
KNLNNVN distinctly categorizes four types of language activities: reception (listening and reading), production (spoken and written), interaction (spoken and written), and mediation (translating and interpreting) It features learner-centered performance scales across these skills, outlining expectations for learners at six specific levels within three categories: Basic User (A1 and A2), Independent User (B1 and B2), and Proficient User (C1 and C2) The framework emphasizes the development of both general and specific communicative competencies through the production and reception of texts across various contexts and challenges in educational, occupational, public, and personal domains A detailed description of these six levels can be found in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 The 6 levels to KNLNNVN
Level group Level Level name
C1 Effective operational proficiency or advanced
Dr Vu Thi Tu Anh, Deputy Head of the Management Board for the National Foreign Language Teaching Program by 2020, emphasizes that the framework is intended solely as a reference for managers and educators in developing English teaching curricula, rather than being mandatory for general schools or educational institutions.
1.1.3 Basic information about ethnic minorities in North-west Vietnam
Vietnam is a diverse nation comprising 54 distinct ethnic groups, each with its own unique culture, language, and lifestyle The largest group, the Kinh, represents 86.2% of the population, while the remaining 13.8% consists of 53 ethnic minorities, contributing to the country's rich cultural tapestry.
The Northwest region of Vietnam, comprising the provinces of Dien Bien, Lai Chau, Son La, and Hoa Binh, is home to approximately 12 million people from 20 diverse ethnic groups, predominantly ethnic minorities such as the Thai (29.3%), Muong (15.4%), and H'mong (13.7%) Many of these communities reside in economically underdeveloped areas, often situated in mountainous terrains or near national borders, where their livelihoods primarily rely on agriculture, livestock farming, fishing, and hunting.
The Northwest mountainous region's ethnic minorities face significant disadvantages, representing over 40% of the nation's poor, as highlighted by the World Bank in 2009 These groups experience limited access to education, higher illiteracy rates, increased school drop-out rates, and delayed school enrollment compared to the ethnic Kinh majority.
The educational achievement distribution among ethnic minority groups in the Northwest Region is significantly right-skewed, indicating a higher concentration of individuals with advanced schooling Notably, 25.6% of this population has completed primary education, while approximately 11% have achieved a lower secondary degree Furthermore, only around 5% have completed upper secondary education, and less than 1% hold a tertiary degree.
Government initiatives aimed at supporting ethnic minorities, especially in education, have often been perceived as patronizing These efforts are designed to help these communities catch up to the ethnic Kinh, improve their circumstances, and ultimately reduce the existing disparities.
1.1.4 English education for ethnic minorities in North-west Vietnam
Aims of the study
The aims of this study are as follows:
1 to explore the students of ethnic minorities studying at TBU in achieving the Ministry-required level of proficiency in English;
2 to find out how realistic the mandated level of English proficiency to students of ethnic minorities
With the above-mentioned aims, using qualitative and quantitative approaches, the study was guided by the following two research questions:
1) How do students of ethnic minorities at Tay Bac University learn English?
2) What are the factors affecting them to achieve English language proficiency to KNLNNVN standards?
Organization of the thesis
The thesis is composed of five chapters in total Following this introductory chapter with some significant background issues concerning the current study is
Chapter II in which the theoretical framework for analyzing and interpreting the data collected for the study will be covered In Chapter III, the research site, research subjects, research instruments, the process of the field work as well as the methods of data analysis will be explained Then in Chapter IV, with the guide of the theoretical framework and research questions, the results of the study will be displayed Finally, in Chapter V, the concluding chapter, the findings of the study drawn from the research will be summarized and some implications of the study as well as some recommendations for related future work will also be presented.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Second language acquisition
Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge through study or experience, and language learning refers to the structured system through which individuals can learn a language However, mastering a language poses challenges due to the complex requirements that necessitate active participation and dedicated effort from learners The term "language learning" has historically been used interchangeably with other related concepts.
Language acquisition and language learning, terms introduced by Krashen (2002), represent distinct processes Acquisition involves natural assimilation and subconscious learning without the need for error correction or explicit instruction In contrast, learning is a conscious effort that includes direct teaching of language rules, requiring intellectual engagement and error correction Consequently, while learners can gain knowledge through formal, rule-focused instruction, they may never fully achieve true language acquisition (Karen, 2002).
The term L2 refers to any language learned after the mother tongue (L1), encompassing second, third, or even fourth languages In the context of ethnic minority students learning English, it is essential to differentiate between "second language," which in this case is Vietnamese used as a medium of instruction, and "third language" or "foreign language," which is English taught academically For students at TBU, their L1 is their ethnic language, while Vietnamese serves as their L2 Consequently, in this thesis, L3 specifically denotes English, learned after acquiring their L1 and alongside their education in Vietnamese.
L2 learning refers to the educational journey where individuals acquire languages beyond their native language (L1), either in natural environments or through formal classroom instruction The level of proficiency achieved through this process remains a debated issue This intricate journey of foreign and second language acquisition involves unique integrations of knowledge among various languages for each learner.
Language acquisition refers to the process of developing functional skills in a spoken language, akin to how infants learn their native tongue, known as L1 acquisition In contrast, L2 acquisition involves the formal and conscious learning of additional languages after mastering the first language, applicable to both children and adults.
2.1.2 Influence of proficiency in L1 and L2 on the acquisition of L3
The relationship between L1 and L2 interference in L3 acquisition has been a complex area of research Despite significant attention from scholars, our understanding of how proficiency in two first languages affects L3 learning remains limited Existing studies suggest a strong correlation between L3 acquisition and proficiency levels in both L1 and L2 Specifically, learners with advanced knowledge and skills in their first two languages—encompassing metalinguistic development, formal language training, and awareness of rhetorical patterns—tend to achieve higher proficiency in various aspects of L3.
1976, 1981; Muủoz, 2000; Cenoz, 2000, 2003), but the lower the level of interference of the L1 and L2 on L3 (Thomas, 1988)
A notable study by Balke-Aurell and Lindblad (1982) reveals that bilingual learners who consistently use the national language (L2) at home, while passively understanding their home language (L1), achieve higher scores in a third language (L3) compared to those who actively use their L1 Researchers suggest that this phenomenon is linked to the enhanced metalinguistic awareness of bilingual learners, allowing them to acquire L3 more rapidly than monolingual peers Consequently, ethnic minority students in Vietnam, who formally learn Vietnamese as their national language, experience significant social, cultural, and cognitive benefits when learning English through Vietnamese instruction However, this expectation can also create substantial pressure on bilingual learners, potentially leading to negative impacts on their L3 proficiency.
Research suggests that the second language (L2) plays a more significant role than the first language (L1) in the acquisition of a third language (L3), as the similarities between L2 and L3 are often greater than those between L1 and L3 (Williams & Hammarberg, 1998; Bardel & Falk, 2007) Additionally, L3 learners who have studied L2 in a formal environment possess a better understanding of the language learning process, enhanced metalinguistic knowledge, and effective learning strategies, which can aid in their L3 acquisition Consequently, limited proficiency in L2 may hinder the ability to learn L3 effectively.
Numerous studies have aimed to identify key attributes essential for successful language learning Gardner (1972) proposed a model highlighting critical factors that influence second language learning (SLL), including cultural beliefs, intelligence, language aptitude, motivation, situational anxiety, and the SLL context He emphasizes that a learner's social background significantly impacts their perception of the target language.
Schumann (1976) identifies numerous factors influencing second language and foreign language acquisition, which include social dynamics such as the dominance and cohesiveness of language groups, as well as issues of assimilation and acculturation Additionally, affective factors like motivation and attitudes play a crucial role, alongside personality traits such as willingness to communicate, anxiety, and risk-taking Cognitive aspects, including learning styles and strategies, are also significant, as are biological factors related to development and individual aptitude for language learning Personal factors, such as resting patterns, responses to teaching methods, transitional anxiety, and the selection of learning strategies, further contribute to the language learning process.
Factors affecting L2 acquisition
and instructional factors (the teacher, teaching methods and time spent in the learning)
Lightbown and Spada (1993) assert that language learners possess specific traits that influence their success in language acquisition Their concept of an ideal language learner, characterized by these traits, has gained significant recognition in the realm of English as a second or foreign language.
Spolsky (1998), aligning with Lightbown and Spada, emphasizes the importance of various factors such as materials, memory, training strategies, and social context in achieving success in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Additionally, prior language learning experiences and proficiency in one's native language significantly enhance the ability to master a second language (L2).
Due to time constraints, this study primarily examines key attributes that significantly impact language learning among ethnic minority students at TBU, categorized into internal and external factors.
Internal factors, to commonly defined, come from inside an individual language learner
Personality traits significantly influence success and failure in second language learning (SLL), making the connection between learners' personalities and SLL a focal point in numerous studies on second language acquisition.
Personality is a multifaceted concept that has led to ongoing debates among psychologists and theorists regarding its definition Essentially, personality encompasses the totality of qualities and traits unique to an individual, including their character and behavior It also refers to the collective patterns of emotional, mental, temperamental, and behavioral traits that define a person.
Researchers have struggled to separate independent variables from instructional and situational factors when examining the relationship between personality and second language learning (SLL) As a result, personality traits have often been overlooked in various studies and literature reviews (Griffiths, 2008) This study specifically investigates key personality characteristics, including risk-taking, anxiety, and willingness to communicate Understanding these psychological barriers is crucial, as they can significantly impact both verbal and written communication in SLL, potentially influencing outcomes in a positive or negative manner.
Risk-taking in second language acquisition (SLA) involves the willingness to embrace uncertainty to gain benefits, as highlighted by Beebe (1983) Scholars like Brown (2007) and Krashen (1982) emphasize its importance, noting that it encourages language learners to engage with new and unpredictable challenges, despite the fear of making mistakes or facing social rejection This willingness to take risks can lead to increased class participation, providing learners with more opportunities to practice the language, which is closely associated with improved proficiency (Ely, 1986) and higher grades in L2 (Samimy & Tabuse, 1992) Extroverted learners, often more optimistic about the outcomes of their risk-taking, tend to engage more in the target language (Ely, 1986) Conversely, introverted learners may hold back due to anxiety about potential negative outcomes, limiting their communicative experiences and hindering their progress However, it is important to note that there is insufficient evidence to suggest that risk-taking consistently yields positive results for all learners (Oxford, 1992) In some cases, unsuccessful attempts at risk-taking can adversely affect learners' morale and motivation (Haja Mohideen, 2001).
Risk-taking plays a crucial role in language learning, as it interacts with various personality traits to influence outcomes (Oxford, 1992) Research indicates that moderate and thoughtful risk-takers tend to achieve higher success rates compared to those who take reckless risks (Arnold, 1999; Oxford, 1992).
Anxiety is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon characterized by feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry, particularly in unfamiliar situations (Spielberger, 1983; Lightbown & Spada, 2006) It is closely linked to uneasiness, frustration, and self-doubt, making learning anxiety a significant affective factor that can greatly impact second language acquisition (SLA) Research by MacIntyre & Gardner (1994) highlights that anxiety affects all language learners, with speaking being the most significantly impacted aspect of language use.
Overanxiety is often linked to a lack of interest, self-confidence, and poor foreign language (FL) performance among learners (Horwitz, 2001), potentially discouraging them from studying FLs (Dewaele & Thirtle, 2009) Introverted individuals tend to experience higher levels of nervousness compared to extroverts, leading to more significant mistakes and poorer oral performance Conversely, moderate anxiety can enhance successful second language learning (SLL) by encouraging more expressive oral communication (Kees de Bot et al., 2005) Extroverted learners are more likely to embrace challenges and manage their anxiety during oral performances, which can inspire them to excel.
In terms of classification, basing on its helpfulness and harmfulness, Scovel
In 1978, anxiety was categorized into facilitative and debilitative types, while Schmidt (1992) identified three specific types of foreign language anxiety: fear of exchange, fear of negative evaluation, and test anxiety Understanding the sources of learners' anxiety is crucial for teachers, as it enables them to offer constructive feedback that motivates students to overcome challenges and attain success.
Willingness to communicate (WTC) has evolved from being viewed as a stable trait to a dynamic characteristic that can vary over time In the context of second language (L2) learning, WTC refers to a learner's readiness to engage in conversation with others using the target language (MacIntyre et al., 1998) Kang (2005) emphasizes that WTC is a crucial predictor of a language learner's ability to thrive in using L2, as it reflects their intentional efforts to become proficient speakers The level of WTC is evident in how frequently and actively learners participate in conversations, which is essential for enhancing their language skills and overall proficiency.
Language learning strategies (LLS) are crucial for second language (L2) achievement, as defined by Oxford (1993) as intentional actions and techniques used by students to enhance their L2 skills Research indicates that the application of learning strategies correlates with student proficiency across various subjects (Pressley & Associates, 1990), acting as tools for self-directed learning Early studies on effective language learners by Naiman et al (1978) and Rubin (1975) identified positive strategies, including seeking clarification, asking for directions, and collaborating with peers, which are vital for successful language acquisition Consequently, the strong link between the use of learning strategies and favorable learning outcomes highlights that students who actively employ these strategies tend to achieve greater success in L2 learning.
Motivation is a crucial factor for successful second language (L2) acquisition, yet its conceptual definition remains debated in educational literature In the context of language learning, motivation encompasses a positive attitude and a strong desire to achieve language proficiency, as noted by Gardner (1985) This combination fosters both the initial enthusiasm to start learning and the perseverance needed for the often challenging process of mastering a new language By enhancing learners' engagement and positive outlook, motivation plays a vital role in facilitating effective language learning (Pandey, 2005; Shulman).
1986) It is thus understandable that students with high motivation may achieve greater success than more intelligent students who are devoid of learning motivation (Reece & Walker, 1997)
Among various attempts to classify types of motivation, the distinction between instrumental and integrative motivations proposed by Garder and Lambert
Integrative motivation is a key factor in successful academic achievement, as it embodies the desire to learn a foreign language (FL) to connect with the L2 community Learners who are integratively motivated seek personal growth and cultural enrichment, leading them to actively engage with members of the L2 community.
Mandated outcome standard to CEFR-V for tertiary level
In social studies, both quantitative and qualitative research strategies are essential for data collection and analysis Quantitative research focuses on quantification and employs a deductive approach to test theories, aligning with the natural scientific model and viewing social reality as objective (Bryman, 2008) In contrast, qualitative research emphasizes words over numbers, rejecting traditional scientific norms and highlighting individual interpretations of a dynamic social reality (Bryman, 2008) Each strategy has unique strengths: quantitative research enables broad comparisons and statistical aggregation from a large sample, while qualitative research provides in-depth insights from fewer subjects, enhancing understanding of specific cases (Patton, 2002) This study aimed to explore the implementation of KNLNNVN at TBU, focusing on English language learning among minority students, and employed both qualitative and quantitative methods for a comprehensive analysis Three data collection instruments facilitated triangulation, allowing for a more holistic understanding of the phenomena (Creswell, 2002; Silverman, 2000).
METHODOLOGY
Research site
The study focused on TBU, a university in Son La city, approximately 320 kilometers from Hanoi, where 75% of students are from ethnic minorities As the only institution in the mountainous North-west Region offering tertiary education, TBU enrolls around 2,000 undergraduates annually across various majors The university collaborates with employers and employment centers to provide high-quality human resources for national and international integration However, TBU students' performance in the annual national examination is concerning, with entry levels reported at 13-15 for university and 10-12 for college, as per MOET benchmarks Notably, some ethnic minority students from remote areas score as low as 7 for college admissions, while high scores of 20 or more are predominantly achieved by ethnic majority Kinh students.
Description of the subjects
This study involved first-year students from five different majors: Physical Education, Politics, Information, Literature, and Primary Education A total of nine participants were purposefully selected from these randomly chosen classes to complete the questionnaire.
At the start of the course, the English proficiency of these students was anticipated to be at an elementary level (level 2 on Vietnam's English proficiency scale) During the first two semesters, English was a mandatory subject for all full-time students not majoring in English, with classes held two to three times a week, totaling six periods per week, each lasting 50 minutes, amounting to 10 credit hours.
Among the participants, seven individuals (three males and four females) were intentionally chosen for a focus group interview, a common qualitative research method that emphasizes the perspectives of interviewees This selection was based on their questionnaire responses and the number of years they had studied English, including four students with significant experience.
7 years of English schooling, 2 students with 3-year set and 1 student with 9-year set)
To gather complementary insights from educators, two teachers were purposefully selected for face-to-face interviews based on their teaching experience and involvement with students One teacher, with eight years of experience teaching English at TBU, handles 2-3 first-year classes each semester, while the other, with only one and a half years of experience, teaches 3-4 first-year classes per semester Both educators utilize the "New English File Elementary" textbook by Clive Oxenden and Christina Latham-Koenig for their student participants.
Data collection instruments
This study, conducted at TBU over eight months from February to November 2015, aimed to investigate the challenges faced by ethnic minority students in achieving English language proficiency Data was gathered through a semi-structured questionnaire, document reviews, and focus group interviews The research utilized student interviews and placement test results to assess the current state of English education for these students Additionally, a review of legal documents was performed to evaluate the application of KNLNNVN standards at TBU.
This study employs a descriptive and exploratory design, utilizing a questionnaire as the primary data collection tool The questionnaire aims to assess students' motivations, self-reported language abilities, and attitudes towards English Language Education (ELE) It consists of two main sections (A and B), comprising a total of 24 items, with the first section containing 4 statements focused on specific aspects of the students' experiences.
The article outlines a survey designed to gather personal information from participants, including their name, age, sex, ethnicity, and educational background It consists of 20 items categorized into six clusters: the first two items address educational background, followed by six items related to language use Additionally, three items assess participants' attitudes and motivations toward learning English, while another three focus on learning strategies The survey also includes three items evaluating current English language teaching and learning practices, one item identifying challenges faced in learning English, and the final two items for self-rating English proficiency levels and evaluating the likelihood of meeting national proficiency standards through 10 "can-do" statements.
The questionnaire was designed in Vietnamese to ensure that respondents fully understood the questions, as Vietnamese is the primary language of instruction at the university Prior to the main study, the questionnaire underwent a pilot test to validate its content and assess the reliability of its items.
The research utilized document review as a method to analyze various legal documents relevant to the National Foreign Language Teaching and Learning Program (KNLNNVN) Key documents included Decision 1400/QĐ-TTg, which approved the National Plan for Foreign Language Teaching from 2008 to 2020, and Plan 808/KH-GDĐT, which initiated the National Project 2020 for higher education from 2012 to 2020 Additionally, Circular No 1/2014/TT-BGDĐT established the Six Level Framework of Foreign Language Competence in Vietnam, while Circular No 05/2015/TT-BGDĐT set English outcome standards for undergraduates The Regulations for assessing English language outcomes at TBU were also reviewed to evaluate the implementation of KNLNNVN at TBU.
What‟s more, to measure students' levels of language competence at the time of questionnaire administration, the results of the placement test were also used
In addition to using a questionnaire, this study incorporated interviews with a focus group of students and two teachers to gather in-depth data that would complement and validate the students' questionnaire responses Qualitative research often yields extensive unstructured textual data from interviews, which can be challenging to analyze However, focus group interviews leverage the synergy of group interactions to facilitate discussions and generate a wide range of responses, allowing for the collection of substantial data in a relatively short time frame The findings from these interviews can inform subsequent quantitative analysis The interview process included 10 open-ended questions aimed at exploring participants' perspectives on (1) the impact of trilingualism on their English language acquisition and performance, (2) their attitudes and motivations, and (3) the challenges they face in meeting English language outcome standards.
To complement the data gained from the questionnaire and focus group interview, individual interviews of teachers were also conducted.
Validity and reliability
In mixed-method research, the concepts of validity and reliability are crucial, just as they are in any research project This study enhanced its validity and reliability through several key strategies.
To ensure the validity and reliability of the research, careful consideration was given to the methods employed in this study The questionnaire and interviews underwent a trial phase and subsequent revisions to confirm their appropriateness for the research context Additionally, the reliability of the placement test scores was upheld through a rigorous process of design, approval, monitoring, and scoring of the exams.
The diverse range of data types, accompanied by thorough descriptions and explanations, offers significant insights into the research questions while clearly illustrating the research concerns Additionally, tables and charts were utilized to present the collected data, serving as effective tools for comparison and support in the quantitative analysis.
Member checking, recognized as a vital technique for establishing credibility (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), was effectively utilized in this study Participants' interview responses were returned to them for verification and adjustments, which minimized the risk of misinterpretation and ensured their intended meanings were accurately represented.
To ensure the accuracy of the findings, this research utilized triangulation and data triangulation methods, which involved comparing and cross-checking information obtained at different times and through various means (Patton, 1999) Triangulation effectively facilitated the comparison of data gathered from multiple methods and verified the consistency of participants' perspectives over time.
Procedures
Given the description of the questionnaire and interviews, this sub-section presents the procedures used in the administration process
Before conducting the study, the questionnaire was piloted with 15 randomly selected students from Maths and Biology classes to ensure its effectiveness These students provided honest feedback under the assurance that their responses would not impact their academic performance Based on the pilot study results, revisions were made to eliminate any issues, leading to the preparation of the final draft for the main study.
In late September 2015, a researcher administered a questionnaire to first-semester students at TBU, ensuring objectivity by having teachers unfamiliar to the students distribute it Before distribution, participants were informed about the research's objectives and their voluntary involvement, emphasizing the importance of honest responses that would not affect their academic outcomes Students were encouraged to seek clarifications and review their answers for completeness before submitting the questionnaires, which took approximately 20 minutes to complete.
In early October, a focus group of seven students participated in interviews following a questionnaire Prior to the sessions, interview guides were developed, and participants were briefed on the aims and procedures to ensure clarity To foster an environment of trust and encourage honest feedback, participants were assured of complete confidentiality regarding their responses Conducted in standard Vietnamese, the interviews aimed to make participants feel comfortable sharing their thoughts The interview questions were flexible, allowing for rewording and rearranging based on the flow of conversation, and new questions often emerged from participants' answers, providing valuable insights Some questions were omitted when deemed inappropriate for certain participants Throughout the process, the researcher paraphrased responses to confirm understanding and accuracy The interviews resembled casual conversations, took place outside classroom hours, lasted about 25 minutes, and were audio-recorded, with ethical considerations ensuring that the data collected would only be used for research purposes.
In mid-October 2015, two teachers participated in individual interviews following a questionnaire and focus group session Prior to the interviews, they received essential information, including anticipated questions and the aims of the interviews The interviews resembled casual conversations, allowing for the sharing of experiences and attitudes, while note-taking supplemented audio recordings to capture non-verbal cues and address potential recording issues After transcription, the interviews were sent back to the participants for verification and adjustments before being translated into English Finally, the verbal data underwent qualitative analysis and coding into segments aligned with pre-established codes.
In the past three years, all freshmen at TBU have been required to take an optional placement test at the beginning of the academic year to assess their English language competence and categorize them into different proficiency levels The results from the placement test conducted in September 2015 aimed to evaluate the entrance levels of students and predict their future English language outcomes.
Data analysis
The present study utilized both quantitative and qualitative data, analyzing quantitative data from questionnaires and placement tests through percentage and mean calculations using SPSS For qualitative analysis, a content analysis method involving coding, filing, and categorization was employed Initially, related legal documents and interviewee responses were translated into English and transcribed The data were then examined for themes aligned with the study's objectives, and evidence for these themes was integrated with findings from document reviews, student questionnaires, and audio recordings from focus group and individual interviews to enhance the overall results.
RESULTS
Background information of the questionnaire participants
This section highlights the pre-university educational backgrounds of the respondents based on demographic data obtained from the questionnaire Key demographic factors include gender, age, ethnicity, location of secondary education, English year-set program, Vietnamese proficiency level, and home language A total of 159 participants completed the survey, comprising 85 females and 74 males, achieving a 100% response rate.
The gender ratio among participants aged 18 to 21 is fairly balanced, with 53.5% identifying as female and 46.5% as male The average age is 19.47 years, with a standard deviation of 1.03, and the participants represent 10 different ethnic minorities Detailed information regarding the ages and ethnicities of the student participants can be found in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Student age and ethnicity
Thai H‟mong Dao Muong Others Total
According to the survey, the ethnic Thai emerged as the predominant group, comprising 65.4% of respondents, while the H'mong represented 20.2% Additionally, 5.7% identified as Dao, 5.1% as Muong, and 3.6% as belonging to other ethnicities, including Nung, Khang, Kho Mu, Ha Nhi, Tay, and Laos.
The details of places of students‟ secondary education, English year-set program and Vietnamese proficiency levels are presented in the following charts
Chart 4.1: Place of students‟ secondary education
City Townlet Rural area Remote area
Chart 4.1 illustrates that all sampled individuals received their early English education in local settings, primarily from rural and remote areas across four provinces in the Northwest Region: Lai Chau, Dien Bien, Son La, and Hoa Binh, as well as surrounding provinces like Yen Bai, Bac Kan, and Lao Cai Only a small percentage (5%) of the participants hailed from urban areas within the region This highlights that, despite some individuals now residing in cities, they originated from mountainous minority communes where access to English education was severely limited.
Chart 4.2: Student English year-set program
Chart 4.2 reveals that a significant majority of participants (83%) had completed a 7-year English education, while 12% had undergone a 3-year program, and only 5% had more than 9 years of English schooling These statistics suggest that most participants possessed a solid foundational knowledge of the English language prior to their enrollment in the university training program.
The figures of students‟ Vietnamese proficiency levels are presented in the Chart 4.3
Chart 4.3: Student Vietnamese proficiency level
A self-assessment of Vietnamese proficiency among students revealed that over 68% believe they understand 50-70% of the language, while 22.6% are confident in their ability to understand more than 70% Only 8.8% rated their proficiency at a medium level of 40-50%, and notably, no participants reported low proficiency levels below 40% This indicates that all students possess at least an intermediate proficiency in Vietnamese, which is beneficial for utilizing the language as the medium of English Language Education (ELE).
Table 4.2 presents the responses to the inquiry about the languages spoken by minority students at home To streamline the data analysis, responses were categorized and assigned numerical codes: (1) always, (2) usually, and (3) sometimes, allowing for the calculation of mean and standard deviation.
Table 4.2: Results of student‟ evaluation of language use at home
The data indicates that ethnic languages are predominantly spoken in students' homes, with a significant number of families using them regularly (n=9), while only a few (n=7) incorporate these languages occasionally (mean=1.2327, SD=0.5179) In contrast, Vietnamese is sometimes used alongside native languages in some households (n=4), but in others (n=7), it takes precedence over mother tongues (mean=2.7861, SD=0.5553) Additionally, some families report using Vietnamese and ethnic languages interchangeably English, however, is rarely spoken at home (mean=1.2327, SD=0.1117), likely due to a lack of connection between English learning and daily language use, leaving it unfamiliar to the community The demographic data suggests that most participants come from disadvantaged regions where, despite the widespread teaching of English, L1 and L2 dominate daily communication among ethnic minorities, resulting in minimal opportunities for English usage outside of the classroom.
4.2 The implementation of KNLNNVN at TBU
To understand the implementation of KNLNNVN at TBU, a review of key legal documents, including Decision 1400/QĐ-TTg and Circular 808/KH-GDĐT, was conducted These documents revealed that during the 2013-2014 academic year, TBU initiated a significant renovation of its general English education, focusing primarily on enhancing the curriculum and updating textbooks.
The curriculum for English includes ten compulsory credits, totaling 208.3 hours of instruction, with English 1 and English 2 offered in the first two semesters Additionally, students can earn five optional credits from a selection of 150 modules, typically available in a supplementary semester during the summer However, participation has been low, with only a small number of the 2,000 freshmen enrolling in this optional semester over the past two years In 2013, TBU introduced a trial supplementary English semester for 30 students from the Faculty of Economics who achieved grades A, B, or C in English 1 and 2.
The textbook for the course has been updated, replacing New Headway 2 (Pre-intermediate) with New English File (Elementary) This new selection was made for three key reasons: it is a professionally published resource, it encompasses all essential language skills—speaking, listening, reading, and writing—as well as language knowledge in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, and it is deemed suitable for the English proficiency level of TBU students The textbook is structured into two parts, with the first part containing four units and the second part comprising five units, and it is taught over two semesters, referred to as English 1 and English 2.
According to Plan 808/BGDĐT, all undergraduates must possess a strong understanding of the English language and effective communication skills in basic situations Since the 2013-2014 academic year, all freshmen at TBU are required to take placement tests in Listening, Reading, and Writing to determine their English proficiency levels These tests are based on internationally recognized assessments like the Key English Test (KET) and the Cambridge Preliminary English Test of Schools (PET) However, as of November 2015, no classes have been organized according to these levels due to poor student performance, resulting in students attending English lessons within their major classes Additionally, TBU has not implemented outcome standards, meaning that students are not required to take undergraduate outcome tests; instead, passing English 1 and English 2 is deemed sufficient for graduation.
In May 2015, Circular No.05/2015/TT-BGDĐT established English outcome standards for undergraduates, mandating all universities and colleges in Vietnam to implement these standards To comply, TBU has developed a plan for standardization from 2016 to 2020, starting with the 56th cohort of students who began their undergraduate programs in the 2015-2016 academic year The first outcome assessment is scheduled for summer 2016, evaluating all four language skills, with a passing score of 70 out of 100 Additionally, students achieving A1 and A2 levels in placement tests will be exempt from English 1 and English 2, with their test scores contributing to their final subject results based on a conversion reference.
Diagram 4.1: TBU‟s itinerary to achieve the standardization phase 2016-2020
To meet educational targets for the 2016-2017 school year, adjustments will be made to the English curriculum The New English File Elementary will be introduced in the first semester as English 1, followed by New English File Pre-intermediate in the second semester as English 2 Students who successfully complete both English 1 and English 2 will qualify for outcome tests, while those who do not meet the required standards must independently fulfill graduation requirements.
To achieve desired outcomes, students must be equipped with essential information that enhances their awareness and guides their learning activities However, the concept of outcome standards remains unfamiliar and unclear to many students, indicating a need for greater awareness and understanding in educational settings.
Current situation of English language learning of ethnic minority
This section outlines the findings from document analysis, questionnaires, interviews, and observations, organized into five key categories that illustrate the current state of English language learning among minority students at TBU.
4.3.1 Minority students’ English proficiency levels
To examine the English language proficiency of minority students at TBU, a placement test was administered to assess their Listening, Reading, and Writing skills based on the standardized PET test format, equivalent to the B1 level Developed by a team of six English teachers at TBU and approved by the technical board, this test was conducted for all 1,329 freshmen at the start of the 2015-2016 academic year, with 136 students (9.7%) absent The reliability of the test was ensured through blind scoring by faculty members The results of this assessment are detailed in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Students‟ English placement test scores
Scores Level equal to KNLNNVN N % Mean SD
The performance of minority students in the recent assessment was notably low, with 73% scoring between 10-19 out of 100, followed by 18.2% scoring 20-29, and 6.9% scoring between 0-9 Alarmingly, no students achieved a score of 40 or higher Consequently, all participants were classified at entry levels A0 to KNLNNVN, indicating that they were nearly functionally illiterate in English.
The subjects‟ scores were coincidently representatives for those of almost all freshmen who took the placement test, particularly 79 out of 1193 (6.6%) got scores 0-9, 845 got 10-19 (70.8%), 203 got 20-29 (17%) and 53 got 30-47 (4.4%)
The questionnaire revealed significant concerns regarding the respondents' English proficiency, as all participants expressed a lack of confidence in completing it in English and preferred to use Vietnamese instead This finding underscores the low levels of English competence among the respondents.
In the questionnaire, participants evaluated their English language proficiency using a five-point scale, ranging from (1) very weak to (5) good The findings are presented in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Students‟ self-assessment of English language competence
How do you self-rate your English language competence? 49 80 30 0 0 1.8805 6968
The respondents self-rated their English proficiency as very weak, weak, or not good, with none indicating they were sufficient or good at the language The average rating was 1.8805, with a standard deviation of 0.6968, confirming that their English competence is generally low, which aligns with the results of the placement test.
To validate the findings from the tests and questionnaires, interviews with teachers were conducted The teachers indicated that TBU students, particularly those from minority backgrounds, exhibit significantly low English language proficiency Hien, one of the teachers, highlighted this concerning trend.
Many of my students, despite having studied English since primary school, lack a fundamental understanding of the language In class, I find myself teaching them essential grammar and vocabulary, starting from the basics, including simple concepts like nouns.
Sharing similar evaluation, An also said that:
Many minority students in my class struggle with English, often unable to construct complete or even simple sentences, such as introducing themselves For instance, several students mistakenly say "I am is " instead of the correct form "I am An," despite my modeling of proper sentence structure.
In conclusion, despite years of academic exposure to English during secondary education, minority students often demonstrate a significant lack of proficiency in the language Their English educational achievements fall considerably short of the expectations outlined in Plan 808/KH-BGDĐT, which aims for a minimum proficiency level of A2 as per the KNLNNVN standards.
4.3.2 Minority students’ attitudes towards English language learning
The current study highlights the significance of language attitudes among minority students, which play a crucial role in understanding how ethnic minority students at TBU are acquiring English.
The questionnaire explores respondents' attitudes towards English Language Education (ELE) by first asking them to specify their language preferences for daily life and future employment The findings of these responses are illustrated in Chart 4.4.
Chart 4.4: Students‟ preferences of language use in life and future job
Language use in life Language use in future job
Ethnic minority languages Vietnamese English
The survey results indicate that only 0.6% of respondents prefer English as their spoken language in daily life, while 71.1% favor ethnic languages and 28.3% choose Vietnamese In terms of future job preferences, 88.1% of students express a strong inclination towards using Vietnamese, with no interest in English Despite their ethnic languages being their mother tongues, only 11.9% of participants wish to use them professionally This preference likely stems from their familiarity and comfort with Vietnamese and their ethnic languages since childhood The minimal interest in English may be attributed to their limited exposure to foreign interactions and the challenges they face in learning a foreign language, leading to a general reluctance towards English.
Students were surveyed about their attitudes towards the social value of the English language, specifically its significance for their future careers They rated the importance of English on a five-point scale, ranging from "not important" to "very important." The responses were aggregated to calculate each student's overall attitude score toward the English language.
Table 4.5: Students‟ results regarding the importance of English in future job
In your opinion, what is the role of English in your future job? 57 40 27 33 2 2.2642 1.1877
According to Table 4.5, the average attitude score among minority students is 2.2642, with a standard deviation of 1.1877 Notably, 35.9% of respondents, totaling 57 students, indicated that they do not view English as important for their future In contrast, 64.1% of the surveyed students, amounting to 102 individuals, acknowledged that English holds some significance for their future careers, despite residing in remote areas with limited exposure to the language.
Most importantly, participants were asked to indicate their concerns with learning English
Table 4.6: Students‟ results regarding their attitudes towards English learning
Questionnaire item Like Dislike Don’t know
Do you like learning English? 40 25.2 107 67.3 12 7.5
Challenges faced by minority students in achieving the outcome standard
This study explores the challenges encountered by minority students at TBU in reaching the B1 level for KNLNNVN While not all factors are examined in depth due to time constraints, previous sections have highlighted some of the difficulties these students face in achieving their English language outcomes In this section, additional challenges are identified and discussed.
Minority students face significant challenges in English achievement due to the complexities of learning three languages: their native language, Vietnamese, and English This linguistic confusion is particularly pronounced for those who struggle with Vietnamese, as it serves as the medium of instruction, complicating their ability to absorb English To explore the impact of multilingualism on the English achievement of TBU minority students, this study utilizes both questionnaires and interviews.
In terms of L2 influence on L3 acquisition, questionnaire participants were asked to first evaluate the the effect of Vietnamese proficiency on English language learning, and then give an explanation
Table 4.11: Students‟ evaluation on the effect of Vietnamese proficiency on English
Does Vietnamese proficiency affect your English language learning? How? 123 77.4 36 22.6
A significant 77.4% of students reported that their proficiency in Vietnamese negatively impacts their English language learning, leading to confusion and misunderstandings due to the transfer of knowledge between languages They noted that English words often sound Vietnamese-like, sentences follow Vietnamese structure, and their Vietnamese lisp carries over into English Conversely, 22.6% of students felt that their Vietnamese skills did not hinder their English learning, and interestingly, these students self-identified as fluent in Vietnamese, understanding over 70% of the language.
123 students as at intermediate level (less than 70%)
Students were further asked about their preference in teachers‟ in-class language use The collected data are shown in Table 4.12
Table 4.12: Students‟ preference in teachers‟ in-class language use
A survey on language preferences for teaching English revealed that 42.1% of respondents prefer Vietnamese, while 28.3% favor their ethnic language Additionally, 12.6% of participants would like a combination of English and Vietnamese, and 0.6% prefer both English and their ethnic language Interestingly, 16.4% of respondents expressed a desire for instruction in all three languages.
The survey results reveal that respondents showed no interest in using English exclusively in the classroom (0%), with a preference for the national language (42.1%) and their ethnic language (28.3%) Additionally, 16.4% of students expressed a desire to use all three languages This indicates that many students favor their mother tongue for enhanced support during the learning process Interestingly, minority students at TBU, who do not often use Vietnamese at home, expressed a preference for their teachers to use Vietnamese when teaching English This suggests that the use of English in the classroom may not be effective due to students' low proficiency levels and lack of interest.
In line with the questionnaire results, the interview findings show that the students‟ English acquisition and performance had negatively affected by the trilingualism as one student pointed out:
“In English learning process, I usually have to translate into Vietnamese first and then my Thai language When I have the answer, I translate it into Vietnamese again and then
English But sometimes, there are some Vietnamese words that I don‟t really understand;
I don‟t know what they mean in my Thai language.”
In addition, the differences in the language structures, pronunciations, rules, and grammar usually made some of them confused:
“The sentence structures in English are not similar to either Dao language or Vietnamese, so I am usually stuck in between.”
“English sentence order is different from both my Thai language and Vietnamese so I feel confused when learning English.”
“English pronunciation is very difficult for me and my peers My teacher repeats again and again but we cannot pronoun correctly I don‟t know why?”
In responding about their preference of language use in classroom, one student said:
“I wish teacher of English could speak my H‟mong language because sometimes I cannot fully understand what she says in Vietnamese, especially when she explains grammar rules.”
Another student gave her consent:
“Yes It would be easier for both of us if teacher of English can speak our ethnic language.”
Our teacher is unable to communicate in Thai or H'mong, as she only speaks Vietnamese and English We naturally prefer Vietnamese since we are more comfortable with it, while English feels quite challenging for us.
Both teachers noted that the main challenge for minority students is their limited proficiency in Vietnamese, which hinders their ability to express themselves since their mother tongue is deeply ingrained in their minds They also elaborated on how trilingualism complicates the students' learning of English.
Many minority students have a limited vocabulary in Vietnamese, making it challenging to teach them English through their native language As a result, when I teach grammar, I find myself repeating concepts multiple times, yet some students still struggle to understand In those moments, I wish I could communicate in their native language to provide clearer explanations.
Many learners struggle with English due to their limited understanding of Vietnamese, which affects their ability to grasp the complexities of English grammar Unlike Vietnamese, English has distinct tenses, including past, present, and future, which can be challenging for native Vietnamese speakers As a result, they often rely on a single verb form across all tenses, leading to difficulties in proper verb usage and sentence structure.
Hien-L.T additionally shared about one of her experiences:
Many minority students struggle to understand Vietnamese, which often leads to confusion during lessons For instance, during a recent class on the present simple tense interrogative form, two female students wrote the incorrect sentence, “what do you read newspaper?” When asked to translate it into Vietnamese, they were unable to do so I assisted them by breaking down the words in Vietnamese and guiding them to rearrange them correctly Despite my efforts, they continued to say, “bạn đọc gì ở báo?” and could not explain their sentence Even when I encouraged other students to identify the mistake, they were also unable to do so Ultimately, I provided the correct phrasing, “bạn đọc báo gì?” but some students still looked at me with skepticism.
As regards their second language - Vietnamese, their pronunciation in Vietnamese is much different from that of English and its interference is noticeable
Minority students often struggle with English pronunciation, frequently articulating words using Vietnamese phonetics For instance, they may pronounce "cinema" as /si-ne-ma/ instead of the correct /si-ni-mə/.
In Vietnam, minority students face significant challenges in learning English due to the reliance on Vietnamese as the medium of instruction A strong understanding of Vietnamese is essential for mastering English, and limited comprehension of Vietnamese often hinders their progress At TBU, where many minority students struggle with Vietnamese, the process of learning English becomes particularly complex Students frequently navigate a challenging cycle of translating English to Vietnamese, then to their native language, and back again, complicating their language acquisition journey.
However, to some of them, Vietnamese is not their obstacle in learning English An acceptable explanation to this might be that they who fluent in
Many Vietnamese individuals predominantly use Vietnamese in their daily lives, often switching between their native languages and Vietnamese These students not only excel in the Vietnamese language but also possess a deep understanding of Vietnamese culture For some, even if they seldom use their mother tongue, Vietnamese may be regarded as their first language.
4.4.2 Attitudes to the achievement of outcome standard to KNLNNVN
To successfully reach B1 level on the KNLNNVN, it's essential to consider minority students' language attitudes and their perceptions of English proficiency Positive attitudes significantly contribute to higher academic achievements, while negative attitudes can hinder their English language education (ELE).
In the questionnaire, participants were asked to self-rate their possibilities of achieving outcome standard in various aspects of language The results are reported in Table 4.13
Table 4.13: B1 level to KNLNNVN: respondents‟ self-assessment grid
Lis teni ng sk il l a Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc
0 6 41 98 14 3.75 66 b Can understand the main points of radio-and-telecast about news or my favorite topics when the speed is rather slow and clear
Speaki ng sk il l c Can deal with familiar topics relating to personal hobbies, life or daily news without preparation (i.e family, hobbies, travelling, surrounding events)
0 2 40 104 13 3.8 59 d Can produce simple connected text on a story, an event, a dream or an ambition
0 3 36 103 17 3.84 62 e Can give brief explanation or reasons for my opinions or plans 0 4 41 102 12 3.76 61
I can summarize a simple story from a book or movie, sharing my personal opinions Additionally, I am able to grasp the main ideas of clear, standard texts related to familiar topics that I frequently encounter in both my work and studies.
Wr it ing sk il l h Can understand events, feelings, wishes expressed in personal letters 0 1 97 41 20 3.50 71 i Can produce simple cohesive writings about familiar matters or personal concerns
0 5 38 105 11 3.76 61 j Can write letters describing personal experiences or feelings 0 4 88 53 14 3.48 69