Social Status, Social norms and Bribegiving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam .

Social Status, Social norms and Bribegiving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam .Social Status, Social norms and Bribegiving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam .Social Status, Social norms and Bribegiving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam .Social Status, Social norms and Bribegiving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam .Social Status, Social norms and Bribegiving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam .Social Status, Social norms and Bribegiving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam .Social Status, Social norms and Bribegiving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam .Social Status, Social norms and Bribegiving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam .

NATIONAL ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY  NGUYEN PHUONG ANH SOCIAL STATUS, SOCIAL NORMS AND BRIBE-GIVING BEHAVIORS OF CITIZENS IN VIETNAM PHD DISSERTATION IN ECONOMICS Hanoi i 2022 NATIONAL ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY  NGUYEN PHUONG ANH SOCIAL STATUS, SOCIAL NORMS AND BRIBE-GIVING BEHAVIORS OF CITIZENS IN VIETNAM PHD DISSERTATION IN ECONOMICS Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr Le Quang Canh Assoc Prof Dr Pham Ngoc Linh Hanoi i 2022 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is my own work, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or produced by another party in fulfillment, partial or otherwise, of any other degree or diploma at another University or institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text I have read and understood the University’s policy on plagiarism I hereby declare on my honor that this dissertation is my own work and does not violate the regulations on good academic practices i TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION i TABLE OF CONTENT ii ABBREVIATIONS v LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research rationales 1.2 Research objectives and questions 1.3 Subject and scope of the research 1.4 Research methods 1.5 Contributions of the research 1.6 Structure of the dissertation CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 10 2.1 The concepts: Bribery, Social Status and Social Norms 10 2.1.1 Corruption terms 10 2.1.2 Bribery, Bribe-Giving behaviors 14 2.1.3 Social status/Socioeconomic status 15 2.1.4 Social norms 18 2.2 Consequences of corruption and bribery at individual levels 21 2.2.1 Inequality in accessing public service 21 2.2.2 Reduction in service quality and citizens’ satisfaction with public services 22 2.2.3 Inefficiency in governmental services provision and income distribution 23 2.3 Antecedents of corrupt behaviors among individuals 24 2.3.1 Economic and institutional factors 24 2.3.2 Sociological Factors 26 ii 2.4 Research strands of corruption and bribe behaviors 29 2.4.1 Perceived as a rational action 29 2.4.2 Perceived as an institutionalized practice 33 2.4.3 Perceived as a cultural norm 35 2.4.4 Perceived as a moral failure 38 2.4.5 Bribery game: Experimental studies 40 2.5 Research gaps 42 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 44 3.1 Bribery drivers: passive motivation versus proactive motivation 44 3.2 Research hypothesis development 45 3.3 Data sources 50 3.4 Estimated models and variables 54 CHAPTER 4: EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 59 4.1 Bribe-giving and Anti-corruption in Vietnam 59 4.1.1 Research context: Corruption and anti-corruption situation in Vietnam 59 4.1.2 Bribe-giving of citizens 64 4.1.3 Social norms of corruption 72 4.2 Descriptive statistics 77 4.3 Estimated results and hypothesis testing 80 4.3.1 Empirical results for Vietnam 80 4.3.2 Robustness checks 85 4.4 Discussion 91 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 98 5.1 Main findings 98 5.2 Direction for anti-corruption in Vietnam 102 5.3 Implications about anti-corruption measures in Vietnam 104 5.3.1 Improving citizens’ bargaining power over public officials 104 iii 5.3.2 Educating and raising anti-corruption awareness, willingness and actions among citizens, especially young generations 106 5.3.3 Building an anti-corruption and corruption-reporting culture 107 5.3.4 Building transparency and simplification of administrative procedures 110 5.3.5 Encouraging participation of other stakeholders, media and social organizations112 5.4 Research limitations and future research 113 5.5 Conclusion 114 REFERENCES 116 APPENDICES 128 iv ABBREVIATIONS CECODES Center for Community Support Development Studies CPI Consumer Price Index EIU Economist Intelligence Unit FDI Foreign Direct Investment GCB Global Corruption Barometer GDP Gross Domestic Products OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development PAPI Vietnam Governance and Public Administration Performance Index PCI Provincial Competitiveness Index UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme VIF Variance Inflation Factor WB World Bank v LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Sample description 51  Table 3.2 Description of data at national level 53  Table 3.3 Variable definitions and measures 56 Table Description of survey and data 78  Table Description of defined variables 79  Table Pearson Correlation matrix (Data survey in Vietnam) 81  Table 4 Marginal effects of social status and norms on bribe-giving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam 82  Table Robustness check of social status and norms on bribe-giving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam 85 Table Marginal effects of social status and norms on bribe-giving behaviors of citizens in Asian countries………………………………………………………… 87 Table Robustness check of social status and norms on bribe-giving behaviors of citizens in Asian countries………………………………………………………… 89   vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: Theoretical analysis framework 50 Figure Control of corruption in the public sector 62  Figure Corruption Perception Index of Vietnam 63  Figure Transparency and Access to Information 63  Figure 4 Bribery rates across the Asia Pacific region in 2017 65  Figure The change of level of corruption in Vietnam 66  Figure Percentage of people who think the level of corruption has increased (Results by regions in Vietnam) 66  Figure To what extent you believe corruption is a problem in the public sector 67  Figure How corrupt are different institutions and groups in society 68  Figure Percentage of people who paid a bribe when accessing basic services (Results by regions in Vietnam) 69  Figure 10 Service users who said they had paid a bribe: (Results by six key public services) 71  Figure 4.11 Why people not report incidents of corruption? 71  Figure 12 How well Vietnamese government are doing at tackling corruption (Percentage of responses) 72  Figure 13 How effective you think your government’s actions are in the fight against corruption? 73  Figure 14 People’s votes for the top priority for government’s anti-corruption measures 74  Figure 15 Ordinary people can make a difference in the fight against corruption 74  Figure 4.16 Views on the most effective actions people can take against corruption 75  Figure 4.17 Percentage of those who agree it is socially acceptable to report corruption 76  vii Figure 18 How much you know about the Anti-corruption Commissions in Vietnam 76  Figure 19 How well or badly would you say the Anti-corruption Commissions is doing at the fight against corruption in Vietnam 77  viii Secondly, the dissertation has not yet mentioned individuals who give bribes in different sectors and fields For example, bribe-giving behaviors of individuals might differ in different sectors, such as public schools, public hospital, identity documents, utilities service, police and courts Besides, the behaviors also might be different based on specific income level in different fields Thirdly, some inherent limitations of survey design need to improve in the future research The survey data not control moral value (for example, socially desirable response patterns) Although this survey asked respondents for their experience of bribe behaviours, a significant improvement from other perception and intention surveys, a criticism against survey data may be given A method of bribery experiment could be employed to deal with the issue (Banerjee, Baul, & Rosenblat, 2016; Bühren, 2020) Additionally, it did not observe the cause effects The survey data potentially yielded high external validity, but they did not allow to check the causal effects Thus, the result interpretation should be more cautious, and the causal effects should be addressed in further studies Finally, survey and variables conducted across the Asian emerging countries may be criticized for their homogeneity This limitation should be addressed by questionnaire design, wordings, and data collection methods that ensure respondents have the same understanding and compatible context Also, the relation among socioeconomic status, norms, and bribe-giving varies across the development levels of selected countries, and those issues are ripe for further research 5.5 Conclusion This dissertation has some significant contribution to the academic contribution in corruption and bribe behaviors from individual perspective First, the relationship between socioeconomic status, cultural norms and bribe-giving behaviors of citizens has been understood by the institutional theory, cost/benefit calculation and the bargaining power framework Corruption as a rational choice views bribes as an informal cost that citizens must pay for assessing public services By weighing cost and benefit of the bribe behaviors, citizens decide whether to corrupt or not The bargaining power framework is applied into four dimensions of socioeconomic status, including the level of 114 education, economic status, employment and other individual characteristics The empirical results have proved that the higher a citizen’s bargaining power has, the fewer bribes she pays Accordingly, highly educated citizens are less likely to give bribes due to their capabilities and the availability of alternatives to bribes They have better knowledge to be more critical and less engage in corrupt activities Furthermore, they also use powerful alternatives, such as social relationships and soft power, by reporting officials’ harassment and extortion if challenged while accessing public services The bargaining power framework is extended to explain the bribe-giving of the poor and unemployed in comparison to the low educated people It is convinced that the poor and the unemployed have a low probability of giving bribes because their opportunity cost of giving bribes is considerably high Besides, aging people are less likely to give bribes than the younger Second, institutional theory help explain the role of social-cultural norms on corruption strongly engaging with the bribe-giving activities of citizens As a result, people in communities in which citizens actively engage in anti-corruption practices as social norms, significantly associated with the low probability of giving bribes People living in rural areas, have lower probability of giving bribes than those who live in urban areas In Vietnam “village” culture may reduce the probabilities of bribe-giving behaviors Third, this dissertation provides empirical results shed light on the anti-corruption agenda for Vietnam and other transitional economies It is among the pioneer on the bribe-giving from individual perspectives Vietnam is seen as one of the fast-growing economies in Asia, however, the country is falling behind in controlling corruption In order to maintain economic growth, Vietnam must ensure that anti-corruption reforms are not only enacted but also are effectively enforced 115 REFERENCES Abbink, K., Irlenbusch, B., & Renner, E (2000), "The moonlighting game: An experimental study on reciprocity and retribution", Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 42(2), 265-277 Abbink, K., Irlenbusch, B., & Renner, E (2002), "An experimental bribery game", Journal of Law, economics, and organization, 18(2), 428-454 Abbink, K., Freidin, E., Gangadharan, L., & Moro, R (2018), "The effect of social norms on bribe offers", The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, 34(3), 457–474 https:// doi.org/10.1093/jleo/ewy015 Achim, M V (2016), "Cultural dimension of corruption: A cross-country survey", International Advances in Economic Research, 22(3), 333-345 Aidt, T S (2016), "Rent seeking and the economics of corruption", Constitutional Political Economy, 27(2), 142-157 Aidt, T S., & Dutta, J (2008), "Policy compromises: corruption and regulation in a democracy", Economics & Politics, 20(3), 335-360 Ajzen, I (1991), "The theory of planned behavior", Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 50(2), 179-211 Ashforth, B E., & Anand, V (2003), "The normalization of corruption in organizations", Research in organizational behavior, 25, 1-52 Barr, A., & Lindelöw, M (2004), To serve the community or oneself: the public servant's dilemma, World Bank Publications, USA Baron, J (1992), "The Effect of Normative Beliefs on Anticipated Emotions", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(2), 320 https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.63.2.320 Baughn, C., Bodie, N L., Buchanan, M A., & Bixby, M B (2010), "Bribery in international business transactions", Journal of Business Ethics, 92(1), 15-32 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0136-7 Baker, E H (2014), "Definition of socioeconomic status", The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Health, Illness, Behavior, and Society, 2210–2214 Banerjee, R., Baul, T., & Rosenblat, T (2016), "Social norms regarding bribing in India: An experimental analysis", Journal of Contextual Economics – Schmollers Jahrbuch, 136(2), 171–197 Bardhan, P (1997), "Corruption and Development: A Review of Issues", Journal of Economic Literature, 321-338 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315126647-30 116 Bello, A O (2014), "Gift-giving, anti-bribery laws and the Nigerian constitution: Matters Arising", Journal of African Law, 58(2), 278-302 Becker, G S., & Stigler, G J (1974), "Law enforcement, malfeasance, and compensation of enforcers", The Journal of Legal Studies, 3(1), 1-18 Berkman, U (1992), "Bureaucracy and bribery a conceptual framework", International Journal of Public Administration, 15(6), 1345-1368 Bernardi, R A., Witek, M B., & Melton, M R (2009), "A four-country study of the associations between bribery and unethical actions", Journal of Business Ethics, 84(3), 389-403 Bertrand, M., Djankov, S., Hanna, R., & Mullainathan, S (2007), "Obtaining a Driving License in India: An Experimental Approach to Study Corruption", Quarterly Journal of Economics, 26(2), 122-136 Bicchieri, C., Muldoon, R., & and Sontuoso, A (2018), "Social Norms", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (p Edward N Zalta (ed.)) https://plato.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia/archinfo.cgi?entry=social-norms Bicchieri, C., & Xiao, E (2009), "Do the right thing: But only if others so", Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 22(2), 191-208 Biswas, M (2017), "Are they efficient in the middle? Using propensity score estimation for modeling middlemen in Indian corporate corruption", Journal of Business Ethics, 141(3), 563-586 Black, W K (2004), "The" Dango" Tango: Why Corruption Blocks Real Reform in Japan", Business ethics quarterly, 603-623 Bliss, C., & Tella, R D (1997), "Does competition kill corruption?", Journal of political economy, 105(5), 1001-1023 Brief, A P., Buttram, R T., & Dukerich, J M (2001), "Collective corruption in the corporate world: Toward a process model", Groups at work: Theory and research, 471(3), 499-511 Bruegel, I (2005), "Social capital and feminist critique", Women and social capital, 417 Bühren, C (2020), "Staff rotation as an anti-corruption policy in China and in Germany: An Experimental comparison", Journal of Economics and Statistics, 240(1), 118 Caillier, J (2010), "Citizen Trust, Political Corruption, and Voting Behavior: Connecting the Dots", Politics and Policy, 38(5), 1015-1035 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-1346.2010.00267.x Cameron, L., Chaudhuri, A., Erkal, N., & Gangadharan, L (2009), "Propensities to engage in and punish corrupt behavior: Experimental evidence from Australia, India, Indonesia and Singapore", Journal of Public Economics, 93(7-8), 843-851 117 Carrillo, J D (2000), "Corruption in hierarchies", Annales d'Economie et de Statistique, 37-61 Castro, A., Phillips, N., & Ansari, S (2020), "Corporate corruption: a review and research agenda", Academy of management Annals Retrieved from https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/82057/2/annals.2018.0156.pdf CECODES, UNDP, & RTA (2017) PAPI 2017 Retrieved from https://papi.org.vn/wpcontent/uploads/2018/04/PAPI2017_Indicators_Tables_VIE.pdf Charap, M J., & Harm, C (1999) Institutionalized corruption and the kleptocratic state: International monetary fund Clarke, G R., & Xu, L C (2004), "Privatization, competition, and corruption: how characteristics of bribe takers and payers affect bribes to utilities", Journal of Public Economics, 88(9-10), 2067-2097 Cialdini, R B., Kallgren, C A., & Reno, R R (1991), "A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: A Theoretical Refinement and Reevaluation of the Role of Norms in Human Behavior", Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol 24, pp 201234, Academic Press https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60330-5 Collins, J D., Uhlenbruck, K., & Rodriguez, P (2009), "Why firms engage in corruption: A top management perspective", Journal of Business Ethics, 87(1), 89-108 Cuervo-Cazurra, A (2006), "Who cares about corruption?", Journal of International Business Studies, 37(6), 807-822 Davis, J H., & Ruhe, J A (2003), "Perceptions of country corruption: Antecedents and outcomes", Journal of Business Ethics, 43(4), 275-288 Dela Rama, M (2012), "Corporate governance and corruption: Ethical dilemmas of Asian business groups", Journal of Business Ethics, 109(4), 501-519 Dey, H K (1989), "The genesis and spread of economic corruption: A microtheoretic interpretation", World Development, 17(4), 503-511 Dhami, S., & Al Nowaihi, A (2007), "Corruption and the provision of public output in a hierarchical asymmetric information relationship", Journal of Public Economic Theory, 9(4), 727-755 Dimant, E., & Schulte, T (2016), "The nature of corruption: An interdisciplinary perspective", German Law Journal, 17(1), 53-72 Dong, B., Dulleck, U., & Torgler, B (2009), "Social norms and corruption", Paper presented at the Proceedings of the European Economic Association and the Econometric Society European Meeting Eden, L (1991), "Bringing the Firm Back In: Multinationals in International Political Economy", Millennium, 20(2), 197-224 doi:10.1177/03058298910200021301 Fama, E F., & Jensen, M C (1983), "Separation of ownership and control", The journal of law and Economics, 26(2), 301-325 118 Fang, T (2003), "A critique of Hofstede’s fifth national culture dimension", International journal of cross cultural management, 3(3), 347-368 Fisman, R., & Miguel, E (2007), "Corruption, norms, and legal enforcement: Evidence from diplomatic parking tickets", Journal of political economy, 115(6), 10201048 Frank, B., & Schulze, G G (2000), "Does economics make citizens corrupt?", Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 43(1), 101-113 Frei, C., & Muethel, M (2017), "Antecedents and Consequences of MNE Bribery: A Multilevel Review", Journal of Management Inquiry, 26(4), 418–432 https://doi.org/10.1177/1056492617704305 Gabbioneta, C., Prakash, R., & Greenwood, R (2014), "Sustained corporate corruption and processes of institutional ascription within professional networks", Journal of Professions and Organization, 1(1), 16-32 Galobardes, B., Shaw, M., Lawlor, D A., Lynch, J W., & Smith, G D (2006), "Indicators of socioeconomic position (part 1)", Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60(1), 7–12 https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2004.023531 Gao, Y (2010), "Mimetic isomorphism, market competition, perceived benefit and bribery of firms in transitional china", Australian Journal of Management, 35(2), 203-222 https://doi.org/10.1177/0312896210370082 Gao, Y (2011), "Government Intervention, Perceived Benefit, and Bribery of Firms in Transitional China", Journal of Business Ethics, 104(2), 175-184 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0896-8 Gehman, J., Trevino, L K., & Garud, R (2013), "Values work: A process study of the emergence and performance of organizational values practices", Academy of Management Journal, 56(1), 84-112 Gelbrich, K., Stedham, Y., & Gäthke, D (2016), "Cultural Discrepancy and National Corruption: Investigating the Difference between Cultural Values and Practices and Its Relationship to Corrupt Behavior", Business ethics quarterly, 26(2), 201225 Gilbert, D T., Fiske, S T., & Lindzey, G (1998) The handbook of social psychology: Oxford University Press Goel, R K., & Rich, D P (1989), "On the economic incentives for taking bribes", Public choice, 61(3), 269-275 Goodrick, E., & Salancik, G R (1996), "Organizational discretion in responding to institutional practices: Hospitals and cesarean births", Administrative science quarterly, 1-28 Gouldner, A W (1960), "The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement", American sociological review, 161-178 119 Government, V N o t (2018), "T ng Bí th nh n m nh gi i pháp tr ng tâm phòng ch ng tham nh ng", Retrieved from http://baochinhphu.vn/Phong-chong-thamnhung-khong-danh-trong-bo-dui/Tong-Bi-thu-nhan-manh-6-giai-phap-trongtam-phong-chong-tham-nhung/339817.vgp Granovetter, M (1985), "Economic action and social structure: The problem of embeddedness", In The Sociology of Economic Life, Third Edition https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429494338 Graycar, A., & Jancsics, D (2016), "Gift Giving and Corruption", International Journal of Public Administration, 40(12), 1013-1023 Gupta, S., Davoodi, H., & Alonso-Terme, R (2002), "Does corruption affect income inequality and poverty?", Economics of Governance, 3(1), 23-45 https://doi.org/10.1007/s101010100039 Halter, M V., De Arruda, M C C., & Halter, R B (2009), "Transparency to reduce corruption?", Journal of Business Ethics, 84(3), 373-385 Herd, P., Goesling, B., & House, J S (2007), "Socioeconomic position and health: the differential effects of education versus income on the onset versus progression of health problems", Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 48(3), 223–238 https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650704800302 Hollingshead, A B (1975) Four Factor Index of Social Status Retrieved from https://sociology.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/yjs_fall_2011.pdf#page=21 Houston, D J., Aitalieva, N R., Morelock, A L., & Shults, C A (2016), "Citizen Trust in Civil Servants: A Cross-National Examination", International Journal of Public Administration, 39(14), 1203-1214 Hillman, A L (2013), "Rent seeking", In The Elgar Companion to Public Choice, Second Edition, Edward Elgar Publishing Hofstede, G (1984), Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values (Vol 5), Sage, USA Hofstede, G (2011), "Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in contex", Online readings in psychology and culture, 2(1), 2307-0919.1014 Hofstede, G (2016), "Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations", Collegiate Aviation Review, 34(2), 108 House, J S (2002), "Understanding social factors and inequalities in health: 20th century progress and 21st century prospects", Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(2), 125–142 https://doi.org/10.2307/3090192 120 Huang, F., & Rice, J (2012), "Firm networking and bribery in China: Assessing some potential negative consequences of firm openness", Journal of Business Ethics, 107(4), 533-545 Hunt, J., & Laszlo, S (2005) "Bribery: Who pays, who refuses, what are the payoffs?", Working paper 11635, doi: 10.3386/w11635 Hunt, J., & Laszlo, S (2012), "Is bribery really regressive? Bribery’s costs, benefits, and mechanisms", World Development, 40(2), 355-372 Husted, B W (1999), "Wealth, culture, and corruption", Journal of International Business Studies, 30(2), 339-359 Ike, O I (2008), "Corruption: threat to democracy and market economy–the case of Nigeria", Paper presented at the International Symposium on Sustainability held at Bank FuerKreditanstalt und Wiederaufbau, Frankfurt, Main Gemany Retrieved from http://www obioraike com/paper-presented/corruption-threattodemocracy-and-market-economy-the-case-of-study-nigeria pdf on August Jain, A K (2001), "Corruption: A review", Journal of economic surveys, 15(1), 71-121 Jensen, M C., & Meckling, W H (1976), "Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure", Journal of financial economics, 3(4), 305-360 Jensen, N M., Li, Q., & Rahman, A (2010), "Understanding corruption and firm responses in cross-national firm-level surveys", Journal of International Business Studies, 41(9), 1481-1504 Jeong, & Weiner (2012), "Who bribes? Evidence from the United Nations' oil for food program", Strategic Management Journal, 33(12), 1363-1383 Jeong, Y., & Siegel, J I (2018), "Threat of falling high status and corporate bribery: Evidence from the revealed accounting records of two South Korean presidents", Strategic Management Journal, 39(4), 1083-1111 Kankeu, H T., & Ventelou, B (2016), "Socioeconomic inequalities in informal payments for health care: an assessment of the ‘Robin Hood’hypothesis in 33 African countries", Social Science & Medicine, 151, 173-186 Keig, D L., Brouthers, L E., & Marshall, V B (2015), "Formal and informal corruption environments and multinational enterprise social irresponsibility", Journal of Management Studies, 52(1), 89-116 Klitgaard, R (1988), Controlling corruption, University of California press, USA Kobrin, S J (1987), "Testing the bargaining hypothesis in the manufacturing sector in developing countries", International organization, 41(4), 609-638 Krammer, S M (2019), "Greasing the wheels of change: Bribery, institutions, and new product introductions in emerging markets", Journal of management, 45(5), 1889-1926 Lambsdorff, J.G.,(2002), "Making corrupt deals: contracting in the shadow of the law", Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 48(3), 221-241 121 Lambsdorff, J.G.,(2010), "Who accepts bribery? Evidence from a global household survey", Passauer Diskussionspapiere-Volkswirtschaftliche Reihe, 61(10) Lambsdorff, J G., & Frank, B (2010), "Bribing versus gift-giving–An experiment", Journal of Economic Psychology, 31(3), 347-357 Lambsdorff, J G., & Frank, B (2011), "Corrupt reciprocity–Experimental evidence on a men's game", International review of Law and economics, 31(2), 116-125 Lan, T., & Hong, Y.-y (2017), "Norm, gender, and bribe-giving: Insights from a behavioral game", PloS one, 12(12), 189-195 Lavena, C F (2013), "What determines permissiveness toward corruption? A study of attitudes in Latin America", Public Integrity, 15(4), 345-366 Lawrence, T B., Hardy, C., & Phillips, N (2002), "Institutional effects of interorganizational collaboration: The emergence of proto-institutions", Academy of Management Journal, 45(1), 281-290 Le, C Q (2018), "V th xã h i, v n hoá h i l c a ng Kinh T & Phát Tri n, 252(2) i dân Vi t Nam", T p Chí Li, P P (2009), "The duality of crony corruption in economic transition: Toward an integrated framework", Journal of Business Ethics, 85(1), 41-55 Lindgren, J (1993), "The theory, history, and practice of the bribery-extortion distinction", University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 141(5), 1695–1740 https://doi.org/10.2307/ 3312572 Luo, Y (2005), "An organizational perspective of corruption", Management and Organization Review, 1(1), 119-154 Maeda, K., & Ziegfeld, A (2015), "Socioeconomic status and corruption perceptions around the world", Research & Politics, 2(2), 2053168015580838 doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168015580838 Martin, K D., Cullen, J B., Johnson, J L., & Parboteeah, K P (2007), "Deciding to bribe: A cross-level analysis of firm and home country influences on bribery activity", Academy of Management Journal, 50(6), 1401-1422 Mauro, P (1995), "Corruption and growth", The quarterly journal of economics, 110(3), 681-712 Malesky, E J., Nguyen, T V., Bach, T N., & Ho, B D (2020), "The effect of market competition on bribery in emerging economies: An empirical analysis of Vietnamese firms", World Development, 131, 104957 Martin, K D., Cullen, J B., Johnson, J L., & Parboteeah, K P (2007), "Deciding to bribe: A cross-level analysis of firm and home country influences on bribery activity", Academy of Management Journal, 50(6), 1401-1422 McGee, R J., & Warms, R L (2013), Theory in social and cultural anthropology: An encyclopedia, Sage Publications 122 McKinney, J A., & Moore, C W (2008), "International bribery: Does a written code of ethics make a difference in perceptions of business professionals", Journal of Business Ethics, 79(1), 103-111 McLaughlin, E (2013), "Culture and corruption: An explanation of the differences between Scandinavia and Africa", American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 2(2), 85-91 Misangyi, V F., Weaver, G R., & Elms, H (2008), "Ending corruption: The interplay among institutional logics, resources, and institutional entrepreneurs", Academy of Management Review, 33(3), 750-770 Mohtadi, H., & Roe, T L (2003), "Democracy, rent seeking, public spending and growth", Journal of Public Economics, 87(3-4), 445-466 Nguyen, P A., & Le, Q C (2021), "Socioeconomic Status, Norms and Bribe-Giving Behaviors among Citizens of Vietnam", International Journal of Public Administration, 45(1), 37-48 Nguyen, Q A., Sullivan Mort, G., & D’souza, C (2015), "Vietnam in transition: Smes and the necessitating environment for entrepreneurship development", Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 27(3-4), 154-180 Murdoch, A (2009), "How much culture is there in corruption? Some thoughts on transformation-cum-collective culture shock in post-communist Poland", Journal of Intercultural Management, 1(1), 42-63 Nguyen, V T., Le, N T B., Dinh, H L H., & Pham, H T L (2020), "Do entrepreneurial firms suffer more from bribery? An empirical study of businesses in Vietnam", Post-Communist Economies, 32(7), 877-903 doi:10.1080/14631377.2020.1722585 Nguyen, T V., Doan, M H., & Tran, N H (2021), "The perpetuation of bribery–prone relationships: A study from Vietnamese public officials", Public Administration and Development, 41(5), 244-256 Nguyen, T V., Doan, M H., & Tran, N H (2022), "Obligation-based bribes in Vietnam: A view from the norm of reciprocity", Crime, Law and Social Change, 1-20 Nielsen, R P (2003), "Corruption networks and implications for ethical corruption reform", Journal of Business Ethics, 42(2), 125-149 North, D C (1990), Institutions, institutional change and economic performance, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Nwabuzor, A (2005), "Corruption and development: New initiatives in economic openness and strengthened rule of law", Journal of Business Ethics, 59(1), 121-138 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-005-3402-3 Olken, B A (2007), "Monitoring corruption: evidence from a field experiment in Indonesia", Journal of political economy, 115(2), 200-249 Olson, M (1989) Collective action In The invisible hand (pp 61-69), Springer, USA 123 Pacini, C., Swingen, J A., & Rogers, H (2002), "The role of the OECD and EU conventions in combating bribery of foreign public officials", Journal of Business Ethics, 37(4), 385-405 https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015235806969 Parsons, T., & Shils, E A (1951), Towards a general theory of action, Harvard University Press, USA Paldam, M (2002), "The cross-country pattern of corruption: economics, culture and the seesaw dynamics", European Journal of Political Economy, 18(2), 215-240 Park, H., & Blenkinsopp, J (2011), "The roles of transparency and trust in the relationship between corruption and citizen satisfaction", International Review of Administrative Sciences, 77(2), 254-274 Peiffer, C., & Rose, R (2018), "Why are the poor more vulnerable to bribery in Africa? The institutional effects of services", The Journal of Development Studies, 54(1), 18-29 Quach, D T (2019), Assessing the role of corruption in Vietnam, its implications and remedies, Final project, University of New York, Prague Rabl, T (2011), "The impact of situational influences on corruption in organizations", Journal of Business Ethics, 100(1), 85-101 Ramdani, D., & Van Witteloostuijn, A (2012), "The shareholder–manager relationship and its impact on the likelihood of firm bribery", Journal of Business Ethics, 108(4), 495-507 Riaz, M F., & Cantner, U (2020), "Revisiting the relationship between corruption and innovation in developing and emerging economies", Crime, Law and Social Change, 73(4), 395–416 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-019-09867-0 Richards, M., & Schembera, S (2019), "Managing legitimacy through conventionality rather than alignment: Anti-corruption at family versus non-family firms", Available at SSRN 3484973 Rivas, M F (2013), "An experiment on corruption and gender", Bulletin of Economic Research, 65(1), 10-42 Rose-Ackerman, S (1975), "The economics of corruption", Journal of Public Economics, 4(2), 187-203 Rose-Ackerman, S (1999), "Political corruption and democracy", Conn J Int'l L., 14, 363 Rose-Ackerman, S (2013), Corruption: A study in political economy, Academic Press, USA Ross, C E., & Mirowsky, J (1999), "Refining the association between education and health: The effects of quantity, credential, and selectivity", Demography, 36(4), 445–460 https://doi.org/10.2307/2648083 124 Scott, W R (2013), Institutions and organizations: Ideas, interests, and identities, Sage publications, USA Shadabi, L (2013), "The impact of religion on corruption", The Journal of Business Inquiry, 12(1), 102-117 Seligson, M A (2002), "The impact of corruption on regime legitimacy: A comparative study of four Latin American countries", The journal of Politics, 64(2), 408-433 Shleifer, A., & Vishny, R W (1993), "Corruption", The quarterly journal of economics, 108(3), 599-617 Smart, A., & Hsu, C L (2017), Corruption or social capital? Tact and the performance of guanxi in market socialist China, Routledge, USA Steidlmeier, P (1999), "Gift giving, bribery and corruption: Ethical management of business relationships in China", Journal of Business Ethics, 20(2), 121-132 Sundstrom, A (2019), "Why people pay bribes? A survey experiment with resource users", Social Science Quarterly, 100(3), 725-735 Svensson, J (2003), "Who must pay bribes and how much? Evidence from a cross section of firms", The quarterly journal of economics, 118(1), 207-230 Swamy, A., Knack, S., Lee, Y., & Azfar, O (2001), "Gender and corruption", Journal of Development Economics, 64(1), 25–55 https://doi.org/10.1016/S03043878(00)00123-1 Tangpong, C., Li, J., & Hung, K.-T (2016), "Dark side of reciprocity norm: Ethical compromise in business exchanges", Industrial Marketing Management, 55, 8396 Tong, W (2014), "Analysis of corruption from sociocultural perspectives", International Journal of Business and Social Science, 5(11) Tonoyan, V., Strohmeyer, R., Habib, M., & Perlitz, M (2010), "Corruption and entrepreneurship: How formal and informal institutions shape small firm behavior in transition and mature market economies", Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 34(5), 803-832 Torsello, D., & Venard, B (2016), "The anthropology of corruption", Journal of management inquiry, 25(1), 34-54 TI (2010), Overview of corruption and anti-corruption in Vietnam Retrieved from https://www.transparency.org/files/content/corruptionqas/315_Overview_of_co rruption_and_anti-corruption_in_Vietnam.pdf TI (2020), Corruption Perception Index 2020: Asia Parcific Retrieved from https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/index/nzl Than, T H (2016), "V n hóa làng vùng đ ng b ng B c B ", s (98) Retrieved from http://m.tapchikhxh.vass.gov.vn/van-hoa-lang-vung-dong-bang-bac-bon50199.html 125 Tonoyan, V., Strohmeyer, R., Habib, M., & Perlitz, M (2010), "Corruption and entrepreneurship: How formal and informal institutions shape small firm behavior in transition and mature market economies", Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 34(5), 803-832 Tran, T Q., Vu, H V., Doan, T T., & Tran, D.-H (2016), "Corruption, provincial institutions and manufacturing firm productivity: New evidence from a transitional economy", Estudios de Economía, 43(2), 199-215 Transparency International (2017), Corruption in Asia Parcific: What 20,000+ people told us Retrieved from https://www.transparency.org/en/gcb/asia-pacific/asiapacific-2017 Transparency International (2018), Slow, Imperfect progress across Asia Parcific Retrieved from https://www.transparency.org/en/news/slow-imperfect-progressacross-asia-pacific Treisman, D (2000), "The causes of corruption: a cross-national study", Journal of Public Economics, 76(3), 399-457 Truex, R (2011), "Corruption, attitudes, and education: Survey evidence from Nepal", World Development, 39(7), 1133–1142 TT & TI (2017), Global Corruption Barometer: Vietnam views and experiences from Vietnamese citizens Bao cao khao sat Tullock, G (1988), "Future directions for rent-seeking research", In The political economy of rent-seeking (pp 465-480), Springer, USA Uhlenbruck, K., Rodriguez, P., Doh, J., & Eden, L (2006), "The impact of corruption on entry strategy: Evidence from telecommunication projects in emerging economies", Organization science, 17(3), 402-414 UN (2004), UN ANTI-CORRUPTION TOOLKIT(2nd ed.) Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/documents/corruption/Toolkit_ed2.pdf UNDP (2019), Human development report 2019 Beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: Inequalities in human development in the 21st century Retrieved from https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf Van de Walle, S., & Migchelbrink, K (2020), "Institutional quality, corruption, and impartiality: the role of process and outcome for citizen trust in public administration in 173 European regions", Journal of Economic Policy Reform, 119 https://doi.org/10.1080/17487870.2020.1719103 Vaughan, D (1985), Controlling unlawful organizational behavior: Social structure and corporate misconduct, University of Chicago Press, USA Vaughan, D (1999), "The dark side of organizations: Mistake, misconduct, and disaster", Annual review of sociology, 25(1), 271-305 Venard, B (2009), "Organizational isomorphism and corruption: An empirical research in Russia", Journal of Business Ethics, 89(1), 59-76 126 Wang, P (2016), "Military corruption in China: the role of guanxi in the buying and selling of military positions", The China Quarterly, 228, 970-991 Weitzel, U., & Berns, S (2006), "Cross-border takeovers, corruption, and related aspects of governance", Journal of International Business Studies, 37(6), 786806 Wilmoth, J., & Koso, G (2002), "Does marital history matter? Marital status and wealth outcomes among preretirement adults", Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(1), 254–268 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00254.x World Bank (2020), Worldwide Governance Indicators https://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/Home/Reports Retrieved from WorldBank, T (2013) Tham nh ng t góc nhìn c a ng i dân, doanh nghi p cán b , công ch c, viên ch c Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/125511468329386763/pdf/738070 REVISED00000January02013000VN.pdf WB (2012), Corruption from the perspective of citizens, firms, and public officials: Results of sociological survey, National Political Publishing House The World Bank Hanoi WB (2016), Managing conflict of interest in the public sector: Law and practice in Vietnam, Hong Duc Publishing House Hanoi Wu, X (2009), "Determinants of bribery in Asian firms: Evidence from the world business environment survey", Journal of Business Ethics, 87(1), 75-88 Yang, M M.-h (2002), "The resilience of guanxi and its new deployments: A critique of some new guanxi scholarship", China Quarterly, 170, 459-476 You, J S., & Khagram, S (2005), "A comparative study of inequality and corruption", American Sociological Review, 70(1), 136-157 Yu, C., Chen, C.-M., & Lin, M.-W (2013), "Corruption perception in Taiwan: reflections upon a bottom-up citizen perspective", Journal of Contemporary China, 22(79), 56-76 Zahra, S A., Priem, R L., & Rasheed, A A (2005), "The antecedents and consequences of top management fraud", Journal of management, 31(6), 803-828 Zhan, J V (2012), "Filling the gap of formal institutions: the effects of Guanxi network on corruption in reform-era China", Crime, Law and Social Change, 58(2), 93109 Zhou, X., Han, Y., & Wang, R (2013), "An empirical investiga- tion on firms’ proactive and passive motivation for bribery in china", Journal of Business Ethics, 118(3), 461–472 https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1596-8 127 APPENDICES Appendix Pearson Correlation matrix and Variance Inflation Factors ( Asian countries data) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) High education (1) 1.000 Poor and near-poor (2) 0.050 1.000 Unemployed (3) -0.032 -0.095 1.000 Rural (4) -0.250 -0.049 -0.039 1.000 Level of corruption in the public sector (5) -0.018 -0.081 0.017 0.033 1.000 Bribe-reporting willingness (6) 0.091 -0.251 0.086 -0.192 0.036 1.000 Male (7) 0.013 0.002 -0.290 0.040 -0.009 0.016 1.000 Age (8) -0.174 0.105 -0.026 0.040 0.005 -0.111 0.006 1.000 Religions (9) -0.107 -0.066 -0.001 0.065 0.122 -0.078 -0.016 -0.067 1.000 Population (10) -0.008 0.109 -0.133 0.234 0.103 -0.344 0.054 -0.009 0.196 1.000 GDP per capital (11) 0.099 0.644 -0.077 -0.126 -0.030 -0.155 -0.022 0.250 -0.176 -0.025 1.000 Democracy index (12) 0.158 -0.106 0.148 -0.225 0.058 0.387 0.024 -0.047 -0.013 -0.121 0.158 1.000 Confucian (13) 0.015 0.522 -0.126 0.116 -0.110 -0.361 0.012 0.245 -0.419 0.282 0.559 -0.446 (13) VIF 1.14 1.96 1.16 1.19 128 1.44 1.05 1.11 1.16 1.86 1.77 3.57 2.65 1.000 5.22 .. . bribe-giving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam 82  Table Robustness check of social status and norms on bribe-giving behaviors of citizens in Vietnam 85 Table Marginal effects .. . effects of social status and norms on bribe-giving behaviors of citizens in Asian countries………………………………………………………… 87 Table Robustness check of social status and norms on bribe-giving behaviors of citizens. .. Bribery, Social Status and Social Norms 10 2.1 .1 Corruption terms 10 2.1 .2 Bribery, Bribe-Giving behaviors 14 2.1 .3 Social status/Socioeconomic status 15 2.1 .4 Social