Nguyen Van Kim*1) University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Hanoi Abstract In the course of her history, Champa established and maintained mar[.]
Article Port System in the Central Vietnam in Champa Era: A View from the Việt - Cham Relation https://doi.org/10.31720/JGA.3.1.1 Journal of Global and Area Studies 2019 Vol 3(1) 1-23 ⓒ The Author(s) 2019 Nguyen Van Kim* 1) University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Hanoi Abstract In the course of her history, Champa established and maintained maritime commercial and economic relationships with Asian nations and beyond The Cham people inherited the cultural achievements from earlier cultures and created the essential basis for the development of the Việt people when these communities arrived in and explored the Southern territory This helped them not only to maintain their traditional culture, but also to integrate into the newly created thought and spirituality The Việt government did not only operate the old Champa commercial ports but also explored new ports and took the chance for development They established more relations with Asian and European trading partners; maintained the trading routines between in South – North and West – East directions and did not only carry out the traditional trade, but also reached for the Mercantilism Those helped the Việt people to claim their role and position in the foreign relation with the area for centuries Keywords Đại Việt, Champa, maritime commerce, foreign relation, port cities * Email: nguyenvankimls@yahoo.com Port System in the Central Vietnam in Champa Era INTRODUCTION Research on Champa’s history, the ports and trade relations of the Cham people has obtained significant achievements A number of researchers have successfully reconstructed the history of Champa, the relations between Champa and Đại Việt, and the Cham arts and architecture (Bruce 2011; Lâm Thị Mỹ Dung 2007& 2017; Ngô Văn Doanh 2002, 2007, 2009& 2011; Đỗ Trường Giang 2007; Momoki –Hasuda 2007; Đinh Bá Hòa 2007; Đỗ Bang 1986; Lâm Thị Mỹ Dung - Đặng Hồng Sơn 2017) However, many issues related to diplomatic and economic relations of Champa kingdom still require further study The long historical past thickly covered by many cultural layers brought about obstacles for research Besides, forgotten, broken history and the lost memories of the Cham caused by political, social and cultural factors made difficulties for the studies of their traditional community’s sea-oriented thought, activities, skills and knowledge For decades, scholars have shared a common view that the researches on Champa must cover not only wars and political upheavals, but also the aspects of economy, society and culture Thus, we need to study about the Champa citadels, temples, architectures, arts and cultivation, irrigation system of the agricultural inhabitants (Momoki 1999) with a view to explaining the ethnical origin, relation between groups, communities, lives, matrimony, religion, traditional handicraft, internal and external economic activities as well as the larger international commercial relations of Cham people As a sea-oriented country and also a typical maritime polity in Southeast Asia, the Cham people always ascribed their history to the sea and treasured foreign diplomacy and economic relations Controlling a natural space with favorable conditions, the Cham people made use of and promoted the sources and natural advantages to develop and organize the economic, political and cultural activities along the coastal regions, particularly in the sea ports Therefore, this article is written as a part of the scientific research project titled “Preserving and promoting the historical value of Đam Săn epic” (code: QG.11.58, Vietnam National University, 2017-2019), in which I explore various historical resources and adopt a multidisciplinary approach to shed light on the process of formation, development of the port cities and suggest ideals of their genres, disposition, structures and roles in Champa era Nguyen Van Kim A LEGEND OF THE COMMUNICATION WITH THE SOUTH Legends and myths related to or about the sea are widely founded in the ancient books of the Vietnamese people, such as Lĩnh Nam chích quái, Việt điện u linh, Nam Hải dị nhân Beside the legends of Lạc Long Quân – Âu Cơ, Sơn Tinh – Thủy Tinh, Mai An Tiêm, the story of Chử Đồng Tử – Tiên Dung attracts much of researchers’ attention The legend leads us to the love of two individuals belonging two different castes who had a predestined marital union After their self-decided marriage, Tiên Dung and Đồng Tử created their business in Mạn Trù (in Red River lower delta) to trade with domestic and foreign merchants After their career gained success, the man Chử (river wharf) and princess Tiên Dung established a trading market, which then became a trading town in the region of Thát market (Hà Lương, Khoái Châu) Chử Đồng Tử and Tiên Dung took an advice of a rich merchant (who must have been a foreigner?): “Gold hidden in the garden is just the potential, gold used outside will multiply”, they spent hundreds taels of gold in long distant trade and escaped from the river estuary to reach the ocean Remarkably, they did not contend themselves business in the Northern economic centers (which were near and famous for their wealth), but arrived the Sót estuary (Hà Tĩnh) in the South to trade with Champa’s merchants (?), enabling them to connect with the markets of Southeast Asia and South West Asia (Vũ Quỳnh 1998: 59-68; Lý Tế Xuyên 2012: 107-113, 134-135; Phan Kế Bính 1988: 121-124) The journey (which might be followed by many others) gave Chử Đồng Tử - Tiên Dung great benefits from a new economic space where Northern traders may have not been regularly visisted Consequently, it was only after a short period of trading with the South that Chử Đồng Tử - Tiên Dung gained much accumulation However, Chử was enlightened when he met and followed the direction of a clergyman (whose title was “Đằng Hải” – a Taoist?) in Quỳnh Viên cave He advised Tiên Dung to give up their business and to follow the path to the enlightenment They left their carrier, the town, the market and distributed their properties to the poor For them, teligious belief, benevolence and tolerance were perhaps more important than the desire for fortune Without lust for mammon, they had the chastity to reach for heaven With admiration for their contribution, the people built the Diệu Liên temple in the Dạ Trạch swamps (Nhất Dạ Trạch) in the time of Lý dynasty (it may be earlier, in the time of Lý Nam Đế (503-548), Triệu Quang Phục (?-571) or the time of the war against the Luang in 542 and against Lin Yi in 543) There were historical facts undercovered by the legends and myths Though fictionalized, Port System in the Central Vietnam in Champa Era the legends reflect Vietnamese traditional economic activities Through the history of nation-building and self-strengthening, which arose from the river deltas (Hồng, Mã, Lam), the Vietnamese, especially the coastal communities, were very active in their foreign economic and cultural exchange As the first maritime merchants (some features in their legends were told to be Hùng Vương era), Chử Đồng Tử - Tiên Dung are worshiped by Vietnamese people in water and coastal regions They are honored as the Primitive ancestor of traders, one of Vietnamese “Four Immortals” (Trần Quốc Vượng 1996a: 26; Nguyễn Thị Nguyệt 2010) Though the time crossing and unspecifying, collective features from the legends suggest about Đại Việt – Champa economic activities in their border regions According to An Nam chí lược by Lê Tắc in 1333, “Champa is established in the coast, Chinese trading boats to foreign countries often gather here for wood and fresh water It is the largest harbor in the South” (Lê Tắc 2002: 72) During the Champa’s golden age and the Đại Cồ Việt – Đại Việt’s renaissance and uprising era, the Việt people found their strong motivation to assert their own position BASIC AND EARLY RELATIONSHIP The Historical Records of the Former Han Dynasty records the memories of position and potentials of Southern land and sea: “The land of the Việt is nearby the sea, there are abundant of rhinoceros, elephants, tortoises, jades, silver, fruits, cloths… The Chinese come to trade and often gain fortune” (Historical Records of the Former Han Dynasty, volume 8, cited by Trần Quốc Vượng 1996a: 11) Considering the area connections along the North – South axis, we may conclude that, beside the Gulf of Tonkin, the North Central ports are centers for not only the arrival but also the exchanging of commodities between economies in Northeast Asia – Southeast Asia (Wang 2008) It is asserted that, various kinds of commodities sold by Northern traders in the Southern markets came from Champa and other neighboring countries.1) 1) The Champa people were the owners of an important culture, which was also a big economic center in Southeast Asia “The Cham could exploit agar wood, cinnamon, ivory, rhino horn, dipterocarpus alatus, jades, gold… in the mountains and pepper on the hills They had two farming seasons in their fields in Minh Linh, Ô Châu narrow deltas They could plant areca, coconut, plant the mulberry and raise liters of silkworms per year They could build small and big boat… They also could made glass from sands to produce jars, bows and jewelries, called in Chinese ancient books as lapis lazuli (verulia in Sanskrit) very early (4th century, according to Bão Phác Tử) They caught fishes in rivers and sea, and they traded in the sea with Southeast Asian, Chinese and Indian…” (Trần Quốc Vượng 1996b: 431-432) From the lower deltas, the Cham people rose to control, exploit and gather Nguyen Van Kim After the recovery of the independence, Đại Việt’s commercial relationship with Champa and other nations intensified in response to the demands for extending foreign diplomacy and economic development In the Lý and Trần dynasties, coastal forces rose up (Whitmore 2006: 110) As the inheritance of those basis and relations, a port system was established covering a wide area from Lạch Trường, Lạch Bạng (Thanh Hóa), Hội Thống (Nghệ An) and Kỳ Ninh, Kỳ Anh (Hà Tĩnh) The deep and thick cultural layer with various artifacts found in Thanh – Nghệ Tĩnh region reveals the existence of great port cities where domestic and foreign traders gathered (Nguyễn Quang Ngọc 2010; Nguyễn Văn Kim 2012: 1-18; Nguyễn Văn Kim 2013: 16-25; Nguyễn Thị Phương Chi - Nguyễn Tiến Dũng 2011: 227-248) Champa kingdom did not only maintain their relationships with the Southern regions of Maritime Southeast Asia, but also tended to establish linkage with the Northern political – economic centers in East Asia After examining Chinese sources, H.Maitre states that in the year of 340, first Champa missions arrived in China, bringing big animals, like elephants as tribute Champa’s sequent tributes reveal that their rulers were able to mobilize plentiful precious natural productions to meet the demand of Northern markets.2) Though the Cham people controlled the wealthy Central coastal region, the resource still could not itself satisfy the demand of the area’s market for productions According to M.Maitre, the mountainous ethnic groups (Thượng people) had to supply most of those productions to Champa dynasties “Moreover, we are sure that the precious metals and stones were gathered to Champa kingdom; though parts of those were supplied by the Central coast, the mines in coastal regions could not produce such great amount; particularly, gold must have come from the interior, may be from Attopeu and Sé Khong In 446, when the Chinese occupied the capital, they gained 100.000 catties of gold by smelting statues” (Maitre 2008: 181) For centuries, the Cham people had exploited gold in Bồng Miêu region the productions of Tây Nguyên jungle (wood, frankincense, ivory, jade ) to export to Indian, Chinese, Persian, Arabian traders (Lâm Thị Mỹ Dung 2017: 369-373) 2) After the first mission to China in 340, Champa continued their tributes in 414 and 417 The presents in 458 contained silvered and golden jars In 472, 510, 512, 514, 526, 527, 534, 592, 623, 625, they presented precious productions In 630, Champa presented tamed elephants which were tightened by golden rope and talking parrots In 641, tributes contained 11 rhino horns; in 686, 691, 695, 699 707 the presents were raised elephants and war elephants In 711, they presented elephants In 731 the number was In 749, the gifts were 20 elephants and 30 aloe trees In 960, they presented rhino horns, ivories, and 20 Arabic jars In 962, the gifts were 1000 catties of lavender sap In 966, the gifts were raised elephants and rhinoceros In 967, 970, 971, 973, 974, 976, 977 and 979, there were new tributes In 992, the gifts were 10 rhino horns, 300 ivories, 2000 catties of ingredients, 100 catties of sandalwood In 1018, the gifts were 72 ivories, 86 rhino horns, 65 catties of nutmeg, 100 catties of aloes, and 200 catties of ingredients In 1050, the gifts were 201 ivories, 79 rhino horns (Maitre 2008: 181) Port System in the Central Vietnam in Champa Era mines, jade, gem, lavender, rhino horn, ivory, animal hide… in Trường Sơn, Tây Nguyên and neighbor countries The commodities were collected by methods: The tribute collecting, The monopolized purchasing, Ordering for productions, and Trading with the areas (Sakurai 1996: 41) From a trans-regional point of view, The archeologist-historian Trần Quốc Vượng explains the economic potential of the ancient kingdoms: “The foreign traders arrived in our country (nowadays) not only because there were important stations and sea-ports on international maritime routines, the ports (Óc Eo in the South, Đại Chiệm, Faifo, Hội An in the Central, the waterfronts of Việt, Tùng in the Northern Central, the islands of Hạ Long – Bái Tử Long in the Gulf of Tonkin) were good places for hiding from storm and collecting fresh water… but also because there were many precious productions to export, such as ivory, rhino horn, tortoise, pearl, coral, pepper, agar wood Some productions, such as cotton, silk, paper, rock sugar, glass…” (Trần Quốc Vượng 1996a: 13) All those precious productions brought great benefit and were the main commodities for commerce between Asian countries and between Eastern and Western world Formed in the relatively large space with the ecosystems of mountains and jungles, deltas and coast, historical sites of Champa culture found in the modern Central Vietnam spread from Quảng Bình (Cao Lao Hạ historical site) to Ninh Thuận, Bình Thuận, Đồng Nai Within this large circle of social and cultural contact, the traces of Cham culture were also discovered in the Highland of Gia Lai, Công Tum, Đắc Lắc, Lâm Đồng… The traces of the sea-oriented kingdom Champa were also found in many islands, archipelago and isles, of which Cù Lao Chàm (Quảng Nam) (Lâm Thị Mỹ Dung 2007: 95-96) and Cù Lao Ré (Quảng Ngãi) were the most typical Because of the natural condition, monsoon and the moving of ocean currents, both aquarium creatures and international trade routes went across or near the sea ports Therefore, Champa’s trading boats could depart from the Central sea ports to integrate the international commerce Those were natural advantages of Central seaports in comparison with the Gulf of Tonkin and the sea South West part (West Sea) In the Central, all the rivers from Lam Giang (Nghệ - Tĩnh), Lệ Thủy (Quảng Bình), Hương Giang (Huế), Vu Gia, Thu Bồn, Tam Kỳ (Quảng Nảm), Cơn river (Bình Định), Ba-Đà Rằng river (Phú Yên)… were from Trường Sơn – Tây Nguyên region, followed Northwest – Southeast direction to flow into the sea The geography was the close intersection between mountain, river and sea Therefore, in the Central there were many deep harbors and gulfs for the founding of port cities or the docking sites for boats (Borri 1998: 91) For thousands of years, the rivers provided not only water and fertile alluvial but also the water routes, paths for transportation and cultural exchange between residents Nguyen Van Kim in deltas, coasts and whom in the Mountains (Thượng) Those paths connect the spaces of Mountainous and jungle Culture with Deltaic culture and Coastal culture The Cham people utilized the river’s directions and natural advantages to facilitate their commerce and take control of the resources that they were lack of (even by using wars) Their connection and expansion was carried out by the routes of sea, river and mountains which were described in Ô châu cận lục (Dương Văn An 1997), Đại Nam thống chí (Đại Nam thống chí 1997) and the Epic of Đăm San, Đăm Di, Chi Lơ Kok of the Êđê people (Kho tàng sử thi Tây Nguyên - Sử thi Ê Đê Đăm San 2006; Sing Nhã, Đăm Di: Hai trường ca Ê Đê Gia Rai 1978) As a result, with the very active economic roles and the great capability of cultural creation, the East Sea was considered a Mini Mediterranean Sea of not only Southeast Asia, but also the Eastern World For thousands of years, the sea and rivers have been the traditional space for the existence and the connections between Asian economic regions, ecosystems, cultures and nations In genera, the mountains and rivers separate Vietnam’s geo-economic spaces in the North – South direction Port cities were formed in the connections between those rivers and coasts The Central coastal culture did not only stick with lives, customs and spirits of Sa Huỳnh – Champa coastal residents, but many features were also transferred to the highlands and mountainous regions Mountainous residents received those cultural impacts as an essential part for life and expressed their sympathetic thought of the economy and roots in the jungles of mountain and highland (Nguyễn Hữu Thông 2017: 11-29) CONNECTIONS BETWEEN PORT CITIES Based on researches in the fields of archaeology, history, anthropology, we may conclude that from the 2nd century, the Cham who inherited the cultural traditions and marine knowledge of Sa Huynh people, succeeded and promoted the maritime economic activities and relationships.3) Therefore, the economic structure of Champa was almost entirely inherited from the traditions of Sa Huỳnh culture From that traditional structure, the Cham 3) Having gained control of many potential-rich economic space, not only had the Cham exported products from mountains and deltas, from handicraft villages, but more importantly, they have learned to extract and promote sources of power to develop their economy In other words, the Cham had “built a general economic structure.” According to Professor Trần Quốc Vượng “Champa’s general economic structure originated from the old economic structure - maybe yet to be fully developed - of the Sa Huỳnh people The genius of the Sa Huynh and Cham people was in their creation of the general economy and culture, behind that is the geographic, cultural and histocial premise of Central region, from mountains, rivers, plains to the sea” (Trần Quốc Vượng 1996b: 458) 8 Port System in the Central Vietnam in Champa Era created the ancient and medieval culture and economy in Central Vietnam (Trần Quốc Vượng 1996b: 458) Since then the domestic economic activities of Champa was connected to other larger markets of Northeast Asia and Southwest Asia Therefore, along the coast of Central Vietnam, many settlements of the people who spoke the language of Malayo-Polynesian group were established Their economic activities included fishing and cultivating yam/tuberous crops on the dunes along the same culture route from Bàu Tró (Quảng Bình) to Sa Huỳnh (Quảng Ngãi) Axes and raw potteries were found on the dunes of Trà Lộc, Cổ Trai, Phước Mỹ, Do Mỹ, etc All of these relics were made by the pre-Cham people (Protomalais, Proto Cham) (Trần Quốc Vượng 1996b: 434) Demands for economic development and cultureal exchange promoted the establishment of trading ports along the coastline of Central Vietnam They were trading ports in the downstream of rivers such as: 1/Downstream ports: Trà Kiệu; 2/Estuary ports: Cửa Tùng, Cửa Việt, Mỹ Thủy; Đại Chiêm, Thị Nại, Sa Huỳnh, Nha Trang, Phan Rang, Phan Thiết, etc.; 3/Isle ports: Chiêm Bất Lao (Cù Lao Chàm), Cù Lao Ré, etc In 1994, after investigating the area of Mai Xá – Cửa Việt sea ports, experts found relics of an ancient port in an open area and artifacts of various building materials, such as brick, porcelain and pottery orginated from Champa and China, which dated from the 7th to 11th century On the activities of Mai Xá port and some other trading ports in Central Vietnam, researchers concluded: “Thanks to the continuous exchange with the China world through the port system from Cửa Tùng to Mai Xá and Hội An, etc., the Cham imported porcelain goods from Chinese (Guangdong) uninterruptedly from 1st century to 11th century” (Hà Văn Tấn 2002: 346) In these ports, the Cham carried out various economic activities (trading goods, supplying water, etc.) and combined them with the cultural and religious exchange These extraneous factors did not only bring back the power for the development of the ancient kingdoms, but also created the motivation for culture exchanging between Champa and other kingdoms in the region The participation of monks from Linyi kingdom and their performance of Linyi music in Japan for the inauguration of Todaiji pagoda (572) in Nara capital prove the development and the great range in exchanging between regions and inter-regions of ancient kingdom.4) Through centuries, the Cham was able to integrate the exploitation of the rivers (Freshwater ecosystem) with marsh (Brackish water ecosystem) and sea (Seawater ecosystem) Economic activities of the Cham have always been the combination of 4) Speech by Japanese Prime Minister R Hashimoto during his visit to Vietnam on January 11-12, 1997 (Journal of Japan Studies, No 1, 1997, p.4; Nguyễn Quốc Hùng (ed.) - Đặng Xuân Kháng - Nguyễn Văn Kim - Phan Hải Linh 2006: 376) Nguyen Van Kim exploiting natural resources and trading in the region and neighbor areas, trading in the highlands and the water areas Along with Mai Xá and Cửa Tùng, in Trà Kiệu, Chiêm Cảng (Hội An), Cù Lao Chàm, Tràng Sỏi, etc., Vietnamese, Japanese and international researchers found relics of celadon pottery of Việt Châu (Zhejiang), pottery of Changsa (Trường Sa), white porcelain of Lò Định (Hebei, China), blue glazed pottery and glass of Islam from Western Asia The porcelain and glass goods dating back to around 9th – 10th century are precious relics that mark the international role of Cham ports in Asian trading system In history, the Cham also exported incense, rare wood and spices to the international markets and these goods were always considered valuable and favored goods in West Asia and Orient (Hà Văn Tấn 2002: 344) Archaeological researches also show that in Ninh Thuận, center of the ancient Panduranga kingdom, there remains the relics of an old citadel built near the Krong-La river bank, in the area of Phước Hải commune, An Phước district today In 1994, researchers investigated along the coastline from Ma Văn influx to Hòn Đỏ and found many Long Tuyền porcelain dated around the 13th – 14th century Ma Văn influx connected to Đầm Nại marsh, so ships sailing to Đầm Nại for trading and taking fresh water were convenient From Đầm Nại, moving along Kiền river, we can see the famous Hòa Lai towers In conclusion, “Along the coastline of Central Vietnam, the Cham created a trading port system for trading with other kingdoms These ports played the vital role in the forming of “Silk Road on the Sea” around the 9th – 10th century and being prosperous in later centuries” (Ngô Văn Doanh 2007: 77-78) Evidently, when studying the formation of trading ports in Central Vietnam under the Champa era, we need to put it in relations with the formation of ancient kingdoms’ political centers In recent years, many Vietnamese and international scholars began to consider Champa as a union of smaller polities, or mandala using O.W.Wolters suggested model (Wolters 1982; Wolters 1967: 247) Following this view, even during its prime, Champa is not a “unified” or “highly centralized” polity but a complex of many “small kingdoms” with one or more than one kingdom that functioned as center of establishment, in the “interconnected centralized polity” model (Nguyễn Văn Kim 2011a: 353) Researchers have long acknowledged such centers like Amaravati (Quảng Nam), Simhapura (Trà Kiệu), Indrapura (Đồng Dương), Vijaya (Bình Định), Kauthara (Nha Trang), Panduranga (Phan Rang) It should be noticed that, these kingdoms and small kingdoms each and all attach to rivers and the sea as its source of civilization – creation, religions and beliefs, and development On the structural model of Cham ports, renowned scholar Trần Quốc Vượng – drawn 10 Port System in the Central Vietnam in Champa Era from his deep knowledge and understanding of Champa monuments – established a model that includes a divine existence of three main entities They include an interconnectedness of spaces: The Santuary (Religious) – The Citadel (Political) – The City-Port (Economic) All three spaces are located orderly along a river (sacred river) flowing in a Northwest – Southeast axis within every mandala From the North to the South, we can geographically locate the rivers as follows: Rịn river, Gianh river (North Quảng Bình), Kiến Giang river (South Quảng Bình), Minh Linh river (Bến Hải, North Quảng Trị), Hiếu - Thạch Hãn rivers (South Quảng Trị), Bồ river, Hương river (Thừa Thiên Huế), Thu Bồn river (Quảng Nam), Cơn river (Bình Định) (Trần Quốc Vượng 1995: 341-348; Trần Quốc Vượng 1998), Ba Đà Rằng rivers (Phú Yên) Bennet Bronson while studying on Champa kingdom’s trading port complex also established a model of “riverine exchange network” to explain the dynamic of economic exchange activities in Champa’s “maritime kingdoms” or “maritime polities” (Bronson 1977: 42, Tran Ky Phuong 2008: 4-9) for several centuries Under the perspective from the sea, we could also see that Cham trading ports usually maintained the existence of river mouth, Lagoon (also known as: Đầm Nại, Thị Nại, Bì Nạ i…) where ships could be harbored for safety against stormy weather and goods exchange These are followed by Cham towers, Cham citadels; and the highest and furthest upstream are religious sanctuaries These structures can be seen in Mai Xá port: Tùng river mouth - Bàu Đông - An Xá tower - Quảng Trị town center; Chiêm Port: Đại river mouth - Đầm Nại - Trà Kiệu citadel - Mỹ Sơn monastery; Cách Thử port: Đề Ghi river mouth - Đầm Nại - Bình Lâm tower - An Thành; Hịn Đỏ port: Ma Văn River mouth- Đầm Nại - Tower - Chung Mỹ citadel (?) As a matter of fact, when studying Cham ruins, it is noticed that Cham towers all have the front turned to the Eastern direction, or to direction of the great Sea That is the direction to the realms of gods including the god of the sea When putting Champa’s political core in North-South perspective, almost all Cham citadels are located to the south of the rivers Their locations suggest explanations of Cham people’s adaptation to natural condition or their religious belief, but also pressures from Việt people’s “Southward expansion” (Trần Quốc Vượng 2005: 184) Studying the linkages between natural, social, and cultural helps us to understand the natural, reciprocal, and underlying motivation of development of the owners of an age of culture Chinese historical sources, such as the New Book of Tang, Records of Geography… have mentioned the roles of Central Vietnam trading ports, showing evidence that since the 7th – 10th century, locations, such as Chiêm Bất Lao (Cù Lao Chàm island - Cửa Đại - Cửa Hàn), Lăng Sơn, Môn Dộc (Quy Nhơn), Cổ Đát kingdom, or Kauthara (Nha Trang, Khánh Hịa), Bơ-đà-lãng-châu (Panduranga - Phan Rang, Phan Thiết) were regularly visited by Nguyen Van Kim 11 ships from China, Persia, Arab, Srivijaya (Java) on the maritime route from Guangzhou (China) to Baghdad (Arab) (Trần Quốc Vượng 1996a: 14) Different from Southeast Asian kingdoms, where “Agricultural polities” is the dominant universal model, Champa with its maritime trade activities changed its own courses to the form of “port nation” or “trading nation” (Momoki 1999: 43-48; Phạm Văn Thủy 2007: 129) These countries reined on the sea and understood the value of maritime resources and trading routes They coordinated and controlled a vast maritime area on the East Sea, which was usually referred to as “Champa Sea” in ancient maritime map In their economic activities, Cham people took part in the trade of many different goods (Đỗ Trường Giang 2011: 285-314) These trading goods were important not only to the domestic market but also to the establishing, and strengthing of Champa’s relations with other regional kingdoms like China, Đại Việt, Chenla (Angkor), Srivijaya, Majapahit During its zenith, commercial activities contributed to create a Central region’s Champa port culture in West Pacific maritime history Together with traders from China, Southeast Asia, India, Arab, Cham traders contributed to trading port network to establish the famous “Silk Route”, “Ceramic Route”, “Spice Route”, “Tea Route”, and “Salt Route” passing through many Asian countries Located in the middle of economic, cultural, materials and goods circle of exchange, Cham people also imported new crops, such as potato, sugar cane, cotton… From its abundant resources, Cham inhabitants (later inherited by Viet people) have created many unique products much favored by many large Asian markets Champa market’s lively and attractive nature not only stem from its Mother Nature’s resources, or from mountain-river and sea exchange, but also from the crafting abilities, creative power of talented artisans of multiple ethnicities (Đinh Bá Hòa 2008; Nguyễn Phước Bảo Đàn - Trần Thanh Hoàng 2017: 252-275; Nguyễn Phước Bảo Đàn 2009: 151-218) ĐẠI VIỆT’S ROLE AND IMPACT From an area-study perspective, the establishment and prosperity of new kingdoms in Southeast Asia such as Ayutthaya (Siam, 1351) and Malacca in the region of the Straits of Malacca in the 14th -15th centuries created new motivation for the development of Asian maritime commerce All of these kingdoms managed to establish close relationships with Chinese market As the result, the political and economic competition between Southeast Asian nations was unavoidable In such circumstance, Đại Việt continued their role as the frequent destination for diplomatic missions from other nations On the other hands, ports 12 Port System in the Central Vietnam in Champa Era of Đại Việt, especially ones in Vân Đồn and Nghệ - Tĩnh region (with the support from Southwest border region trade road) became important points in the Southeast Asian littoral zone routines and East Sea commercial system Research of Southeast Asian 10th – 15th maritime commerce reveals that Đại Việt merchants step by step became the main trading partners in the area Some of Đại Việt port cities, such as Vân Đồn, Lạch Trường, Hội Thốn, Kỳ Anh… also were gates for the exchanging with Southeast Asian nations Development of maritime commerce impacted Champa economic activities (Hall 1985: 184).5) While keeping strengthening their position in international commerce, in their policy of nation defense and Southern expansion, Thăng Long government always concerned of the impact and role of Champa ports According to Toàn thư records in 1303, under the reign of Trần Anh Tông (reign: 1293 – 1314), the Deputy Prime Minister Đoàn Nhữ Hài was sent to Champa as ambassador, and he also showed his care of the activities in Tỳ Ni (Thi Nại) The Trần rulers always understood the role of Thi Nại in the rise and fall of Vijaya kingdom; as well as Champa ports’ (of which the center was Thi Nại) competition between with Vân Đồn and ports of Thanh – Nghệ Tĩnh region In diplomacy, the Lý and Trần dynasties both managed to maintain and stabilize their relations with the North and received ambassadors from neighbor countries There were 45 tributary missions from Champa, 24 from Chenla and other countries, such as Laos, Ngưu Hống, Xích Mã Tích6)… The missions from Southeast Asian countries often emphasized the “submission” to Đại Việt From the area perspective, Đại Việt predicated their owned position as a “Sub-region empire” (Nguyễn Văn Kim 2010: 75-106) The Gulf of Tonkin was the central connection between Northeast and Southeast Asia During the Lý – Trần dynasty, Vân Đồn commercial port could gather domestic and foreign vitality to become Đại Việt important gate to reach East Sea Nevertheless, because of the natural conditional changes and Champa usual invasions and 5) When he arrived in Champa, Đoàn Nhữ Hải propagated the Royal proclamation and ordered to “issue the restraining in Tỳ Ni (port of Champa, where the trading boats gathered) After the propagation, he called the port chief guardian and said: “This place is not only complicated with the gathering of selling and buying, but also very important, vulnerable After we leave, you have to keep the propagation safe” (Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư 1993, Volume 2: 87) 6) According to Việt sử lược, there were in total 45 Champa missions to Đại Việt, while no Đại Việt mission was sent to Champa According to Toàn thư, 45 events were related to Đại Việt – Champa relation, in which missions (14.6%) were from Đại Việt to Champa Not only the ambassador, had the Trần grand emperor also visited Champa 35 missions (85.4%) were sent from Champa to Đại Việt During the Lý dynasty, Đại Việt sent missions, and Champa sent 18 missions (90%) In the Trần dynasty, Champa sent 17 missions (80.9%), while Đại Việt missions to Champa were many more than in the time of Lý (19.1%), it was 66.7% of all Đại Việt missions to Champ during Lý – Trần (Việt sử lược 2005) Nguyen Van Kim 13 attacks, Đại Việt foreign economy tended to move from Thanh – Nghệ Tĩnh region to the North Eastern coast and sea (Momoki 2004: 309-330) Besides, the flourishing of Red river delta economic center (which was controlled by Thăng Long), also attracted international trading boats to the Gulf of Tonkin Many Asian trading boats gathered in the North Eastern coast and sea and Red river port system instead of the Central coast In such circumstance, Vân Đồn was continuously supplied with vitality from the national important economic centers (Nguyễn Văn Kim 2011b: 75-106) After the events of 1306 and 1471, particularly when Lê Thánh Tông (reign: 1460 – 1497) allowed the army to attack Vijaya capital of Champa, Đại Việt foreign policy caused neighbor countries’ different thought and behaviors.7) However, according to the records of the Lê, this event showed the prestigious fame of the dynasty and “shocked everywhere”, so that many neighbours rushed to form and strengthen their relation with Đại Việt (Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư 1993, Vol 2: 451) Since then, the Thăng Long government step by step controlled a large coastal line with many Champa famous commercial ports from the North to the South In the very new circumstance, the Early Lê (1428 – 1527) government could not only create the deeply strategic defense against the danger from the North and pacify the South, but also exploit the new land with new natural and social resources As the history altered, until the middle of 16th century, Dương Văn An recorded in his composition Ô châu cận lục: “The prefectures of Ô, Lý adjoin the wealthy South with various, plentiful, countless productions Strangest among the strange things, watered frankincense is the best on the earth, the pepper is the only one in the under Heaven” and “They farm and raise silkworms in the delta, they produce salt and fish sauce in the coast Forest productions are plentiful; foods are most delicious Specialties is everywhere, villages are crowded Lakes and rivers are full of water; boating is more convenient than going over land The soil is so fertile, farming need not much labor” (Dương Văn An 1997: 133 & 44-45) The Lê dynasty started to control the Thi Nại commercial port – the central port of Vijaya By this time, according to Nguyễn Trãi’s record in Dư địa chí, the Thị Bi port had been connected to Chenla, Java, and various other countries beyond the sea.8) In general, Đại Việt step by step claimed the ownership and replaced Champa role in East Asian commercial activities from the late of 15th century However, in their economic activities, 7) From 1471, many Southeast Asian countries, including Siam and Malacca, sent mission to the North, asking for their reaction and the preventing of Đại Việt’s impacts (Minh sử and Minh thực lục 2010) 8) Nguyễn Trãi wrote in Dư địa chí: “Champa, Siam, Chenla have velvet clothes Their tributes contain tortoises, white elephants, flowers, nine inch ants” (Nguyễn Trãi toàn tập tân biên 2001: 476) 14 Port System in the Central Vietnam in Champa Era the Việt people still had to depend on the Cham’s knowledge, experience on trading and maritime travelling, and their traditional sources and relationships The Việt - Cham economic, cultural exchanging progress also promoted the social, cultural integration among Central ethnic groups.9) Owing to the new political situation, Southeast Asian missions and traders kept gathering in Đại Việt commercial ports, especially in Vân Đồn port The chapter about An Nam mountains and rivers of Đại Minh thống chí (volume 90) also describes Vân Đồn mountain that “many trading boats from lands of the barbarians arrive in Vân Đồn” (Yamamoto 1981: 9) During the Lý - Trần dynasties, Thăng Long government formed a national foreign economic quadrangle, including: 1/Vân Đồn commercial port in the North East; 2/The markets in the Northern border, 3/Some commercial gates in the South West (Thanh – Nghệ Tĩnh); and 4/The ports along the Central coast with Lạch Trường, Hội Thống, Kỳ Ninh, Kỳ Anh… The economic quadrangle was operated under the control of Thăng Long Until the Early Lê, the Southwestern and Southeastern commercial gates, which were also the foreign economic centers, step by step were expanded to the South These centers adjusted quickly to the Southeast Asian and South West Asian traditional economic and political circumstance Therefore, instead of considering Champa history as an incessancy of wars and competitions for the throne, the new approach and perspective proves other relations between Champa and neighbor countries, such as Đại Việt, Angkor, and the Malay world (Lafont 1994: 65-75) French scholar P.B.Lafont claims that, queen Tapasi, a wife of Champa king Jaya Sinhavarman IV, was Javanese, and there was long relation between Champa and Java The relation was of course not only matrimony and maritime commerce but also cultural exchange (Lafont 1994: 72; Inrasara 2008; Nguyễn Tiến Dũng 2011: 264-284) The relations lasted through the history and became more solid since 1471 Due to the political change, many Cham groups had to leave their homeland to migrate to Malay Peninsula and the Southeast Asian Archipelago The Malayan and Dutch resources point out many evidences about the appearance of Cham community courts and territories of Malayan sultans Similarly, they integrated into the Khmer and Thai’s society and polity then, too (Phoen 1994: 76-86; Weber 2011: 739-772; Truong Van Mon 2008; Liu Zhiqiang 2013) 9) Dương Văn An also wrote: “The La Giang people speak the Cham language, the Thủy girls wear Cham clothes”, “The women wear Cham dresses, the men use the Northern fans” These are the features of the 15th-16th century Central society and culture (Dương Văn An 1997: 46-49; Lê Đình Phụng - Nguyễn Xuân Hoa 2007) Nguyen Van Kim 15 CONCLUSION Basing on various kinds of historical resources exploiting and archaeological discoveries in previous decades, scholars have published some specialized researches on Champa’s maritime commerce and their economic relation with Asian nations and further oceanic areas Besides, the continent – ocean connection and the political – economic interaction along the East – West direction are step by step clarified In order to build their polity, to develop the economy and culture, the Cham people inherited the Sa Huỳnh cultural, economic achievements and continued to create the essential basis for the development of the Việt people when these communities (mostly from the Thanh – Nghệ Tĩnh region) answered the calling of Nguyễn Hoàng, arrived in and explored the Southern territory From the Thuận Châu and Hóa Châu regions, the Việt people did not only maintain their traditional culture, but also integrated into the newly created thought and spirituality The Việt people inherited knowledge of the ocean, studied the monsoon, sea currents, the customs of coastal residents, learnt the techniques of ship building, sea navigation, fisheries, aquaculture from the Cham The Cochinchinese government did not only operate the old Champa commercial ports but also explored new ports and took the chance for the development during the World maritime commercial era They established more relations with Asian and European trading partners; maintain the trading routines between in South – North and West – East directions As the result, the material and commodity resources from other countries could be fully exploited They did not only carry out the traditional trade, but also reached for the Mercantilism, with new thought and policy of management promulgated (Dương Văn Huy 2011: 367-384; Vũ Thị Xuyến 2015: 495-525) From the littoral trade routes, they reached the ocean to exploit the oceanic benefit, to draw maps, erecting the marker posts, asserting the sovereignty over the Paracels and Spratly islands in the East Sea and West Sea (Nguyễn Quang Ngọc 2017; Đỗ Bang 2017; Đà Năng Institute of Economic Development Studies 2016) Among port system of Champa, Đại Chiêm ports, Chiêm Bất Lao (Cù Lao Chàm) and Thị Nại port (Vijaya) rose up as the central ports of the kingdoms (Đỗ Trường Giang 2011: 285-314) In other words, each Champa kingdom took ownership and controlled one or more rivers and estuaries Roles and activities of the river and sea ports always depended on the kingdom’s political power and economic potential Commercial ports in capital regions were usually the main ports, where the Champa traders, residents and local merchants (whose origins were Cham or not) foreign merchants (such as the Muslim) gathered They traded 16 Port System in the Central Vietnam in Champa Era precious and high valued goods The Champa economic activities had closed linkage with the religious forces, mandarins, aristocrats and royal families Such economic activities, including foreign economy, formed the four bases for the structure of powers: Economy – Polity – Religion – Culture Such structure was the basis for the development of the kingdoms They always altered and often suffered influence from the area’s social, political environment Research on commercial ports in the Champa era, typically the Cham port of Hội An and Thị Nại (Nước Mặn) helps to elucidate a cultural layer system covered under the ground The system was structured by multi layers; the inheritances of eras formed the great stature of the international commercial ports There are the appearances of Sa Huỳnh cultural layer, Champa cultural layer; in between is the layer with the harmonization of late Sa Huỳnh and early Champa; the latest one is Cham – India – Viet – China – Western Europe layer, which was formed from the late half of 16th century, when Nguyễn lords explored the Thuận Quảng land (Trần Quốc Vượng 1990: 58-59) The boundary expending career which was full of great tribulations, challenges and was attached with the Nguyễn lords’ sea-oriented mind and determination, founded “A culture of the Central commercial ports” lasted from the ancient to the modern period (Trần Quốc Vượng 2005: 183) Choosing maritime economy as the principal, Đàng Trong government inherited the Cham sea-oriented knowledge, and transferred the activities of the old Cham ports, such as Chiêm Cảng, Thị Nại to the Việt port, such as Thanh Hà, Hội An, Nước Mặn The Nguyễn lords regarded the foreign economy as the core of their policies, so that they could claimed the solid position of their regime for two centuries (Li Tana, 1999; Đỗ Bang 1996) During their development, in order to both collect the productions of various sources from the sea, the jungle, the mountain and to expand their influence, Champa kingdoms created the connections with communities in the regions of Trường Sơn – Tây Nguyên, Mekong delta and Red river delta The harmonization between Champa and Đại Việt was strongest under the Lý – Trần era, and then under the Early Lê (Nguyễn Quang Ngọc 2010: 443-445) Champa culture left the very solid impression in art, architecture, music, cerebration and life style with full of exclusive and creativeness everywhere in the spaces they spred to (Đinh Đức Tiến 2015) In addition, from a “continental” approach and perspective, and thinking of the present environment changes, we also can define the need of further researches on the Cham’s capability of adaptation and their behaviours to the natural environment, including the spaces of the mountains, the forests, the deltas, the rivers and the sea The Cham chose the sea-oriented economy as the principle among their general economy development So how Nguyen Van Kim 17 can we accomplish the “Vietnamese sea strategy (2007-2020)” to archive the fast and sustainable development? 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Hành trình 10 năm tiếp cận [A 10 Year - Study of Central Vietnam], Thuận Hóa publisher, Huế, pp.151-218 Nguyễn Quang Ngọc, 2010, Vương triều Lý (1009-1226)[The Lý dynasty (1009-1226)], Hà Nội publisher Nguyễn Quang Ngọc, 2017, Chủ quyền Việt Nam Hoàng Sa, Trường Sa - Tư liệu thật lịch sử [Vietnam’s sovereignty of Paracels and Spratly, Sources and Reality], Vietnam National University publisher, Hanoi Nguyễn Quốc Hùng (ed.) - Đặng Xuân Kháng - Nguyễn Văn Kim - Phan Hải Linh, 2006 Lịch sử Nhật Bản [A history of Japan], Thế giới Publiser, Hanoi Nguyễn Thị Nguyệt, 2010, Khảo sát số kiểu truyện tiêu biểu nhân vật “Tứ bất tử” truyện kể dân gian Việt Nam [Exvacation on ], Vietnam National University publisher, Hanoi Nguyễn Thị Phương Chi - Nguyễn Tiến Dũng, 2011, ‘Về mối giao thương quốc gia Đại Việt thời đại Lý, Trần’ [Đại Việt’s commercial relationship in the Lý, Trần era], In: Nguyễn Văn Kim: Người Việt với biển [Vietnamese and the sea], Thế giới publisher, Hanoi, pp.227-248 Nguyễn Tiến Dũng, 2011, ‘Quan hệ thương mại Đại Việt Java kỷ XI-XV’ [Commercial relationship between Đại Việt and Java from 11th to 15th century], in: Nguyễn Văn Kim: Người Việt với biển [Vietnamese and the sea], Thế giới publisher, Hanoi, pp.264-284 Nguyễn Trãi toàn tập tân biên [The new edition of Nguyễn Trãi compositions], Dư địa chí, 2, Văn học publisher Hanoi, 2001, p.476 Nguyễn Văn Kim, 2010, ‘Văn minh đế chế - Nhìn lại đường phát triển quốc gia Đông Á’ [Civilizations and Empires – A review on East Asian nations’ development], Journal of History Studies (406), 3-19 Nguyễn Văn Kim, 2011, ‘Vị đối ngoại Thăng Long - Đại Việt với quốc gia Đông Nam Á thời Lý - Trần’ [Thăng Long – Đại Việt’s position in the foreign relation with Southeast Asian countries in the time of Lý-Trần], in: Việt Nam Thế giới Đông Á - Một cách tiếp cận Liên ngành Khu vực học [Vietnam in East Asian world – From the approach of Interdisciplinary and Area studies], Chính trị Quốc gia publisher, Hanoi, pp.75-106 Nguyễn Văn Kim, 2011a, ‘Dấu ấn cổ sơ xã hội Đông Nam Á’ [The impression of Southeast Asian ancient societies], in: Việt Nam Thế giới Đông Á - Một cách tiếp cận Liên ngành Khu vực học [Vietnam in East Asian World – From the Approach of Interdisciplinary and Area studies], Chính trị Quốc gia publisher, Nguyen Van Kim 21 Hanoi Nguyễn Văn Kim, 2012-2013, ‘Các thương cảng vùng Nghệ - Tĩnh giao thương khu vực kỷ XI-XIV’ [The port cities in Nghệ - Tĩnh and the area commercial relationship in 11th – 14th century], Journal of History Studites 12(440), 1-18; 1(441), 2013, 16-25 Phạm Văn Thủy, 2007, ‘Quan hệ Malacca với quốc gia Đông Nam Á giai đoạn 1400-1511’ [The relations between Malacca and Southeast Asia, from 1400 to 1511], in: Vũ Dương Ninh (Eds.): Đông Nam Á - Truyền thống hội nhập [Southeast Asia – Tradition and Integration], Thế giới publisher, Hanoi Phan Kế Bính, 1988, Nam hải dị nhân [Extraordinary men in Southern Sea], Trẻ publisher, Ho Chi Minh city Phoen, Mak, 1994, The Cham Community in Cambodia from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century, in Proceedings of the Seminar on Champa, pp.76-86 Quốc sử quán triều Nguyễn, 1997, Đại Nam thống chí [Geography of Unified Đại Nam], 5, Thuận Hóa publisher, 1997 Sakurai Yumio, 1996, ‘Thử phác dựng cấu trúc lịch sử khu vực Đông Nam Á (Thông qua mối quan hệ biển với lục địa)’ [Drafting Historical Structure of Southeast Asia Based on the Connection between the Sea and Land], (translated by Vũ Minh Giang), Journal of Southeast Asia Studies Shiro, Momoki – Takashi, Hasuda, 2007 ‘Vietnam in the Early Modern East and Southeast Asia’, In VNU-University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Việt Nam hệ thống thương mại châu Á kỷ XVI-XVII [Vietnam in the 16th-17th Asian commercial system], Thế giới publisher, Hanoi Shiro, Momoki, 1999, ‘A Short introduction to Champa studies’, In F.Hayao (Ed.), The dry Area in SEA: Harsh or benign environment?, Kyoto University Center for SEA Studies, Kyoto, pp.65-74 Y Điêng, Y Ông, Kow So Bơ Lêu, Y Yung, Y Đứp, Ngọc Anh, 1978, Xing Nhã, Đăm Di: Hai trường ca Ê Đê Gia Rai, [Xing Nhã, Đăm Di: Two epics of Ê Đê and Gia Rai], Văn hóa Dân tộc publisher, Hanoi Tran Ky Phuong, 2008, ‘Interactions between uplands and lowlands through the “Riverine Exchange network: An Exploration of the Historical cultural landscape of Central Vietnam’, in Biblioasia 4(3), 4-9 Trần Quốc Vượng 1998, Việt Nam, Cái nhìn địa – văn hóa [Vietnam, A Geo - cultural View], National Culture Publishers, Hanoi Trần Quốc Vượng, 1990, Vị địa - lịch sử sắc địa - văn hóa Hội An [The geo-historical position and geo-cultural character of Hội An], in: Đô thị cổ Hội An [The Ancient Hội An urban], Khoa học Xã hội publisher, Hanoi 22 Port System in the Central Vietnam in Champa Era Trần Quốc Vượng, 1995, ‘Miền Trung Việt Nam văn hóa Chămpa’ [The Central Vietnam and Champa culture], Journal of Southeas Asia Studies (21), 341-348 Trần Quốc Vượng, 1996a, ‘Mấy nét khái quát lịch sử cổ xưa nhìn biển Việt Nam’ [Some general points in the traditional history of Vienamese sea-oriented view], in: Biển với người Việt cổ [The sea and traditional Vienamese], Văn hóa Thơng tin publisher, Hanoi Trần Quốc Vượng, 1996b, ‘Vài suy nghĩ văn hóa Quảng Trị cổ’ [Some thought on the ancient culture of Quảng Trị], in: Theo dòng lịch sử - Những vùng đất, thần tâm thức người Việt [Following the history –Lands, gods and spirit of the Vietnamese], Văn hóa publuisher, Hanoi Trần Quốc Vượng, 2005, ‘Di tích mơi trường’ [Relics and environment], in: Mơi trường, Con người & Văn hóa [Environment, People and Culture], Văn hóa - 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trade, state and culture in early Đại Việt’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 37 (1), 103-122 Wolters, O.W., 1967, Early Indonesian Commerce - A study of the origins of Srivijaya, Ithaca, Cornell University Press p.247 Nguyen Van Kim 23 Wolters, O.W., 1982, History, Culture and Religion in Southeast Asia Pespectives, Institute of Southeast Asia Studies, Singapore Yamamoto Tatsuro, 1981, ‘Vân-Đồn - A Trade Port in Vietnam’, Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko 39, Tokyo Li Tana, 1999, Xứ Đàng Trong: Lịch sử kinh tế - xã hội Việt Nam kỷ XVII XVIII [Nguyễn Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the 17th and 18th centuries], Trẻ publisher,Hồ Chí Minh city Đỗ Bang, 1996, Phố cảng vùng Thuận Quảng kỷ XVII-XVIII [The urban area of Thuận Quảng in the 17th – 18th centuries], Thuận Hóa publisher, Hanoi Đinh Đức Tiến, 2015, Quan hệ Đại Việt - Champa kỷ X-XV châu thổ Bắc Bộ [The Đại Việt – Champa interactions in the Tonkin Delta in the 10th -15th century], PhD disertation, VNU University of Social Sciences and Humanities Nguyễn Quang Ngọc, 2010, Vương triều Lý (1009-1226) [The Lý dynasty (1009-1226)], Hà Nội publisher, Hanoi Received on March 28, 2019 Revised on May 21, 2019 Accepted on May 22, 2019