Vai trò của WTO trong duy trì hòa bình quốc tế

ABSTRACT (ROLE OF UN IN MAINTENANCE OF INTERNATIONAL PEACE & SECURITY) The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its missions There are currently 193 member states, including every internationally recognised sovereign state in the world but the Vatican City From its offices around the world, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year The organization has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (for assisting in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (which is currently inactive) Other prominent UN System agencies include the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) One of the primary purposes of the United Nations is the maintenance of international peace and security Since its creation, the UN has often been called upon to prevent disputes from escalating into war, to persuade opposing parties to use the conference table rather than force of arms, or to help restore peace when armed conflict does break out Over the decades, the UN has helped to end numerous conflicts, often through actions of the Security Council — the primary organ for dealing with issues of international peace and security The Security Council, the General Assembly and the Secretary-General all play major, complementary roles in fostering peace and security United Nations activities cover the principal areas of conflict prevention, peacemaking, peacekeeping, enforcement and peace building Submitted by: Abhishek Agrawal 3rd yr (Vth SEM), Student of Hidayatullah National Law University, RAIPUR (CHHATTISGARH)-492001 (M):- +91-94252-76131 MEANING & NEED FOR PEACEKEEPING: General Indar Jit Rktye,1 the former President of the International Peace Academy who has participated in several peacekeeping missions, defines peace keeping as being "The prevention, limitation, moderation and cessation of hostilities between or within States due to the intervention of a third party, which is organized and directed at the international level and which calls upon military, police and civilian personnel to restore peace." The United Nations (UN) was established on 24 October 1945 in the aftermath of two World Wars and was dedicated, in the enduring words of the UN Charter, to saving “succeeding generations from the scourge of war.” Since its creation, the UN has been called upon to prevent disputes from escalating into war, to persuade opposing parties to use the conference table rather than the force of arms and to help restore peace when conflict breaks out Over the decades, the UN has helped to contain or end numerous conflicts, in many cases through the deployment of peacekeeping operations HISTORY OF UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING United Nations peacekeeping was initially developed during the Cold War as a means of resolving conflicts between states by deploying unarmed or lightly armed military personnel from a number of countries, under UN command, to areas where warring parties were in need of a neutral party to observe the peace process Peacekeepers could be called in when the major international powers (the five permanent members of the Security Council) tasked the UN with bringing closure to conflicts threatening regional stability and international peace and security These included a number of so-called proxy wars waged by client states of the superpowers As of October 2004, there have been 59 UN peacekeeping operations since 1948, with sixteen operations ongoing Suggestions for new missions arise every year The first peacekeeping mission was launched in 1948 This mission, the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), was sent to the newly created State of Israel, where a conflict between the Israelis and the Arab states over the creation of Israel had just reached a ceasefire The UNTSO remains in operation to this day, although the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict has certainly not abated Almost a year later, the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) was authorized to monitor relations between the two nations, which were split off from each other following the United Kingdom's decolonization of the Indian Subcontinent In 1988 the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the United Nations peacekeeping forces The press release stated that the forces "represent the manifest will of the community of nations" and have "made a decisive contribution" to the resolution of conflict around the world th http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/28/world/americas/28iht-obits.3.5899403.html, last accessed on 18 October’2011 th http://www.shareyouressays.com/376/essay-on-the-united-nations-and-peacekeeping, last accessed on 18 October’2011 Since 1991 The end of the Cold War precipitated a dramatic shift in UN and multilateral peacekeeping In a new spirit of cooperation, the Security Council established larger and more complex UN peacekeeping missions, often to help implement comprehensive peace agreements between protagonists in intra-State conflicts and civil wars Furthermore, peacekeeping came to involve more and more non-military elements that ensured the proper functioning of civic functions, such as elections The UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations was created in 1992 to support this increased demand for such missions THE UN SYSTEM The UN system is founded in constitutional terms upon a relatively clear theoretical distinction between the functions of the principal organs of the organisation However, due to political conditions in the international order, the system failed to operate as outlined in the Charter and adjustments had to be made as opportunities presented themselves The Security Council was intended to function as the executive of the UN, with The General Assembly as the parliamentary forum Both organs could contribute to the peaceful settlement of disputes through relatively traditional mechanisms of discussion, good offices and mediation Only the Security Council could adopt binding decisions and those through the means of Chapter VII, while acting to restore international peace and security But the pattern of development has proved rather less conducive to clear categorisation An influential attempt to detail the methods and mechanisms available to the UN in seeking to resolve disputes was made by the UN Secretary-General in the immediate aftermath of the demise of the Soviet Union and the unmistakable ending of the Cold War In An Agenda for Peace,3 the Secretary-General, while emphasising that respect for the fundamental sovereignty and integrity of states constituted the foundation-stone of the organization , noted the rapid changes affecting both states individually and the international community as a whole and emphasised the role of the UN in securing peace The Report sought to categorise the types of actions that the organisation was undertaking or could undertake Preventive Diplomacy was action to prevent disputes from arising between states, to prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts and to limit the spread of the latter when they occur This included efforts such as fact-finding, good offices and goodwill missions Peacemaking involves action to bring the hostile parties to agreement, utilising the peaceful means elaborated in Chapter VI of the Charter Peacekeeping is the deployment of a UN presence in the field Peacebuilding is action to identify and support structures that will assist peace.4 Peace Enforcement is peacekeeping not involving the consent of the parties, which would rest upon the enforcement provisions of Chapter VII of the Charter The attack on the World Trade Center on 11 September 2001 ‘dramatised the global threat of terrorism’, while focusing attention upon ‘reconstructing weak or collapsed states’ The 1992 Report, A/47/965. See General Assembly Resolution 60/180 and Security Council Resolution 1645 (2005) See Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organisation, New York, 1993, Secretary-General has also emphasised the need to replace the culture of reaction by one of prevention and by developing inter alia a thirty to ninety-day deployment capability A) THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY7 Although the primary responsibility with regard to the maintenance of International peace and security lies with the Security Council, the General Assembly may discuss any question or matter within the scope of the Charter, including the maintenance of International peace and security, and may make recommendations to the members of the UN or the Security Council, provided the Council is not itself dealing with the same matter Under similar conditions, the Assembly may under Article 14 ‘recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment of any situation regardless of origin, which it deems likely to impair the general welfare or friendly relations among nations’ In the Construction of a Wall case,10 the International Court emphasised that under Article 24 the Security Council had a primary and not necessarily an exclusive competence with regard to the maintenance of International peace and security, while the constraint placed by Article 12 on the powers of the Assembly to make recommendations for the peaceful adjustment of situations had been interpreted by evolving practice to permit both the Assembly and the Council to deal in parallel with the same matter concerning the maintenance of International peace and security, with the former often taking a broader view.11 In practice, the resolutions and declarations of the General Assembly (which are not binding) have covered a very wide field, from colonial disputes to alleged violations of human rights and the need for justice in International economic affairs The role of the General Assembly increased after 1945 due to two factors: first, the existence of the veto in the Security Council rendered that organ powerless in many important disputes since the permanent members (USA, UK, USSR (now Russia), France and China) rarely agreed with respect to any particular conflict; and secondly, the vast increase in the membership of the UN had the effect of radicalising the Assembly and its deliberations More recently the increased role of the Security Council has overshadowed that of the Assembly B) THE SECRETARY-GENERAL Just as the impotence of the Security Council stimulated a growing awareness of the potentialities of the General Assembly, it similarly underlined the role to be played by the United Nations Secretary-General By Article 99 of the Charter, he is entitled to bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which he thinks may threaten the maintenance of International peace and security and this power is in addition to his function as the chief administrative officer http:// www.un.org/ millennium/sg/report/, last accessed on 13th October’2011 See White, Keeping the Peace, part II; M J Peterson, The General Assembly in World Politics, Boston, 1986 Articles 10 and 11 of the UN Charter Article 12, UN Charter 10 ICJ Reports, 2004, p 136 11 See Resolution 377(V), The ‘Uniting for Peace’ Resolution, p 1272 of the United Nations organisation under Article 79.12 In effect, the Secretary-General has considerable discretion and much has depended upon the views and outlook of the person filling the post at any given time, as well as the general political situation The good offices role of the Secretary-General has rapidly expanded 13 In exercising such a role, Secretaries-General have sought to act independently of the Security Council and General Assembly, in the former case, in so far as they have not been constrained by binding resolutions (as for example in the Kuwait situation of 1990–1) The assumption of good offices and mediation activity may arise either because of independent action by the Secretary-General as part of the exercise of his inherent powers or as a consequence of a request made by the Security Council 14 or General Assembly.15 In some cases, the Secretary-General has acted upon the invitation of the parties themselves, and on other occasions, the Secretary-General has acted in concert with the relevant regional organisation In many cases, the Secretary-General will appoint a Special Representative to assist in seeking a solution to the particular problem 16 The development of good offices and mediation activities first arose as a consequence of the severe restrictions imposed upon UN operations by the Cold War The cessation of the Cold War led to greatly increased activity by the UN and as a consequence the work of the Secretary-General expanded as he sought to bring to fruition the wide range of initiatives undertaken by the organisation The experiences of Somalia, Rwanda and Bosnia in the mid-1990s and Iraq from 1991 to the 2003 war have been disappointing for the organisation C) THE SECURITY COUNCIL The primary objective of the United Nations as stipulated in Article of the Charter is the maintenance of International peace and security and disputes likely to endanger this are required under Article 33 to be solved ‘by negotiation, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements or other peaceful means’ Indeed, the Charter declares as one of its purposes in Article 1, ‘to bring about by peaceful means and in conformity with the principles of justice and International law, adjustment or settlement of International disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace’ By Article 24, 17 the members of the UN conferred on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of International peace and security, and by Article 25 18 agreed to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council The International Court in the Namibia case19 drew attention to the fact that the provision in Article 25 was not limited to enforcement actions under Chapter VII of the Charter but applied to ‘“decisions of the Security Council” adopted in 12 Article 98 Stating that the Secretary-General also performs such other functions as are entrusted to him by the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council and the Trusteeship Council 13 See T.M Franck, Fairness in International Law and Institutions, p 1295, Oxford Publications, 1995, 14 See Security Council Resolutions 242 (1967) regarding the Middle East; 367 (1975) regarding Cyprus; 384 (1975) regarding East Timor; 435 (1978) regarding Namibia and 713 (1991) regarding Yugoslavia 15 See, General Assembly Resolution ES-6/2, 1980 with regard to Afghanistan, and The Geneva Accords published by the United Nations, 1988, DPI/935-40420 16 See, for the full list, www.un.org/Depts/dpko/SRSG/index.html., last accessed on 18th October’2011 17 See Simma Charter, p 442 18 Ibid p.452 19 ICJ Reports, 1971, p.16 accordance with the Charter’ Accordingly a declaration of the Council taken under Article 24 in the exercise of its primary responsibility for the maintenance of International peace and security could constitute a decision under Article 25 so that member states ‘would be expected to act in consequence of the declaration made on their behalf ’ Whether a particular resolution adopted under Article 24 actually constituted a decision binding all member states was a matter for analysis in each particular case, ‘having regard to the terms of the resolution to be interpreted, the discussions leading to it, the Charter provisions invoked and, in general, all circumstances that might assist in determining the legal consequences of the resolution of the Security Council’ Under the Charter, the role of the Security Council when dealing with the specific settlement of disputes specifically under Chapter VI differs from when the Council is contemplating action relating to threats to or breaches of the peace, or acts of aggression under Chapter VII In the former instance there is no power as such to make binding decisions with regard to member states In pursuance of its primary responsibility, the Security Council may, by Article 34, ‘investigate any dispute, or any situation which might lead to International friction or give rise to dispute, in order to determine whether the continuance of the dispute or situation is likely to endanger the maintenance of International peace and security’ In addition to this power of investigation, the Security Council can, where it deems necessary, call upon the parties to settle their dispute by the means elaborated in Article 33.20 The Council may intervene if it wishes at any stage of a dispute or situation, the continuance of which is likely to endanger International peace and security, and under Article 36(1) recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment But in making such recommendations, which are not binding, it must take into consideration the general principle that legal disputes should be referred by the parties to the International Court of Justice.21 Where the parties to a dispute cannot resolve it by the various methods mentioned in Article 33, they should refer it to the Security Council by Article 37 The Council, where it is convinced that the continuance of the dispute is likely to endanger International peace and security, may recommend not only procedures and adjustment methods, but also such terms of settlement as it may consider appropriate Once the Council, however, has determined the existence of a threat to, or a breach of, the peace or act of aggression, it may make decisions which are binding upon member states of the UN under Chapter VII, but until that point it can under Chapter VI issue recommendations only 22 Under Article 35(1) any UN member state may bring a dispute or a situation which might lead to International friction or give rise to a dispute before the Council, while a non-member state may bring to the attention of the Council any dispute under Article 35(2) provided it is a party to the dispute in question and ‘accepts in advance, for the purposes of the dispute, the obligations of pacific settlement provided in the present Charter’ It is also possible for third parties to bring disputes to the attention of the Council 20 Article 38 The Security Council may make recommendations to the parties with regard to the peaceful settlement of disputes generally if all the parties to the dispute so request 21 The Corfu Channel Case before the ICJ 22 Note, that under Article 37(2) if the Council deems that a continuance of a dispute is likely to endanger international peace and security, it ‘shall decide whether to take action under Article 36 or to recommend such terms of settlement as it may consider appropriate’ D) PEACEKEEPING AND OBSERVER MISSIONS 23 There is no explicit legal basis for peacekeeping activities in the UN Charter They arose in the absence of the contribution of armed forces and facilities to the UN as detailed in Article 43 Accordingly, a series of arrangements and operations have evolved since the inception of the organisation, which taken together have established a clear pattern of acceptable reaction by the UN in particular crisis situations The broad bases for such activities lie in the general provisions in the Charter governing the powers of the Security Council and General Assembly The Security Council, for example, may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions (Article 29) and those functions are laid down in Articles 34 (powers of investigation); 36, 37 and 38 (powers to recommend appropriate procedures or methods of dispute settlement); and 39 (powers of recommendation or decision in order to maintain or restore International peace and security) The Security Council may, in particular under Article 42, take such action by land, sea or air forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore International peace and security This is the basis for action explicitly taken under Chapter VII of the Charter However, the majority of peacekeeping activities have not been so authorized and it is unlikely that Article 42 can be seen as the legal basis for all such activities The Security Council can entrust functions to the Secretary-General under Article 98 and this mechanism has proved significant in practice The General Assembly has wide powers under Articles 10 and 11 to discuss and make recommendations on matters within the scope of the UN Charter, including recommendations concerning the maintenance of International peace and security.24 Under Article 14, the Assembly may recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment of any situation regardless of origin which it deems likely to impair the general welfare or friendly relations among nations It can, however, take no binding decision in such matters The Assembly may also establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions (Article 22) and entrust functions to the Secretary-General (Article 98) It is because such operations fall somewhat between Chapter VI (peaceful settlement) and Chapter VII (enforcement) of the Charter, that the term ‘Chapter Six and a Half has been used 25 23 United Nations, United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines, New York Publications, 2008 24 However, under Article 11(2), where action is necessary on any question relating to the maintenance of international peace and security, the matter must be referred to the Security Council 25 See www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/index.asp., last accessed on 16th October’2011 DEPARTMENT OF PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS The Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), which was established as a separate department of the UN Secretariat in 1992, is responsible for planning, managing, deploying, supporting and, on behalf of the Secretary-General, providing executive direction to all UN peacekeeping operations It also performs similar functions in support of peace and security operations that are predominantly civilian, such as the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) DPKO works very closely with the Department of Political Affairs (DPA), which is the focal point in the UN system for conflict prevention, peacemaking and peacebuilding PEACEKEEPING FACT SHEET 26 Fact Sheet as of 31 August 2011    Peacekeeping operations since 1948: 66 Current peacekeeping operations: 16 Current peace operations directed and supported by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations: 16 Personnel        Uniformed personnel: 97,614 o Troops: 81,402 o Police: 14,059 o Military observers: 2,153 Countries contributing uniformed personnel: 114 Civilian personnel (30 June 2011): 19,577 o International (30 June 2011): 5,707 o Local (30 June 2011): 13,870 UN Volunteers (30 June 2011): 2,255 Total number of personnel serving in 15 peacekeeping operations: 119,446 Total number of personnel serving in 16 DPKO-led peace operations: 121,448 Total fatalities: 2,932 Financial aspects    26 Approved resources for the period from July 2011 to 30 June 2012: about $7.06 billion Estimated total cost of operations from 1948 to 30 June 2010: about $69 billion Outstanding contributions to peacekeeping: about $5.30 billion http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/factsheet.shtml, last accessed on 18 th October’2011 INSTRUMENTS FOR PEACE AND SECURITY The United Nations has developed a range of instruments for controlling and resolving conflicts between and within States The most important of them are preventive diplomacy and peacemaking; peace-keeping; peace-building; disarmament; sanctions; and peace enforcement The first three can be employed only with the consent of the parties to the conflict Sanctions and enforcement, on the other hand, are coercive measures and thus, by definition, not require the consent of the party concerned Disarmament can take place on an agreed basis or in the context of coercive action under Chapter VII The United Nations does not have or claim a monopoly of any of these instruments All can be, and most of them have been, employed by regional organizations, by ad hoc groups of States or by individual States, but the United Nations has unparalleled experience of them and it is to the United Nations that the international community has turned increasingly since the end of the cold war The United Nations system is also better equipped than regional organizations or individual Member States to develop and apply the comprehensive, long-term approach needed to ensure the lasting resolution of conflicts A Preventive Diplomacy And Peacemaking It is evidently better to prevent conflicts through early warning, quiet diplomacy and, in some cases, preventive deployment than to have to undertake major politico-military efforts to resolve them after they have broken out B Peace-Keeping The United Nations can be proud of the speed with which peace-keeping has evolved in response to the new political environment resulting from the end of the cold war, but the last few years have confirmed that respect for certain basic principles of peace-keeping are essential to its success Three particularly important principles are the consent of the parties, impartiality and the non-use of force except in self-defence Analysis of recent successes and failures shows that in all the successes those principles were respected and in most of the less successful operations one or other of them was not C Post-Conflict Peace-Building The validity of the concept of post-conflict peace-building has received wide recognition The measures it can use - and they are many - can also support preventive diplomacy Demilitarization, the control of small arms, institutional reform, improved police and judicial systems, the monitoring of human rights, electoral reform and social and economic development can be as valuable in preventing conflict as in healing the wounds after conflict has occurred D Disarmament At their Summit on 31 January 1992, the members of the Security Council underscored their interest in and concern for disarmament, arms control and non-proliferation, with special reference to weapons of mass destruction They committed themselves to taking concrete steps to enhance the effectiveness of the United Nations in those areas E Sanctions27 Under Article 41 of the Charter, the Security Council may call upon Member States to apply measures not involving the use of armed force in order to maintain or restore international peace and security Such measures are commonly referred to as sanctions This legal basis is recalled in order to underline that the purpose of sanctions is to modify the behaviour of a party that is threatening international peace and security and not to punish or otherwise exact retribution SPECIALIZED AGENCIES UNDER UN THAT CONTRIBUTE TO PEACE There are other UN organizations that help promote a culture of peace UNICEF, the United Nations Children's Fund28, helps to protect the rights of children It carries out both preventive initiatives to help promote the education of children in developing countries and protective actions to help children in times of war, when they are often the most vulnerable victims Indeed, if the future is to be ensured, it is important that children be educated and not be mistreated Children ensure a country's future Ensuring that children are not mistreated helps both to develop a country's capacities and to prevent, as much as is possible, the outbreak of future conflicts UNFPA, the United Nations Population Fund 29, also helps to promote a culture of peace by developing information programs for women, especially with regard to sex education It provides women in particular with all the necessary information and resources This allows them in turn to make fully informed decisions and thereby contribute to a better management of the planet's population WHO, the World Health Organization, promotes scientific cooperation in health matters, helps reinforce health systems and assists governments which ask for emergency aid The provision of care to populations in distress alleviates many ills, whether they be physical or psychological The WFP, the World Food Programme30 promotes better nutrition by using food aid to support economic and social development It is helped in this by the FAO, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 31, which sets up programs to help foster greater 27 Refer Article 41, UN Charter http:// www.unicef.org.html, last accessed on 18th October’2011 http:// www.unfpa.org.html, last accessed on 18th October’2011 th 30 http:// www.wfp.org.html, last accessed on 18 October’2011 31 http:// www.fao.org.html, last accessed on 18th October’2011 28 29 10 agricultural productivity, thereby fighting hunger and poverty around the world Hunger and poverty are two important factors in the outbreak of conflicts All of these UN programs are attempting, with the means that are available to them, to prevent conflicts and have a world that is free of violence However, it will be some time before we reach this enviable state on our planet This being true, the UN will have to continue to separate belligerents by intervening through peacekeeping missions CONCLUSION We can observe in this project that UN is playing a very important role on its part for maintenance of International peace and security, through its various agencies Till date we can see that UN has conducted 66 peace keeping mission since its inception Presently, 16 operations are still in progress According to critics though UN is working but it is not an independent body in itself In reality it is operated by various members nation which usually look after their interest first Even the critics come to point out that there is no provision of peace keeping in the UN Charter Thought there are many criticisms against the UN but still we can observe that UN is working for the general welfare of the masses We need to see the efforts made by the various agencies like UNICEF, UNESCO, WHO, UNDP, ILO, UNHRC which apart from peace keeping are ensuring general welfare 11 BIBLIOGRAPHY:  Ian Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 7th ed., Oxford University Press, 2008  J.G.Starke, Introduction to International Law, 10th ed., Aditya Books Private Limited., Delhi, 1994  Malcolm N Shaw, International Law, 6th ed., Cambridge University Press, Allahabad, 2008  S K Kapoor, International Law and Human Rights, 17th ed., Central Law Agency, Allahabad, 2009 WEBLIOGRAPHY:  http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/factsheet.shtml, last accessed on 18th October’2011  http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter7.shtml, last accessed on 18 th October’2011  http://www.un.org/aboutun/untoday/peacesec.htm, last accessed on 18th October’2011  http://www.unac.org/peacecp/factsheet/role.html, last accessed on 18 th October’2011  http://www.un.org/aboutun/untoday/unorg.htm, last accessed on 18 th October’2011  www.peacekeepingbestpractices.unlb.org/Pbps/library.htm, last accessed on 18th October’2011 th  http:// www.unicef.org.html, last accessed on 18 October’2011  http:// www.unfpa.org.html, last accessed on 18 th October’2011  http:// www.wfp.org.html, last accessed on 18 October’2011  http:// www.fao.org.html, last accessed on 18th October’2011 th 12 ... conducive to clear categorisation An influential attempt to detail the methods and mechanisms available to the UN in seeking to resolve disputes was made by the UN Secretary-General in the immediate... in the outbreak of conflicts All of these UN programs are attempting, with the means that are available to them, to prevent conflicts and have a world that is free of violence However, it will