INTRODUCTION
Aims of the study
This research aims to identify pronunciation errors in English fricatives made by first-year English majors at Hanoi University, explore the underlying causes of these pronunciation issues, and ultimately provide practical recommendations to help students enhance their English pronunciation skills.
Research Questions
Based on the discussion in the sections above, the research questions of this study were formulated as follows:
1 What are the errors commonly made by first year English majors at Hanoi
University in their pronunciation of English fricatives?
2 What are the possible sources of errors?
3 What measures should be taken to tackle the problems?
1.4 Scope and significance of the study
This study evaluates the pronunciation of English fricatives by first-year English students, analyzing errors made in isolated words, connected speech, and real conversations By examining recordings and responses from a questionnaire, the findings will provide valuable feedback for both teachers and learners The goal is to enhance pronunciation instruction at the English department of Hanoi University, addressing specific challenges faced by students and reducing avoidable pronunciation mistakes.
This paper is structured into three main parts Part I outlines the background, objectives, scope, and significance of the study Part II reviews theories on English consonants, highlights contrasts between English and Vietnamese phonological systems, and identifies common pronunciation errors in English fricatives made by non-native speakers Part III details the methodology, including the subjects, instruments, and procedures used in the study, as well as analyzing and discussing the findings The conclusion summarizes the study and provides recommendations for improving the pronunciation of English fricatives.
Organization of the study
This paper is structured into three parts: Part I outlines the background, objectives, scope, and significance of the study; Part II reviews theories related to English consonants, highlights differences between English and Vietnamese phonological systems, and identifies common pronunciation errors in English fricatives by non-native speakers; Part III details the methodology, including subjects, instruments, and procedures, while analyzing and discussing the study's findings The conclusion provides recommendations for improving the pronunciation of English fricatives and summarizes the study's key insights.
DEVELOPMENT
This section offers a theoretical foundation and a literature review of prior studies on English fricatives, Received Pronunciation, and language transfer, enhancing readers' comprehension of the research Additionally, a concise contrastive analysis of the consonant systems in Vietnamese and English will be included to support further examination.
Different people may have different accents in speaking the same language, or as Roach
Languages vary in pronunciation due to factors such as geography, social class, age, and education (1991, p.4) English, as a global language, features diverse accents, with British, American, and Australian English recognized as the primary standard accents Received Pronunciation (RP) is considered the standard accent in Britain, while General American is viewed as the standard in the United States, and General Australian represents Australia Roach (2004) notes that RP was first termed by linguist A J Ellis and previously referred to as Public School Pronunciation or General British by Daniel Jones, who later popularized the term in the second edition of the English Pronouncing Dictionary.
Received in 1924, Received Pronunciation (RP) became synonymous with the accent of England's social elite, often referred to as the Queen's English This accent was favored by individuals from middle-class and upper-class backgrounds in Britain and has been widely adopted by prestigious universities and official broadcasting channels, including Radio 3, Radio 4, and the BBC World Service Today, RP continues to be recognized as a standard pronunciation for English language teaching globally, including in Vietnam.
RP standard can be found in pronunciation books such as English Phonetics and Phonology by Roach (2000) or Better English Pronunciation by O‟Connor (2002), and other
LITERATURE REVIEW
Received Pronunciation
Different people may have different accents in speaking the same language, or as Roach
Languages vary in pronunciation due to geographical location, social class, age, and educational background (1991, p.4) As an international language, English is spoken worldwide with diverse accents, notably British, American, and Australian English, which are regarded as the three standard accents Received Pronunciation (RP) is recognized as the standard accent in Britain, while General American is commonly associated with the standard in the United States, and General Australian represents the standard in Australia Roach (2004) notes that RP, a term introduced by linguist A J Ellis, has evolved over time, previously referred to as Public School Pronunciation and General British by Daniel Jones, who later formalized its use in the English Pronouncing Dictionary.
Received in 1924, Received Pronunciation (RP) became the accent associated with England's social elite, often referred to as the Queen's English This accent was favored by individuals from middle-class and upper-class backgrounds in Britain Over the years, RP has been prominently used in prestigious universities and official broadcasting channels, including Radio 3, Radio 4, and BBC World Service Today, RP continues to be recognized as a standard pronunciation in English language teaching globally, including in Vietnam.
Received Pronunciation (RP) standards are detailed in notable pronunciation resources like "English Phonetics and Phonology" by Roach (2000) and "Better English Pronunciation" by O'Connor (2002), which are highly regarded among Vietnamese learners of English Therefore, the author of this paper finds it fitting to incorporate these trusted materials into their research.
RP English as the standard based on which analyses of errors made by students are conducted
The English sound system comprises 44 distinct sounds, categorized into 20 vowels and 24 consonants This paper focuses specifically on English fricatives, analyzing theories related to the consonant system to establish a foundation for further exploration of these sounds (Davenport & Hannahs, 1998).
English consonants are articulated through either a narrow constriction or a complete blockage of airflow, as described by Gimson (1989) This articulation involves various vocal organs such as the lips, tongue, or throat, creating distinct sounds compared to the open nature of vowels According to Roach (1991), consonants are classified based on four key criteria: place of articulation, manner of articulation, voicing, and the position of the soft palate The following sections will provide a detailed exploration of these classification criteria.
Based on place of articulation, English consonants are formed into 9 groups as follows:
The criterion of manner of articulation specifies 6 different categories of English consonants, specifically:
The above classifications can be better illustrated by the following table:
Voicing is a crucial factor in English pronunciation, as it differentiates many words (Fledge & Brown, 1982) English consonants are categorized into two groups based on voicing.
Voiceless consonants includes nine consonants that are pronounced without vibration of the vocal cords: /p/, /f/, /t/, /s/, /θ/, /ʃ/, /h/, /tʃ/, /k/
Voiced consonants, namely, /b/, /v/, /d/, /z/, / ð /, /ʒ, /d ʒ/, /g/, /l/, /r/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /j/, and /w/, are produced with the vocal cords vibrating with varying degrees
English consonants can be categorized based on the position of the soft palate: those produced with the soft palate raised, allowing the airstream to exit through the mouth, and those made with the soft palate lowered, directing the airstream through the nose.
The following analysis of special characteristics borne by English consonants hopes to serve as a basis for further discussion of findings and recommendations presented in this paper
2.1.4.1 The position of English consonants in a syllable
English consonants are notable for their flexibility, as they can appear in all syllable positions—initial, medial, and final—except for a few sounds like /ŋ/, /ʒ/, /j/, /h/, and /w/ (Davenport & Hannahs, 1998) This versatility contributes to the rich diversity of English vocabulary However, it also poses significant challenges for learners whose native languages have a more restricted range of consonant placements in syllables (Xiao & Zhang, 2009).
2.1.4.2 The distinction of voiced and voiceless consonants
English places a greater emphasis on voicing compared to languages like Spanish, Italian, and Vietnamese, as seen in minimal pairs such as “bid” and “bit,” where voicing alters meaning (Fledge & Brown, 1982) This distinction can pose challenges for non-native English speakers whose first languages do not prioritize voicing (Fullana & Mora).
The challenge of understanding connected speech is heightened by the need for native-level adjustments in vowel pronunciation and the reduction of final consonants, all while ensuring that the words remain comprehensible (Anthony Nguyen, 2007).
English fricatives consist of nine consonants that are produced by positioning the articulators close together, creating a narrow passage This configuration allows the airflow to escape with friction, as outlined by Kambata (1996, cited in Nguyen Thi Phuc Hoa, 1999, p.23).
Fricatives are consonants characterized by the escape of air through a narrow passage, creating a hissing sound (Roach, 1991) In English, fricatives are categorized into five main groups based on their place of articulation, with four of these categories consisting of pairs of consonants that differ only slightly in voicing.
What follows will be a brief discussion of the pronunciation of all English fricatives which acts as a facilitator of further analyses
2.1.4.4 Production of labio-dental fricatives /f/ and /v/
The voiceless fricative /f/ and voiced fricative /v/ are widely distributed in English, appearing in all syllable positions: initially in words like "five" and "vie," medially in "fifth" and "survive," and finally in "life" and "live." According to Roach (1985), these labio-dental fricatives are produced by raising the soft palate to close off the nasal resonator, allowing air to escape through a narrow passage formed by the contact between the upper teeth and lower lip, creating friction Ha Cam Tam (2005) further explains that during the articulation of these sounds, the inner surface of the lower lip lightly contacts the upper teeth, resulting in friction from the escaping air While /f/ is produced without voicing, /v/ involves varying levels of vocal cord vibration influenced by subsequent sounds.
2.1.4.5 Production of dental fricatives /θ/ and / ð /
According to Thomas (1947, cited in Tran Thi Trinh Hue, 2011), the production of the two inter-dental fricatives involves positioning the tip of the tongue against the cutting edges or the back of the upper teeth This articulation requires forcing breath either between the tip of the tongue and the teeth or through the gaps between the teeth, or through both pathways.
The pronunciation of English dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ is a complex process, with varying theories on tongue placement Underhill (1994) suggests that the tongue tip lightly presses against the inside edge of the upper front teeth, allowing air to escape through a small gap, while Roach (1985) posits that the tongue is positioned inside the teeth, with the tip touching the upper teeth and air flowing through the gaps According to Hattem (2009), these dental fricatives are among the most challenging sounds for native English speakers Notably, the voiceless fricative /θ/ is produced without vocal cord vibration, whereas its voiced counterpart /ð/ requires some vocal cord vibration.
2.1.4.6 Production of alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
English consonants and classification
RP English as the standard based on which analyses of errors made by students are conducted
The English sound system comprises 44 distinct sounds, categorized into 20 vowels and 24 consonants This article focuses specifically on English fricatives, analyzing the theories surrounding these consonants to establish a foundation for further exploration of their characteristics and implications (Davenport & Hannahs, 1998).
English consonants are produced by either creating a narrow constriction or achieving a complete blockage in the vocal organs, resulting in distinct sounds as described by Gimson (1989) They differ significantly from vowels, which are articulated more openly According to Roach (1991), consonants are categorized based on four key criteria: place of articulation, manner of articulation, voicing, and the position of the soft palate The subsequent sections will provide a detailed exploration of these classifications.
Based on place of articulation, English consonants are formed into 9 groups as follows:
The criterion of manner of articulation specifies 6 different categories of English consonants, specifically:
The above classifications can be better illustrated by the following table:
Voicing is a crucial factor in English pronunciation, as it differentiates many words (Fledge & Brown, 1982) English consonants are categorized into two distinct groups based on their voicing characteristics.
Voiceless consonants includes nine consonants that are pronounced without vibration of the vocal cords: /p/, /f/, /t/, /s/, /θ/, /ʃ/, /h/, /tʃ/, /k/
Voiced consonants, namely, /b/, /v/, /d/, /z/, / ð /, /ʒ, /d ʒ/, /g/, /l/, /r/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /j/, and /w/, are produced with the vocal cords vibrating with varying degrees
English consonants can be categorized based on the position of the soft palate: some consonants are produced with the soft palate raised, allowing the airstream to exit through the mouth, while others are articulated with the soft palate lowered, directing the airstream through the nose.
The following analysis of special characteristics borne by English consonants hopes to serve as a basis for further discussion of findings and recommendations presented in this paper
2.1.4.1 The position of English consonants in a syllable
English consonants exhibit remarkable flexibility, as they can appear in all syllable positions—initial, medial, or final—except for a few sounds like /ŋ/, /ʒ/, /j/, /h/, and /w/ (Davenport & Hannahs, 1998) This versatility contributes to the rich diversity of English vocabulary However, it also poses significant challenges for learners whose native languages have a more restricted range of consonant placements within syllables (Xiao & Zhang, 2009).
2.1.4.2 The distinction of voiced and voiceless consonants
English places a significant emphasis on voicing compared to languages like Spanish, Italian, or Vietnamese, as demonstrated in minimal pairs such as “bid” and “bit,” where voicing alters the meaning (Fledge & Brown, 1982) This distinction can pose challenges for non-native English speakers whose native languages do not prioritize this feature (Fullana & Mora).
The challenge of understanding connected speech is intensified by the need for native-like adjustments in vowel sounds and the reduction of final consonants, all while ensuring that the words remain comprehensible (Anthony Nguyen, 2007).
According to Kambata (1996, as cited in Nguyen Thi Phuc Hoa, 1999, p.23), English fricatives consist of nine consonants These consonants are produced by positioning the articulators close together, creating a narrow passage that allows the airflow to escape with friction.
Fricatives are consonants characterized by the escape of air through a narrow passage, producing a hissing sound (Roach, 1991) In English, fricatives are classified into five main categories based on their place of articulation, with four categories consisting of pairs of consonants that differ only slightly in voicing.
What follows will be a brief discussion of the pronunciation of all English fricatives which acts as a facilitator of further analyses
2.1.4.4 Production of labio-dental fricatives /f/ and /v/
The voiceless fricative /f/ and voiced fricative /v/ are widely distributed in English, appearing in all syllable positions They can be found initially in words like "five" and "vie," medially in "fifth" and "survive," and finally in "life" and "live." According to Roach (1985), these labio-dental fricatives are produced by raising the soft palate and closing off the nasal resonator, allowing air to escape through a narrow passage formed by the contact between the upper teeth and lower lip, which creates friction Ha Cam Tam (2005) further explains that the lower lip lightly contacts the upper teeth, producing friction as air escapes The sound /f/ is voiceless, while /v/ involves varying degrees of vocal cord vibration depending on the surrounding sounds.
2.1.4.5 Production of dental fricatives /θ/ and / ð /
According to Thomas (1947, as cited in Tran Thi Trinh Hue, 2011), the production of the two inter-dental fricatives involves positioning the tip of the tongue against the cutting edges or the back of the upper teeth This articulation requires forcing breath either between the tongue and teeth or through the gaps between the teeth, or utilizing both methods simultaneously.
The pronunciation of English dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ has been a topic of discussion among linguists Underhill (1994) describes the tip of the tongue being slightly pressed against the upper front teeth, allowing air to flow through a small gap In contrast, Roach (1985) suggests that the tongue touches the inside of the upper teeth, enabling air to escape between the tongue and teeth According to Hattem (2009), these sounds are particularly challenging for native English speakers Notably, /θ/ is produced without vocal cord vibration, while the voiced /ð/ requires some vibration during pronunciation.
2.1.4.6 Production of alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
Alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/ are produced by raising the soft palate and shutting off the resonator, followed by the tongue's blade and tip making slight contact with the upper alveolar ridge, while the tongue's sides touch the upper teeth (Roach, 1991) This articulation creates significant friction as air flows through a narrow passage formed along the center of the tongue (Davenport & Hannahs, 1998) Notably, /s/ is voiceless, while /z/ involves strong vocal cord vibration (Roach, 1991).
2.1.4.7 Production of palato-alveolar fricatives /ʃ / and / ʒ/
The production of /ʃ/, /ʒ/ is considered a combined process of producing alveolar fricatives
The articulation of the sounds /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ differs significantly from /s/ and /z/, primarily due to the position of the tongue, which contacts a more posterior area of the hard palate Additionally, native English speakers often round their lips when pronouncing /ʃ/ and /ʒ/, although lip shape can be influenced by subsequent sounds The airflow for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ is more diffused, resulting in less intensity and lower vibration for /ʒ/, while /ʃ/ is produced without vocal cord involvement The sound /ʒ/ has limited distribution in English, commonly appearing in borrowed French words, particularly in medial positions, unlike /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, which are widely distributed across all syllable positions.
The glottal fricative /h/ is produced by the friction created between the vocal cords, and its pronunciation is closely linked to the vowels that follow it According to Davenport and Hannahs (1998), the quality of /h/ reflects the characteristics of the preceding vowels For instance, in the word "head," pronounced as /hed/, the /h/ sound is articulated simultaneously with the vowel /e/, utilizing similar positions of the jaw, tongue, and lips.
2.1.5 A phonological contrastive analysis of Vietnamese and English
2.1.5.1 A contrastive analysis of Vietnamese and English consonant systems
Vietnamese consonants system includes 26 consonants, among them, 22 can stand in the initial position, while only 6 consonants appear in the final position (Tran Ngoc Dung,
2010), as showed in the following tables:
Table 3: Vietnamese consonants (Tran Ngoc Dung, 2010)
A phonological contrastive analysis of Vietnamese an English
2.1.5.1 A contrastive analysis of Vietnamese and English consonant systems
Vietnamese consonants system includes 26 consonants, among them, 22 can stand in the initial position, while only 6 consonants appear in the final position (Tran Ngoc Dung,
2010), as showed in the following tables:
Table 3: Vietnamese consonants (Tran Ngoc Dung, 2010)
Vietnamese consonants are not found in the syllable medial position and are limited in the syllable final position, with only six consonants permitted Among these, three consonants—/p/, /k/, and /t/—are unaspirated, while the other three—/m/, /n/, and /ŋ/—are nasal sounds.
English consonants are versatile, as they can appear in all three syllable positions—initial, medial, and final—except for certain sounds For instance, the sound /ʒ/ typically occurs in the medial position, while /h/ is not found at the end of syllables.
A comparison of the tables indicates that English features unique sounds, specifically the dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ Furthermore, while both English and Vietnamese have the palato-alveolar fricative /ʃ/, Vietnamese /ʂ/ is retroflexed, contrasting with the palato-alveolar nature of the English sound.
While English and Vietnamese share several consonants, the limited distribution of Vietnamese consonants—primarily occurring in medial and final positions—creates challenges for Vietnamese students learning English These learners often transfer sounds from their native language to English, which can lead to difficulties in pronunciation A detailed comparison of the consonants shared by both languages, as well as those unique to each, is provided in Table 6.
Table 6: Comparison of Vietnamese and English Consonant Sounds In Syllable- Initial and – Final Position ( Giang 2000)
According to Table 6, Vietnamese and English share 14 consonants in the initial position, while only six consonants can appear in the final position of Vietnamese syllables: the nasals /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ and the voiceless orals /p/, /k/, and /t/ Notably, many initial consonants, including the fricatives /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /θ/, and /ð/, along with all fricatives in the final position, are exclusive to English.
English consonants can form clusters, primarily at the beginning and end of syllables, while modern Vietnamese lacks these consonant clusters, although historical instances of two consonants together in initial syllable positions did exist (Doan Thien Thuat, 1999) This difference in consonant structure may lead to errors for English learners whose native language does not include these sounds and sound patterns unfamiliar to Vietnamese phonetics.
2.1.5.2 A contrastive analysis of Vietnamese and English syllable structure
Various theories have been proposed to accurately describe the structure of Vietnamese syllables, with Ngo Nhu Binh's (2009) theory being particularly prominent She emphasizes the critical roles of tone and nuclear vowels in syllable formation, suggesting that initial and final consonants or semi-vowels are optional components Additionally, her theory highlights the significance of labialization within a syllable In her framework, initial consonants, labialization, nuclear vowels, and final consonants or semi-vowels are categorized in a layer subordinate to that of tone, as depicted in her illustrative figure.
Doan Xuan Kien (2005) argued against the notion that tone, initial consonants, and rime (vowel and final consonant) contribute equally to Vietnamese syllables, emphasizing that there are no semi-vowels in the final position This perspective is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Vietnamese syllable structure (Doan Xuan Kien, 2005)
Le Van Ly (1948), as referenced by Doan Xuan Kien (2005), asserts that the Vietnamese syllable structure lacks layers and can be categorized into four primary types: (C)(V), (V), (C)(V)(C), and (V)(C) Supporting this view, Dinh, Hoang, and Nguyen (1972, as cited in Le Chau Hoai Nhat & Cunningham, 2010) emphasize that these four structures characterize Vietnamese syllables, with the nuclear vowel playing a crucial role across all forms.
Different approaches above, however, converge in one point, highlighting the equal role, if not to say superior role that vowels has over consonants in Vietnamese syllable
The Vietnamese language often features a structure characterized by a consonant followed by two vowels (C)(V), as noted by Le Chau Hoai Nhat and Cunningham (2010) Supporting this view, Anthony Nguyen (2007) asserts that the coda in Vietnamese predominantly consists of vowels, which carry significant semantic weight.
English syllables emphasize consonants, leading to their frequent appearance within syllables (Nguyen Thi Thu Thao, 2007) Consonants in English syllables carry significant semantic weight compared to vowels (Pham Thi Song Thuyet, 2009) The typical structures of English syllables include (C)(V), (C)(V)(C), (C)(V)(C)(C), and (C)(C)(V)(C), among others (Erickson, as cited in Tang M Giang, 2007) Notably, the structure (C)(C)(C)(V)(C)(C)(C)(C) is often highlighted as characteristic of English syllables (Spencer, 1996; Crystal, 2002, as cited in Le Chau Hoai Nhat & Cunningham, 2010) This consonant-heavy structure poses challenges for English learners from vowel-centric languages, such as Vietnamese, particularly in pronouncing consonant clusters, especially at the end of syllables (Phung Thi Phuong Lan, 2010).
Pronunciation errors
Errors are an inevitable part of language learning, as highlighted by Bui Thi Binh (2011) Linguists have defined errors in various ways, with Ellis (1997) noting that they indicate gaps in a learner's knowledge Dulay et al (1982) described errors as systematic deviations stemming from a learner's developing understanding of a second language's rules Eckman (1981) emphasized that while errors are necessary for language acquisition, they can have both positive and negative effects on a learner's progress Corder (1981) categorized errors into "errors of performance," which occur due to fatigue or carelessness, and "errors of competence," which reflect a learner's insufficient knowledge of the language This classification underscores the importance of examining errors to enhance the language learning process.
In everyday speech, little distinction is drawn between the two term “error” and
In language acquisition, errors and mistakes represent two distinct concepts Errors, as defined by Dulay et al (1982), are deviations from mature language norms that occur due to limited language competence during the early stages of learning (Coder, 1981) Conversely, mistakes, according to Richard (1974), are minor and non-systematic occurrences that do not significantly impact language learning Torrijos (2009) categorizes errors into performance errors, which do not indicate a knowledge deficiency, and competence errors, which reveal the learner's current understanding of the language Corder (1967) further clarifies that mistakes are akin to slips of the tongue, while errors are systematic and often unrecognized by learners Therefore, it is crucial to minimize errors associated with incompetence in language learning Understanding the nature of these errors, their distinction from mistakes, and the lack of awareness among learners regarding their causes and negative effects can guide future research This research can help develop improved teaching methods, ultimately facilitating language acquisition and preventing the transfer of persistent errors to advanced stages of learning.
2.1.6.3 Common errors in the pronunciation of English fricatives
Errors in the pronunciation of English fricatives are a significant challenge for non-native speakers, particularly those whose native languages feature different phonological characteristics (Xiao & Zhang, 2009; Timonen, 2011) Research indicates that sound omission and confusion are the most common errors made by learners, with Vietnamese speakers often struggling with sound redundancy as well (Ha Cam Tam, 2005) Studies show that final and cluster consonants are frequently omitted, while initial sounds are more prone to being replaced, either within the same language or through language transfer (Luu Trong Tuan, 2011) Specifically, the dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ pose considerable difficulties for learners worldwide, including Vietnamese speakers, who often substitute these sounds with similar ones from their native languages (Nguyen Quoc Hung, 2000; Byung, 2004) Timonen's (2011) research further confirms that, aside from /v/, /f/, and /h/, all other English fricatives are often mispronounced, particularly by beginners in their language learning journey.
Vietnamese English learners often struggle with pronouncing English fricatives, highlighting the need for in-depth, context-specific research to identify specific errors and their causes Addressing these issues can significantly enhance intelligibility, boost learner confidence, improve communication effectiveness, and refine pronunciation teaching methods (Nguyen Ngan, 2008) This paper aims to contribute to this important effort.
Language transfer…
Language transfer, also known as mother tongue interference, refers to the impact that a learner's first language (L1) has on the process of acquiring a second language (L2) This phenomenon, as defined by Ellis (1977), is recognized as a natural aspect of foreign language learning and can often lead to errors during language acquisition, as noted by Murphy.
Language transfer, as defined by Liu (2005), refers to the influence that a learner's native language (NL) has on their ability to acquire a target language (TL), encompassing both positive and negative aspects Positive transfer aids language learning, while negative transfer can hinder it, a view supported by Murphy (2003) Torrijos (2009) emphasized that negative transfer often leads to persistent errors that should be actively addressed by both teachers and learners Furthermore, Alonso (1998) identified that negative transfer can be categorized into two main patterns, highlighting the complexity of its impact on language acquisition.
The concepts of "transfer to somewhere" and "transfer to nowhere" highlight the complexities of language learning "Transfer to somewhere" refers to the positive influence of first language (L1) on second language (L2) acquisition, where similarities between the two languages or overgeneralization of L1 patterns help learners adapt to L2 In contrast, "transfer to nowhere" describes a situation where significant differences between L1 and L2 hinder learners' understanding of L2, leading to errors that are not influenced by L1 These insights into language transfer provide a foundation for analyzing and discussing pronunciation errors in this paper.