INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
1 Definitions of Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics and phonology are essential aspects of linguistics, the scientific study of language Phonetics focuses on the sounds produced by the human voice during speech, while phonology examines how these sounds are organized and function within a specific language (Lodge, 2009).
Phonetics focuses on the physical characteristics of sounds, including their production and perception, while phonology examines the functional aspects of sounds, such as their roles and organization within a language Essentially, phonetics analyzes the tangible sounds we create, whereas phonology explores the mental patterns and structures of those sounds.
According to Ashby (2013), speech can be analyzed through different stages of its transmission from speaker to listener, encompassing three main areas: articulatory phonetics, which focuses on how speech is produced by the movement and positioning of articulators like the lips and tongue; acoustic phonetics, which examines the physical properties of the speech signal; and auditory phonetics, which investigates how the ear perceives the speech signal.
Articulatory phonetics Acoustic phonetics Auditory phonetics
In phonetics, specialized symbols are utilized to accurately represent sounds, as conventional alphabet letters often fail to reflect the true pronunciation This discrepancy between spelling and sound can lead to confusion, making it essential for learners to understand that phonetic symbols convey distinct values compared to standard letters.
Pr essu re Pr essu re
Period Period accustomed to In addition, many English sounds may be spelt in a large number of different ways (Skandera & Burleigh, 2005)
4 Accents and dialects in English
Accents represent different pronunciations of a language, while dialects encompass variations in grammar and vocabulary Together, these elements, including pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, form the broader concept of language varieties (Skandera & Burleigh, 2005).
Received Pronunciation (RP) is a variety of English pronunciation historically associated with the privileged classes, often mistakenly referred to as 'Oxford English,' 'BBC English,' or 'the Queen's English.' While these terms are inaccurate, RP has gained recognition in the media and among the general public, as noted by Roach (2009).
Speech is a continuous stream of sounds, interrupted only for breathing or to organize thoughts This process of breaking the flow into manageable parts is known as segmentation, and the smaller units created are referred to as segments (Lodge, 2009).
A phoneme is the smallest unit in a language's sound system that can distinguish meaning It contrasts with other speech sounds, serving as an abstract concept rather than a direct auditory experience The actual sounds produced by speakers, known as allophones, are the concrete realizations of these phonemes (Skandera & Burleigh, 2005).
The allophones of a particular phoneme typically have phonetic similarity
• They usually sound fairly similar to each other
• They are usually articulated in a somewhat similar way
Allophones in this context exhibit predictable patterns, functioning as complements to one another; when one allophone is present, the other is absent This phenomenon is known as complementary distribution (McMahon, 2002).
Phonetic transcription is a system of alphabetic writing where each symbol corresponds to a unique speech sound, as defined by Lodge (2009) A prominent example of this system is the phonetic alphabet developed by the International Phonetic Association.
Phonetic transcription captures the intricate details of sound articulation using various shaped symbols, such as [Ɂ ɹ], and diacritics like [ẽ ḅ] In contrast, phonemic transcription focuses solely on phoneme contrasts, lacking specificity regarding the actual realizations of those phonemes.
A broad phonetic transcription is defined as a transcription that utilizes the fewest symbols necessary to clearly represent the sounds of a specific language, ensuring no ambiguity and without considering other languages.
To accurately represent the distinct sounds found in various languages and dialects, a significant number of symbols and diacritical marks are required This detailed approach to transcription is known as narrow phonetic transcription.
Monophthongs and diphthongs are essential components of English phonetics Monophthongs, such as the long vowel sound "ɑː" in "park" and the short vowel "ʌ" in "cup," represent single, unchanging sounds In contrast, diphthongs, like "aɪ" in "light" and "eɪ" in "play," consist of two vowel sounds within the same syllable Understanding these distinctions is crucial for mastering pronunciation, as demonstrated by examples like "eə" in "there" and "ɔɪ" in "toy." Additionally, sounds such as "u:" in "food" and "ɪ" in "ship" illustrate the variety of vowel sounds in English Recognizing these phonetic elements enhances both spoken and written communication.
Voiceless Voiced p pen b bad m man r red t tea d did k cat ɡ get n now s see z zoo w wet ʃ shoe ʒ vision ŋ sing tʃ chain dʒ jam f fall v van l leg j yes θ thin ð this h hat
7 Minimal pairs and minimal sets
According to McMahon (2002), a minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound, such as 'man' and 'pan,' where the initial sound is changed from /m/ to /p/ In contrast, a minimal set includes multiple words that vary by substituting one sound for another, like 'man,' 'ban,' 'tan,' and 'ran.' Additionally, variations can occur by altering vowel sounds, as seen in 'mean,' 'moan,' 'men,' 'mine,' and 'moon,' or by modifying final consonants, exemplified by 'man,' 'mat,' and 'mad.'
Another feature of English is that some pronunciations correspond to multiple spellings According to Ashby (2013), homophones are words that look different but sound exactly the same
• Cs, seas, sees and seize are all pronounced /siːz/,
• passed and past /pɑːst/
• two, too, and to /tuː/
Homographs, on the other hand, are words which are pronounced differently but spelt exactly the same
• bow /baʊ/ (‘bending from the waist or the front end of a boat’) and bow /bəʊ/ (an elaborate knot in a piece of ribbon or about a piece of musical equipment)
• lead /led/ (‘a kind of metal’) and lead /liːd/ (‘to go first’)
• wind /wɪnd/ (‘current of air’) and wind /waɪnd/ (‘to turn round’)
Decide which branch of phonetics, (a) articulatory, (b) acoustic or (c) auditory, these statements describe Write (a), (b) or (c)
1 It describes how sounds are made
2 It is concerned with the perception, categorization, and recognition of speech sounds
3 It studies the vibrations in the air caused by sounds travelling in the air from the speaker’s mouth to the hearer’s ear
4 It informs theories of speech production
5 It deals with the physical nature of speech sounds
6 It is related to listening to speech sounds and thinking about exactly what they sound
Compare the sounds in bold in the following words and decide if they have the same or different pronunciations Explain your answer
1 the a’s in father, fall, any, ago, watch
2 the i’s in grind, machine, bird
Decide whether these statements describe phonetics (A) or phonology (B) Write A or B
1 This is the science of speech sound
2 It deals with the abstract side of the sounds of a language
3 It deals with “actual” physical sounds as they are manifested
4 It is the study of the selection and patterns of sounds in a single language
5 It is the term used for the study of sound in human language
6 It is the business of describing the sounds that we use in speaking
7 It is concerned with the function of sounds
8 It describes the concrete, physical form of sounds
9 Phonologist is the term used for linguists who study this
10 Phonetician is the term used for linguists who study this
3 the u’s in rule, put, hut
4 the o’s in stove, move, love
5 the ea’s in meat, head, great, bear
Underline the word in which a consonant is not pronounced
Put the following words into sets that begin with the same sound knight, cat, king, get, gnat, guest, calm, quay, quest, west, vest, want, vase
Complete the sentences with the right words given dialect accent regional variety social
1 A(n) is a way in which the language can be pronounced
2 The term ‘ ’ is used to cover variation in grammar and vocabulary
3 A ‘ ’ refers all these aspects of language variation – pronunciation together with grammar and vocabulary
4 variation involves differences between one place and another
5 variation reflects differences between one social group and another This can cover such matters as gender, ethnicity, religion, age and, very significantly, social class
How many phonemes are there in the following words?
Word No of phoneme Word No of phoneme
Look at these words Three of the four words include the same phoneme – which word is different from the others?
Decide whether phoneme(s) or allophone(s) fit the blanks in the following sentences
1 A _ is a member of a set of abstract units which together form the sound system of a given language and through which contrasts of meaning are produced
2 Only the _ of a _ can exist in reality as concrete entities
3 _ are real and they can be recorded, stored and reproduced, and analyzed in acoustic or articulatory terms
4 The _ is an abstract unit which may be realized as any one of a number of _
Write the CV-patterns for each of the following English words:
Look at the phoneme for each question: which one of the four words contains that phoneme?
3 /ʊə/ a tour b took c pure d food
6 /eɪ/ a our b lime c crack d game
7 /eə/ a fear b bar c beer d bear
Are the following pairs of words minimal pairs? Circle Yes or No
Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No
Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No
Create two minimal pairs with each given word by replacing the consonants in different word positions
0 /t/ tea pea, sea charter charmer, charger seat seed, seal
Create three words with contrasts by supplying different vowels in the following consonantal frames
Look at each pair of words: are they homophones or not? Choose True if you think they are homophones, False if you think they are not.
1 where / wear True / False 6 out / ought True / False
2 sow / saw True / False 7 flour / flower True / False
3 sum / some True / False 8 peace / piece True / False
4 wood / would True / False 9 caught / court True / False
5 thought / fort True / False 10 chews / choose True / False
Which word does not rhyme with the word given?
1 eight a straight b wait c white d mate
2 bright a feet b tonight c white d bite
3 tall a ball b hole c small d crawl
4 hen a when b ten c again d pain
5 sew a go b though c mow d flew
6 nose a laws b grows c froze d toes
7 fun a one b moon c sun d son
8 mean a seen b teen c men d clean
The following spelling errors would be impossible for most computer spelling checkers to deal with Supply a suitable homophone to correct each of the sentences
0 You’ll get a really accurate wait if you use these electronic scales weight
1 Why don’t you join a quire if you like singing so much?
2 The people standing on the key saw Megan sail past in her yacht
3 Harry simply guest, but luckily he got the right answer
4 Passengers are requested to form an orderly cue at the bus stop
5 The primary task of any doctor is to heel the sick
6 For breakfast, many people choose to eat a serial with milk
7 Janet tried extremely hard, but it was all in vein, I’m sad to say
8 Why is the yoke of this egg such a peculiar shade of yellow?
9 The gross errors in the treasurer’s report are plane for all to see
Transcribe the following sets of homographs
0 live /laɪv/ ‘not dead’ live /lɪv/ ‘to be alive’
1 refuse to decline refuse rubbish
2 close near close to shut
3 convict prisoner convict to find guilty
4 desert sandy wasteland desert to run away
5 invalid not legally acceptable invalid sick person
6 sow to scatter seeds sow female pig
7 tear liquid from the eye tear to rip up
8 house building for living in house to provide accommodation
9 wound injury wound past tense of ‘to wind’
10 bass low pitch bass kind of fish
Fill in the gaps in the following sentences
1 When a word is written with phonetic symbols we say it is _
2 The sounds of spoken language are divided into two basic types, _ and _
3 Many phonemes may be pronounced (“realized”) in more than one way; these different realizations are called _
4 We can add marks to phonetic symbols to provide more information about them These marks are called _
5 The symbols that we use are based on the Alphabet of the _
6 A phonetic transcription that gives a lot of detail is called a _transcription
7 When we consider two related sounds in a relationship where one of them can only occur where the other cannot occur, we say that the sounds are in _.
THE PRODUCTION OF SPEECH SOUNDS
Traditionally, there are three systems of speech organs that have different functions in the speech production process (Ashby, 2013)
Speech is generated by shaping and maneuvering various articulators around an airstream, primarily expelled from the lungs, known as egressive pulmonic air This airstream travels up the trachea and passes through the larynx, playing a crucial role in the production of sound.
‘Adam’s apple’) Inside the larynx are the two vocal folds (also called the vocal cords)
The vocal tract, located above the larynx, consists of two main components: the oral tract, which includes the mouth and pharynx, and the nasal tract, found within the nose When the flap at the back of the mouth is lowered, it allows air to flow in and out through the nose (Ashby, 2013).
According to Roach (2009), the larynx contains two vocal folds, commonly known as vocal cords, with the space between them referred to as the glottis The actions of the vocal folds can be categorized into three distinct possibilities.
When the glottis is open and the vocal folds are apart, air flows through without causing vibration, resulting in voiceless sounds These sounds are produced with greater force and tension, a phenomenon known as fortis articulation.
When the glottis is narrow and the vocal folds are together, the airstream pushes through, causing the vocal folds to vibrate and produce voiced sounds These sounds are typically created with minimal breath force and low muscular tension, a process known as lenis articulation.
A third scenario occurs when the glottis is closed, meaning the vocal folds are tightly pressed together, halting the airstream entirely This glottal closure results in the production of a single sound known as a glottal stop or glottal plosive.
The vocal tract, located above the larynx, consists of two main components: the oral tract, which includes the mouth and pharynx, and the nasal tract, found within the nose.
Articulators are the components of the vocal tract responsible for sound production Active articulators are movable organs that can be controlled voluntarily, while passive articulators remain stationary and serve as the targets for the movements of active articulators (Ashby, 2013).
Sound is generated by the interaction of air flowing through the mouth and nose Consonants occur when this airflow is obstructed, causing audible friction as it escapes the oral cavity In contrast, vowels are produced when the airflow is not significantly restricted, allowing it to exit the mouth smoothly without friction.
Approximants, a unique category of consonants, require similar tongue movements to those used in vowel production This similarity has led some speech sound classifications to introduce a third group known as semi-vowels (Skandera & Burleigh, 2005).
Label the diagram using the words in the box pharynx nasal cavity oral cavity larynx lungs vocal folds vocal tract trachea
Label the diagram of the larynx using the words in the box glottis vocal cords trachea larynx
Match the position of the vocal folds and the sounds they can produce in the position a Voiced sounds b Glottal stop c Voiceless sounds
Which of the following sounds are pronounced with the glottis open?
Which of the following sounds are pronounced with the glottis narrow?
State the voicing of the underlined sound in each word below Write Voiced or Voiceless
Label the diagram using the words in the box nose upper teeth upper lip pharynx tongue lower teeth lower lip
Decide whether these following articulators are active (A) or passive (P)
1 alveolar ridge 3 tongue 5 hard palate
2 soft palate / velum 4 lips 6 teeth
Name the active articulator for each of the underlined sounds below
Give the phonetic symbol for the initial consonant sound(s) in each of the following words
Give the phonetic symbol for the medial consonant sound(s) in each of the following words
Give the phonetic symbol for the final consonant sound(s) in each of the following words
Which of the following words begin with a voiceless consonant?
Which of the following words have a voiceless consonant between the two vowels ?
Which of the following words have a voiceless consonant at the end?
Change the voicing of the underlined consonants in the words below Which new English words do you get?
Fill in the gaps in the sentences below
1 Inside the larynx there are two flaps of muscle which are called the vocal _ or vocal _.
2 The space between them is known as the _.
3 When they are tightly closed they can be made to produce a _ stop
4 When they are close together and air is passed between them, the resulting vibration is called _ or _
5 _ articulators are organs we can move
6 _ articulators are organs that are fixed or stationary.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS
Vowels are syllabic sounds produced with unobstructed airflow along the center of the vocal tract, typically featuring a convex tongue shape and lacking friction Generally, vowels are voiced and primarily oral (Ogden, 2009).
Vowel sounds are produced with minimal obstruction in the airstream, as the articulators do not come close together These sounds can be characterized primarily by the position of the tongue's highest point and the shape of the lips (Ladefoged & Johnson, 2011).
In 1917, the British phonetician Daniel Jones (1881–1967) produced his system of cardinal vowels, a model which is still widely employed to describe, classify and compare vowels (Roach, 2009)
As cited in Ladefoged, P & Johnson, K (2011), the most generally used description of vowel sounds takes into account the following physical variables:
2.1 Tongue height to find out how close the tongue is to the roof of the mouth
• If the upper tongue surface is close to the roof of the mouth, the sounds are called close vowels
• Vowels made with an open mouth cavity, with the tongue far away from the roof of the mouth, are termed open vowels
2.2 Tongue shape to find out which part of the tongue is highest in the vowel articulation
• If the front of the tongue is highest, we term the sounds front vowels
• If the back of the tongue is the highest part, we have what are called back vowels
2.3 Lip shape to find out how it helps produce different vowel qualities
• Front vowels have unrounded or spread lip position
• Back vowels have rounded lips
2.4 Duration to consider the relative length of sounds in relation to that of other sounds
Long vowels are characterized by a longer duration of articulation compared to short vowels, which are pronounced for a shorter period of time.
2.5 Monophthongs, diphthongs and triphthongs to find out if there is an obvious change in the tongue or lip shape
• English vowels can be described as monophthongs if the positions of the tongue and lips are held steady in the production of these vowel sounds
Diphthongs are unique vowel sounds characterized by a smooth transition from one vowel to another within a single syllable, requiring a continuous glide without interruption.
- Closing diphthongs are diphthongs articulated with the tongue moving from a more open to a close position: aɪ, eɪ, ɔɪ, əʊ, aʊ
- Centring diphthongs are diphthongs articulated with the tongue moving from the front/back to the centre: eə, ɪə, ʊə
Triphthongs are formed by the combination of three distinct tongue positions during vowel production They result from merging a closing diphthong with a schwa, exemplified by the sounds aɪə, eɪə, ɔɪə, əʊə, and aʊə.
Read the vowels in the following words carefully and write Close if the vowels in your tongue is raised and Open if it is lowered
1 palm 4 fleece 7 trap 10 two 13 goose
2 meet 5 march 8 beat 11 true 14 flat
3 sat 6 suit 9 weed 12 rude 15 tea
Analyze the vowels in the specified words and determine whether the highest part of the tongue is at the front or back Mark your findings with 'Front' for front tongue position and 'Back' for back tongue position.
1 plan 4 more 7 trend 8 fee 11 choose
2 ship 5 sweat 8 pull 9 bank 12 wood
3 caught 6 cat 9 coop 10 good 13 weep
Locate English short vowels on the quadrilateral given below:
Transcribe the following words and write the transcription symbol for the vowel:
0 pick /pɪk/ Tim /tɪm/ film /fɪlm/ /ɪ/
Write five words containing the following English short vowels
Locate English long vowels on the quadrilateral given below:
Identify which of the following words contain long vowels
Transcribe the following words and write the transcription symbol for the vowel
0 team /ti:m/ Steve /sti:v/ seem /si:m/ key /ki:/ /i:/
Write five words for each English long vowel
Complete the table to give full descriptions of the vowels given
0 /iː/ close front unrounded long sheep
Transcribe the vowel sounds of the specified words using phonetic symbols Describe these vowel sounds by detailing their four key characteristics: tongue height (high or close), tongue shape, lip shape, and duration of articulation Present the findings in a coherent paragraph in English, adhering to SEO best practices for clarity and relevance.
0 heed /iː/ close front unrounded long
In the given task, you need to determine if the vowels in the underlined portions of specific words are the same (S) or different (D) For each case, provide the phonetic description of the vowels along with their phonetic symbols.
0 bill – city S /ɪ/ - close-mid, front, unrounded, short
00 mess – mass D /e/ - mid, front, unrounded, short
Indicate the diphthongs and their glide from the first vowel to the second vowel of the diphthong on the quadrilateral given below:
Which of the following words have a monophthong (M) and which have a diphthong (D)? Write M or D
To categorize the provided words by their diphthongs, create a table with the following columns: for the diphthong "ai," include words like "care," "fair," and "share." Under the "oi" diphthong, list "join," "coin," and "noise." For the "ou" diphthong, use "how," "south," and "down." In the "ea" column, place "mild," "real," and "paint." Lastly, for the "au" diphthong, include "found," "drown," and "tour." This organization highlights the diphthong sounds present in each word, aiding in phonetic understanding.
Read the following sentences aloud Underline the syllables containing diphthongs Write the diphthong(s) next to the sentences
0 The steward assured us it was secured /ʊə/
1 Surely we are going to a party tonight
2 You can’t afford this expensive tour now that you’re poor
3 The cure which he endured was cruel and arduous
4 My wife’s diary is strictly private
5 The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain
6 See you later, alligator – in a while, crocodile
7 There was a young lady of Niger
Who smiled as she rode on a tiger;
They returned from the ride
And the smile on the face of the tiger
8 There was a young fellow named Tate
Who dined with his girl at 8.08;
What that fellow named Tate
And his girlfriend ate at 8.08
9 These pronunciation exercises are a pain in the neck
Choose the right phonetic symbol for the underlined vowel in each word below and write it next to the word
/eɪ/ /aɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /əʊ/ /aʊ/ /ɪə/ /eə/ /ʊə/ /iː/ /ɑː/
Short vowels Long vowels Diphthongs Triphthongs
Match the term in column A with its characteristics in column B
A It depends on how far forward or back the tongue is positioned within the oral cavity during articulation and which part of the tongue is involved
2 Diphthongs B Require greater muscular tension/greater articulatory energy
3 Short vowels C The lips are pushed forward into the shape of a circle
4 Long vowels D The organs of speech remain approximately stationary
5 Rounded vowels E The corners of the lips are moved away from each other, as when smiling
6 Spread vowels F Require less muscular tension/less articulatory energy
7 Neutral vowels G It depends on the tongue height within the oral cavity and the accompanying raised or lowered position of the jaw
8 Open, mid or close vowels H The lips are not noticeably rounded or spread
9 Front, central or back vowels I The organs of speech perform perceptible movement
THE CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS
According to Lodge (2009), consonants can be categorized based on three key dimensions: voicing or intensity of articulation, place of articulation indicating where the sound is produced, and manner of articulation, which explains how the sound is created.
English has two classes of consonant sound: one with stronger and voiceless articulation is termed fortis and the other, whose articulation is weaker and potentially voiced, is lenis (Ashby, 2013)
Ladefoged, P & Johnson, K (2011) and many other authors agree that the principal terms for the particular types of obstruction required in the description of English are as follows
2.1 Bilabial (or Labial) sounds are made by touching the upper and lower lips together
English has four bilabial sounds: /p, b, m, w/
2.2 Labiodental sounds are made by touching the lower lip to the upper teeth There are two fricatives in English, namely /f, v/
2.3 Dental (or Interdental) sounds are made by touching the tongue to the back of the upper teeth English has two dentals: /θ, ð/
2.4 Alveolar sounds are made by touching the tip or blade of the tongue to a location just forward of the alveolar ridge English has six alveolar sounds /t, d, n, l, s, z/
Post-alveolar sounds, also known as palato-alveolar sounds, are produced by placing the blade of the tongue just behind the alveolar ridge In English, there are five distinct post-alveolar sounds: /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/, and /r/.
2.6 Velar sounds are made with the tongue back raised towards the soft palate (or the velum) Sounds with velar articulation in English are /k, ɡ, ŋ/
Palatal sounds are produced by raising the body of the tongue to the hard palate, which is the roof of the mouth In the English language, the only palatal sound is /j/.
2.8 Glottal sounds are made at the glottis, the space between the vocal folds, which are located at the larynx /h/ is the only glottal sound in English
According Roach (2009) and Ogden (2009), at most places of articulation there are several basic ways in which articulatory gestures can be accomplished producing various sounds as follows
Plosives, also known as stops, are speech sounds produced by creating a complete closure in the vocal tract, allowing air pressure to build up before being released explosively through the mouth In English, there are three fortis plosives: /p/, /t/, and /k/, as well as three lenis plosives: /b/, /d/, and /g/.
Fricatives are speech sounds created when air passes through a narrow gap between two speech organs, resulting in audible friction In the English language, there are eight fricatives divided into two categories: four fortis fricatives (/f, θ, s, ʃ/) and four lenis fricatives (/v, ð, z, ʒ/).
Affricates are unique speech sounds composed of two elements, beginning with a plosive that necessitates complete closure in the vocal tract This closure allows for a gradual release of air, creating a friction that produces a hissing sound In English, there are two primary affricates: the fortis /tʃ/ and the lenis /dʒ/.
Nasals in English are produced with a complete closure in the oral tract and the velum lowered, allowing air to escape through the nose The three primary nasal sounds are /m/, /n/, and ŋ/, which correspond to bilabial, alveolar, and velar placements These nasal sounds are typically voiced In contrast, lateral approximants, such as the lenis /l/, are created with air flowing around the sides of a partial closure formed by the speech organs, specifically with the tip of the tongue touching the center of the alveolar ridge.
3.6 Approximants are generally made when the speech organs approach each other but they do not touch each other The three English approximants are all lenis phonemes: /r, j, w/
Allophones refer to the different ways phonemes are pronounced depending on their context, such as their position in words or within connected speech These variations are typically represented in square brackets, using diacritics to enhance the phonetic accuracy of the transcription (House, 2013).
Aspiration is noise made when a consonantal constriction is released and air is allowed to escape relatively freely (Car, 2008)
• Fortis plosives /p, t, k/ are aspirated when they are syllable initial preceding a stressed vowel
• When one of them is preceded by /s/ or when it occurs at the end of a syllable and is not followed by a vowel, it is unaspirated
Devoicing is a process in which an underlyingly voiced phoneme is realized as voiceless in particular contexts (Roach, 2009)
• Lenis plosives and affricate (/b, d, ɡ, dʒ/) are devoiced when they are syllable initial, except when immediately preceded by a lenis sound
Lenis plosives, the lenis affricate, and lenis fricatives (/b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ, dʒ/) can be completely devoiced at the end of words or before voiceless sounds However, they remain voiced when adjacent to other voiced segments.
• The lenis lateral and lenis approximants (/l, r, w, j/) can be fully devoiced when they follow any one of the fortis plosives /p, t, k/ in stressed syllables
A syllable-final fortis consonant has the effect of shortening the vowel, or nasal and lateral consonants (/m, n, l, ŋ/) preceding it (Roach, 2009)
1 we [wiː] wheat [wiˑt] weed [wiːd]
2 no [nəʊ] note [nə̌ʊt] node [nəʊd]
3 saw [sɔː] sauce [sɔˑs] sawed [sɔːd]
4 stay [steɪ] state [stěɪt] stayed [steɪd]
5 bill [bɪl] built [bɪl ̆t] build [bɪld]
Nasalisation refers to the speech sound production that occurs when air is expelled through the nasal cavity A notable example of this is the variation in the pronunciation of the /iː/ sound in the words "seed" [siːd] and "seen" [sĩːn] (Car, 2008).
Velarisation refers to a secondary articulation involving the back of the tongue and the velum The dark l [ɫ] is characterized by a primary articulation at the alveolar ridge, accompanied by a secondary articulation at the velum, whereas the clear l [l] is articulated without this secondary feature (Car, 2008).
• The dark l never appears at the beginning of the word but is found word-internally before a consonant or at the end of a word, e.g milk [mɪɫk], Bill [bɪɫ]
• The clear l appears almost exclusively before a vowel
It can appear word-internally before a vowel e.g pillow [ˈpɪl.əʊ], or a consonant, e.g Dublin [dʌblɪn]
The sound can occur at the end of a word when the following word starts with a vowel, requiring a close connection to the preceding term, as seen in the example "all over" [ɔːl ˈəʊ.və].
Glottalisation refers to the phenomenon where a closure in oral articulation is paired with a glottal stop This process commonly occurs with syllable-final fortis stops, particularly before another consonant, as seen in the pronunciation of "locksmith" [ˈlɒʔk.smɪθ] Additionally, the /tʃ/ sound can also exhibit optional glottalisation, especially following a stressed vowel or at the end of a syllable, as demonstrated in the word "kitchen" [ˈkɪʔtʃ.(ə)n] (Ashby, 2013).
List all consonants that occur in the following words as IPA symbols
Identify the error in the transcription of the consonant sounds in the following words and write the correct symbol in the space provided after the word
State whether the place of articulation is the same (S) or different (D) in the initial consonants of each pair In either case, state the place of articulation
00 sun – sugar D alveolar – post-alveolar
1 beginning with a bilabial consonant mat gnat sat bat rat pat
2 beginning with a velar consonant knot got lot cot hot pot
3 beginning with an alveolar consonant zip nip lip ship tip dip
4 beginning with a labiodental consonant: fat cat that mat chat vat
5 beginning with an alveolar consonant: zip nip lip sip tip dip
6 beginning with a dental consonant: pie guy shy thigh thy high
7 beginning with a post-alveolar consonant: sigh shy tie thigh thy lie
8 ending with an alveolar consonant: pot sad boss lamb lamp size hen call
Identify (A) the place of articulation, (B) the plosives pronounced in the diagrams below and (C) give examples of English words beginning with these sounds
Identify (A) the place of articulation, (B) the fricatives pronounced in the diagrams below and
(C) give examples of English words beginning with these sounds
Characterize the following sounds according to their place and manner of articulation, and voicing:
Place of articulation Manner of articulation Voicing (Fortis / Lenis)
What phonetic property distinguishes the following pairs of sounds (voicing, manner or place of articulation)?
Underline the words that begin/end with a fricative psychology round plot philosophy think xylophone whale use epitaph half halve hash haze phase path cuts sheep seventh meet hour swim
Write the phonemic symbols for the following characterizations and illustrate with two English words
Description of phoneme Phoneme Words
Identify (A) the place of articulation, (B) the nasals / approximants pronounced in the diagrams below and (C) give examples of English words beginning or ending with these sounds
Fill in the table below with the appropriate consonants
In phonetics, certain groups of sounds share specific features, while one sound distinctly does not belong For example, in a group of voiced sounds, identify the sound that is unvoiced and underline it This exercise enhances understanding of phonetic classifications and the distinctive characteristics that define each group By recognizing the shared features among the sounds, learners can better grasp the complexities of phonetic structures.
0 /l, d, s, t, k, z/ /k/ is a velar, the rest are alveolars
Divide each of the following groups of symbols into two sets of three, each of which has some common feature (voicing, place, or manner) of articulation
When analyzing the sounds represented by the underlined letters in the given word pairs, it is essential to identify the distinguishing features of voicing, place, or manner These phonetic characteristics help differentiate the sounds and, consequently, the words from one another Understanding these distinctions enhances our grasp of phonology and its impact on language comprehension.
1 ending with a fricative race wreath bush breathe bang rave rose rough
2 ending with a nasal rain comb rail rang dumb deaf lamp climb
3 beginning with a lateral load nut lull bar lose rob one lure
4 beginning with an approximant we who one nut jet yet only rule
5 ending with an affricate much back edge choose fuss range rush touch
6 start with a fricative foreign theater tidings hospital cassette shroud
7 have an approximant winter university captive ripe little mute
8 end in an alveolar went atom rigor column multiple garnish
Define the sounds in bold according to their voicing, place and manner of articulation
THE SYLLABLE
Syllables are phonetically characterized by a central part that allows for unobstructed airflow and produces a relatively loud sound, flanked by greater obstruction and quieter sounds at the beginning and end To identify syllables from a phonological perspective, it is essential to analyze the combinations of English phonemes, focusing on what can appear at the start of a word following a pause and how a word concludes before a pause.
2 The structure of the English syllable
Syllables consist of an onset and a rhyme, with the rhyme further divided into a nucleus and a coda The nucleus serves as the most sonorous part of the syllable, while the onset includes lower sonority sounds that come before the nucleus, and the coda contains sounds that follow it (Mahon, 2002).
The nucleus of a syllable typically consists of a vowel, and a minimum syllable is formed by a single vowel that is surrounded by silence, as seen in examples like "are" /ɑ:/, "or" /ɔ:/, and "err" /ɜ:/ (Roach, 2009).
The onset of a syllable consists of one or more consonants preceding its nucleus, as exemplified by /b/ in "bar" (/bɑ:/), /k/ in "key" (/ki:/), /m/ in "more" (/mɔ:/), and /b/ in "be" (/bi:/) (Roach, 2009) When the first syllable of a word starts with a vowel, it is said to have a zero onset In cases where the syllable begins with a single consonant, any consonant phoneme can be used, except for /ŋ/, while /ʒ/ is rarely found Additionally, syllables may also begin with two or more consonants, forming a consonant cluster.
• /s/ will work as the pre-initial consonant, e.g sting /stɪŋ/, sway /sweɪ/, and smoke /sməʊk/
• one of a set of 15 consonants will work as the initial consonant
• one of the set /l/, /r/, /w/, and /j/ will work as the post-initial consonant, play /pleɪ/, try /traɪ/, quick /kwɪk/ and few /fju:/
• Consonant clusters /sl/, /sw/ and /sw/ can be analysed either as pre-initial /s/ + initial /l/, /w/, /j/ or /r / or initial /s/ + post initial /l/, /w/, /j/ or /r /, as in play
/pleɪ/, try /traɪ/, quick /kwɪk/ and few /fju:/
The diagram below shows constituents of the syllable pin (Note that small sigma (σ) is shorthand for syllable)
A syllable always contains a nucleus, but it can exist without a coda, an onset, or both Syllables that include a coda are classified as closed, while those without a coda are referred to as open.
Syllable structure trees for some English words free inch eye print
The coda is one or more consonants one or more consonants following the nucleus of the syllable, e.g as /m/ in am /ổm/, /t/ in ought /ɔ:t/, /z/ in ease /i:z/ or /t/ in eat /i:t/ (Roach, 2009)
• If there is no final consonant, we say that there is a zero coda
• When there is one consonant only, this is called the final consonant Any consonant may be a final consonant except /h/, /w/ and /j/
The consonant /r/ is unique in that it does not appear as a final consonant in BBC pronunciation However, numerous rhotic English accents allow syllables to end with this consonant.
• If the syllable ends with a two-consonant cluster,
- the cluster consists of a pre-final consonant (/m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/ or /s/) and a final consonant as in bump /bʌmp/, bent /bent/, bank /bổŋk/, belt /belt/ and ask /ɑ:sk/, or
- the cluster consists of a final consonant and a post-final consonant (/s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, or
/θ/) as in bets /bets/, beds /bedz/, backed /bổkt/, bagged /bổgd/ and eighth /eɪtθ/
• If the syllable ends with a three-consonant cluster,
- the cluster consists of a pre-final, a final and a post-final consonant as in helped
/helpt/, banks /bổŋks/, bonds /bɒndz/, and twelfth /twelfθ/, or
- the cluster consists of a final, post-final 1 and post-final 2, as in fifths /fɪfθs/, next
• Most four-consonant clusters can be analysed as consisting of a pre-final, final, post- final 1 and post-final 2 as in twelfths /twelfθs/ and prompts /prɒmpts/
Coda (Pre-final) Final (Post-final 1) (Post-final 2) /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/ or /s/ /s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, or /θ/ /s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, or /θ/
Certain cases necessitate a distinct analysis, featuring a final consonant without a pre-final, accompanied by three post-final consonants, exemplified by words like "sixths" /sɪksθs/ and "texts" /teksts/.
To sum up, we may describe the English syllable as having the following maximum phonological structure:
Many English speakers perceive the word "morning" as having two syllables, but it's essential to determine whether the correct syllable division is mɔ: and nɪŋ or mɔ:n and ɪŋ Generally, languages favor CV-type syllables, which consist of a consonant followed by a vowel, without a coda.
In English, syllables are typically divided according to the principle of maximal onsets, which prioritizes placing consonants into the onset of a syllable whenever possible For example, a CVCV string is more likely to be syllabified as CV.CV rather than CVC.V, as seen in words like "cu.pid.i.ty" and "ca.ma.ra.de.rie." This principle dictates that when splitting two syllables, any intervening consonants should preferably attach to the right-hand syllable Thus, it is essential to assign as many consonants as possible to the onset while minimizing those in the coda, ensuring that each word consists of well-formed syllables, as illustrated by the syllabification of words like "morning" (/ˈmɔ:.nɪŋ/), "extra" (/ˈek.strə/), "dirty" (/ˈdɜ:.ti/), and "oyster" (/ˈɔɪ.stə/).
/ˈstɑ:.ri/, falter as /ˈfɔ:l.tə/ (Mahon, 2002)
When a consonant is positioned between vowels and it's challenging to determine its syllable assignment, as seen in words like "carry" (/ˈkɔri/), it creates ambiguity regarding whether the consonant belongs to the first or second syllable.
/r/ occurs in BBC pronunciation, a possible solution is to say that the consonant belongs to both syllables The consonant in this situation is referred to as ambisyllabic (Mahon, 2002)
4 Weak syllables and strong syllables
In English, syllables can be categorized as strong or weak, with weak syllables exhibiting distinct phonetic characteristics Weak syllables typically feature shorter vowels that are less intense and differ in quality compared to strong syllables For instance, in the word "data" (/ˈdeɪtə/), the weak syllable /tə/ is shorter and quieter than the strong syllable /deɪ/, and it contains the vowel sound /ə/, which is not found in strong syllables Similarly, in the word "bottle" (/ˈbɒtl/), the weak syllable lacks a vowel altogether, consisting solely of the syllabic consonant /l̩/ (Roach, 2009).
➢ A weak syllable has a short vowel in the rhyme, with no coda, as /ɪ/ in report
➢ A weak syllable can only have /ə/, /i/ or /u/ as the peak
• the vowel /ə/ (schwa) as in better /ˈbetə/, open /ˈəʊpən/, sharpen /ˈʃɑ:pən/, photograph /ˈfəʊtəgrɑ:f/
The schwa sound /ə/ can be represented by various spellings in English For instance, the letter "a" appears in words like "attend" and "character," while "e" is found in "settlement" and "violet." The combination "ar" is seen in "particular" and "molar," and "er" in "perhaps" and "stronger." The letter "u" features in "autumn" and "support," whereas "o" is present in "tomorrow" and "potato." Additionally, "ough" can be found in "thorough" and "borough," and "or" in "forget." Lastly, the "ou" spelling is evident in "gracious" and "callous." Understanding these variations is essential for mastering English pronunciation.
• a close front unrounded vowel in the general area of /i:/ and /ɪ/, symbolized /i/, as in happy /hổpi/, radio /ˈreɪdiəʊ/
The spelling of the /i/ sound can vary depending on its position in a word In word-final positions, it is often represented by "y" or "ey," as seen in "happy" (/ˈhổpi/) and "valley" (/ˈvổli/) When adding suffixes that begin with vowels, such as –er, -est, or -ing, the sound can be spelled with "i" or "y," as in "happier" (/ˈhổpiə/), "easiest" (/ˈi:ziest/), and "hurrying" (/ˈhʌriɪŋ/) Additionally, the letter "e" is used in unstressed prefixes like re-, pre-, or de- when followed by a vowel, as in "react" (/riˈổkt/), "create" (/kriˈeɪt/), and "deodorant" (/diˈəʊdərənt/) The /i/ sound can also be represented by "i" in words ending with "iate" and "ious," such as "appreciate" (/əˈpri:ʃieɪt/) and "hilarious" (/hɪˈleəriəs/).
In unstressed he, she, we, me, be or the preceding a vowel he is /hi ɪz/ the apple /ði ˈổpl/
• a close back rounded vowel in the general area of /u:/ and /ʊ/, symbolized /u/, as in thank you /ˈθổŋk ju/, influence /ˈɪnfluəns/
Spelling of /u/ Examples ou or o in unstressed you, to, into or do preceding a vowel You accompany us
/ju əˈkʌmpəni əs/ ough or o in unstressed through and who the man who is talking
/ðə ˈmổn hu ɪz ˈtɔlkɪŋ/ u preceding vowel within a word evacuation /ɪˈvổkjueɪʃn/ influenza /ˌɪnfluˈenzə/
If a syllable has a complex rhyme, then it is strong; and complexity can be achieved in two different ways (Roach, 2009)
➢ A strong syllable may have a short vowel, but one or more coda consonants, as /et/ in bet and /est/ in best
➢ It may have a branching nucleus, consisting of a long vowel or diphthong with or without a coda, as /i:/ in beast, /ɑɪ/ in bite, /i:/ in bee, or /aɪ/ in by
The classification of syllables as strong or weak plays a crucial role in determining word stress in English Importantly, no stressed syllable can be weak, which implies that lexical words cannot consist solely of short vowels, whether or not they have an onset Consequently, English nouns, verbs, and adjectives must be capable of bearing stress, as demonstrated by examples like "be" (/bi:/), "say" (/seɪ/), and "loss," while forms such as */bɪ/, */se/, or */lɒ/ are not permissible (Roach, 2009).
Function words, such as the indefinite article "a" and the preposition "to" pronounced as /tə/, typically serve as grammatical structure and are usually unstressed However, when these words do receive stress, they adopt special pronunciations like /eɪ/ for "a" and /tu:/ for "to," resulting in a longer vowel sound and a heavier syllable structure (Roach, 2009).
STRESS IN ENGLISH AND WEAK FORMS
Native English speakers instinctively recognize that within words, certain syllables are more phonetically prominent than others For instance, in the word "father," the first syllable is emphasized, while in "about," the second syllable takes precedence Similarly, in "syllable," the initial syllable is notably stronger than the others (Mahon, 2002).
A stressed syllable is marked in transcription by placing a small vertical line (ˈ) high up, just before the syllable it relates to as in father /ˈfɑ:ðə/, about /əˈbaʊt/, syllable /ˈsɪləbl/
Stress can be analyzed through both production and perception It is commonly understood that the production of stress occurs when a speaker exerts more muscular energy than for unstressed syllables From a perceptual standpoint, all stressed syllables share a key feature: prominence According to Mahon (2002), four critical factors contribute to a syllable's prominence.
• Stressed syllables are louder than unstressed syllables
• Stressed syllables are perceived as longer
• Stressed syllables are heard as higher pitch
• Stress has effects on vowel quality
In the examples of "father," "about," and "syllable," the stressed syllables feature full vowels such as /ɑ:/, /aʊ/, and /ɪ/, while the unstressed syllables usually contain the schwa sound For instance, "syllable" is pronounced as /ˈsɪləbəl/ or /ˈsɪləbl/, rather than /ˈsɪlổbel/.
Within the word, there can be more than one level of stress There are four levels of stress (Roach,
➢ Primary stress is the strongest type of stress like the stress falling on the last syllable of around /əˈraʊnd/
➢ Secondary stress is the type of stress that is weaker than primary stress but stronger than that of unstressed syllables The stress falling on the first syllable of photographic
/ˌfəʊtəˈgrổfɪk/ and anthropology /ˌổnθrəˈpɒlədʒi/
➢ Tertiary stress falls on unstressed syllables containing vowels other than /ə/, /ɪ/, /i/, /u/ or syllabic consonant like the last syllable in decorate /ˈdekəreɪt/
➢ Reduced stress falls on unstressed syllables containing /ə/, /ɪ/, /i/, /u/ or syllabic consonant such as the forth, sixth and last syllables in indivisibility /ˌɪndɪvɪzəˈbɪləti/
In IPA transcription, main stress is indicated by a superscripted line (ˈ) preceding the syllable, secondary stress by a subscripted line (ˌ) For the sake of simplicity, indivisibility is transcribed as /ˌɪndɪvɪzəˈbɪləti/
3 Placement of stress within the word
Single-syllable words when pronounced in isolation have primary stress In a multi-syllabic word, only strong syllables can be stressed while weak syllables are always unstressed (Roach, 2009)
In order to decide on stress placement, it is necessary to consider the followings:
• word formation (whether it is a simple, complex or compound word)
• grammatical category (noun, verb, adjective, etc.)
• phonological structures of the syllables, which decides which syllable is strong, which is weak
Also keep in mind that there are many exceptions to these rules and that English syllable stress can be quite irregular
Stress is generally on the first syllable
If the first syllable is strong, stress the first syllable
STRONG e.g money /ˈmʌni/ product /ˈprɒdʌkt/ larynx /ˈlổrɪŋks/
Stress is generally on the second syllable First syllable Second syllable
If the second syllable is strong, stress the second syllable
Verbs: apply /əˈplaɪ/, rotate /rəʊˈteɪt/, maintain /meɪnˈteɪn/
Adjectives: correct /kəˈrekt/, alive /əˈlaɪv/, divine /dɪˈvaɪn/
If the first syllable is weak, stress the second syllable
WEAK STRONG e.g divan /dɪˈvổn/ ballon /bəˈlu:n/ design /dɪˈzaɪn/
Adverbs: again/əˈɡen/, away/əˈweɪ/, perhaps
/pəˈhổps/, indeed /ɪnˈdi:d/
If the second syllable is weak or contains
/əʊ/, stress the first syllable
Verbs: enter /ˈentə/, open /ˈəʊpən/
Adjectives: equal /ˈi:kwəl/, lovely /ˈlʌvli/, even /ˈi:vən/, hollow /ˈhɒləʊ/
Adverbs: never /ˈnevə/, often /ˈɒfən/, even /ˈi:vn/, rather/ˈrɑ:ðə/, almost/ˈɔ:lməʊst/
Example of exceptions: honest /ˈɒnɪst/ perfect /ˈpɜ:fɪkt/
Two-syllable noun/adjective and verb pairs
Stress on the first syllables of nouns and adjectives and on the second syllables of verbs
Understanding the dual nature of certain words in English is essential for effective communication For instance, the word "conduct" can function as both a noun and a verb, highlighting its versatility Similarly, "contract" and "permit" serve different grammatical roles, which can change their meanings significantly Words like "contrast" and "desert" also demonstrate this phenomenon, as their pronunciation shifts depending on their usage Furthermore, terms such as "escort," "protest," and "export" illustrate the importance of context in determining their function in a sentence Mastering these distinctions not only enhances language skills but also aids in clear and precise expression.
If the first syllable is strong, it receives primary stress
STRONG e.g quality /ˈkwɒntəti/ emperor /ˈempərə/ custody /ˈkʌstədi/
If the third syllable is strong, it receives primary stress
STRONG e.g entertain /entəˈteɪn/ resurrect /rezəˈrekt/
If the first syllable is weak and the second syllable is strong, stress the second syllable
WEAK STRONG e.g potato /pəˈteɪtəʊ/ disaster /dɪˈzɑ:stə/ mimosa /mɪˈməʊzə/
If the third syllable is weak and the second syllable is strong, stress the second syllable
STRONG WEAK e.g encounter /ɪŋˈkaʊntə/ determine /dɪˈtɜ:mɪn/
If both the first and the second syllables are weak, stress the first syllable
STRONG WEAK WEAK e.g parody /ˈpổrədi/ monitor/ˈmɒnɪtə/
Complex words are formed by combining a basic word stem with one or more affixes, such as prefixes or suffixes; for example, "unpleasant" combines the prefix "un-" with the stem "pleasant," and "goodness" combines the stem "good" with the suffix "-ness." It is important to note that while prefixes do not influence word stress, suffixes can have an impact on it, as highlighted by Roach (2009).
A Suffixes carrying primary stress themselves
-ee/-eer refugee, evacuee, employee, mountaineer, volunteer, puppeteer
-ese Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, journalese
-ette cigarette, launderette, baguette, cassette,
-ique/-esque physique, boutique, antique, picturesque, statuesque
-air(e) millionaire, billionaire, questionnaire, extraordinaire, legionnaire
-ade blockade, arcade, invade, biodegrade, lemonade
-eur masseur, chanteur, chauffeur, entrepreneur
-oon monsoon, balloon, afternoon, tycoon, cartoon
B Suffixes that do not affect stress placement (the way the stem is stressed does not change)
-ary, -ery, -ory stationary, bribery, contradictory
C Suffixes moving the stress to the syllable before the suffix (the last syllable of the stem)
D Suffixes moving the stress to the syllable two syllables before the suffix (the syllable before the last syllable in the stem)
-ate (adjective) delicate, articulate, ultimate
-ise/-ize supervise, criticize, emphasize
Compound words are a type of complex word formed by combining two or more independent English words They can be written as a single word (e.g., armchair, sunflower), hyphenated (e.g., open-minded, cost-effective), or spaced (e.g., desk lamp, battery charger).
Compound words with two elements Examples
NOUNS Stress falls on the first element
First element Second element cupcake, typewriter White House, breakthough
VERBS Stress falls on the second element
First element Second element fall apart update
ADVERBS Stress falls on the second element
First element Second element outside downstream
ADJECTIVES Primary stress falls on the noun element
Primary stress falls on the participial or –ed element
Primary stress does not fall on the number element
Number waterproof low-fat ˌbad- ˈ tempered ˌold- ˈ fashioned ˌgood- ˈ looking ˌout- ˈ going ˌsecond-ˈ hand, ˌfirst-ˈ class
Compound words more than two elements
Stress falls on the first element
First element Second element Third element mother-in-law free-for-all forget-me-not
In English, the stress pattern of words is not always consistent, as it can shift based on surrounding words or differing opinions among speakers regarding stress placement.
In connected speech, stress often shifts from the final-stressed compound to a preceding syllable, adopting a secondary stress when the subsequent word starts with a strongly stressed syllable (Roach, 2009).
Examples: ˌbad-ˈtempered but a ˌbad-tempered ˈteacher ˌhalf-ˈtimbered but a ˌhalf-timbered ˈhouse ˌheavy-ˈhanded but a ˌheavy-handed ˈsentence
3.5 Strong forms and weak forms of words
Function words, which typically hold less significance than content words, can often be reduced without losing the overall meaning of a sentence This reduction emphasizes the essential components of communication, allowing the core message to remain intact even if these less critical words are removed.
Function words, which are typically unstressed, include pronouns like he, she, and they, as well as prepositions such as in, for, and by Conjunctions like and, but, and or, along with auxiliary verbs such as is, was, and have, also fall into this category Articles like a and the are essential function words In contrast, content words, which carry more meaning and are stressed, encompass nouns like hour and tea, main verbs such as play and waited, and adjectives like good and cold Additionally, adverbs like quickly and never, question words such as who and what, and contractions with not, like can’t and isn’t, are also classified as content words Understanding the distinction between function and content words is crucial for effective communication and language comprehension.
• When a function word is reduced, we use the weak form of the word The weak form is said more quickly and more softly The vowel becomes the schwa /ə/ (Roach, 2009)
Word Weak form Examples the /ðə/ (before consonants)
Wait for the end a an
/ə/ (before consonants) /ən/ (before vowels)
Eat an apple and /ən/
Fish and chips but /bət/ It’s good but expensive that
/ðət/ The prize is the thing that annoys me than /ðən/ Better than ever his (before a noun) /ɪz/ Take his name her
/ə/ (before consonants) /ər/ (before vowels)
Take her out your /jə/ (before consonants)
On your own she he we you
In the context of decision-making, one might wonder which option he chose and how to reach that conclusion It's important to consider different perspectives, such as leaving him alone or leaving them here Engaging with us, like writing us a letter, can foster better communication Additionally, setting a time to meet, such as at lunch, can enhance collaboration Lastly, understanding the purpose behind actions, like doing something for a reason, is crucial for effective interactions.
Thank you for your inquiry I just got home from work Most importantly, try to stop by as much as possible Would you like to have some more tea while you're there?
There should be a rule There is only one can could
He could do it have has had
Which have you seen? Which has been best? shall should
We shall need to hurry
I should forget it must /məs/ (before consonants)
He must eat more do does
/də/ (before consonants) /du/ (before vowels) /dəz/
Why do they like it?
Why do all the cars stop? When does it arrive? am are was were
/ə/ (before consonants) /ər/ (before vowels) /wəz/
/wə/ (before consonants) /wər/ (before vowels)
The coats are in there
He was here a minute ago The papers were late
• When the function word is at the end of the sentence, or if it is used for emphasis, the strong form of the word is used
Weak form with reduced vowel Strong form with full vowel for I’m looking for you
Who are you looking for?
/fɔ:/ to Would you like to go?
/tu:/ at He’s at the bank
Are you laughing with me or at me?
Mark the stress for the following two-syllable nouns
Mark the stress for the following two-syllable verbs
Mark the stress for the following two-syllable adjectives
Mark the stress for the following two-syllable adverbs
Write the correct stress pattern for the words in bold
0 There’s been an increase in the number of students
Oo 33 Put a couple of inserts in this text
00 Numbers are increasing oOo 34 He inserted a few words into her paragraph
1 We’ve seen a decrease in the bird population
2 Numbers are decreasing every year 36 Let’s do a customer survey to find out
3 They import their oil from the UK 37 He contrasted the two pictures
4 This is a cheap import 38 There’s a big contrast between you two
5 We need to export more 39 The story details their struggle with poverty
6 Oil is one of their biggest exports 40 It’s just a minor detail
7 They discounted the theories 41 You’ll need an escort to get through security
8 Is there a discount on this? 42 He escorted her out of the door
9 I’d like a refund please 43 The roses perfumed the room
10 We’ll refund you 50% 44 He bought her a bottle of perfume for her birthday
11 They won’t permit her to leave the country
45 This is one of the rejects from the factory
12 Do you need a permit to fish here? 46 He rejected her advice
13 They’re reporting armed conflict in the area
47 The victory was an upset in the championships
14 His opinion conflicted with hers 48 He upset her with his cruel remarks
15 She entered a beauty contest 49 They lived in a compound
16 They contested the results 50 Current policy is just compounding problems
17 Your offer is so low it’s an insult 51 The economy is contracting
18 Don’t insult me! 52 Have you signed the contract?
19 There’s a student protest today 53 They’re conducting an enquiry
20 They’re protesting against cuts 54 The conduct of the student was unacceptable
21 He rebelled against authority 55 He treats her like an object
22 He was a rebel when he was younger
56 She objected to the proposals
23 That’s a rewrite of an old song 57 What subjects do you study?
24 She rewrote her story 58 She was subjected to harsh criticism
25 We’re updating our files 59 He gave her a present
26 We’ve got some updates for you 60 He’s going to present his findings
27 They got an upgrade on the flight 61 They’re working on a project
28 It’s time to upgrade our computer 62 He projects himself well
29 I received an invite to her party 63 He refused permission
30 They invited us to their house 64 The refuse collectors are on strike
31 There’s a misprint in the book 65 The soldiers deserted their post
32 He misprinted the word 66 They went travelling in the Sahara desert
Arrange the words according to their stress pattern (S – strong syllable; W – weak syllable)
1 determine 5 abashed 9 cargo 13 potato 17 Mandarin
2 resurrect 6 purchase 10 seldom 14 Dolores 18 entertain
3 disaster 7 boring 11 appetite 15 allow 19 hurry
4 capital 8 tattoo 12 dominate 16 Panama 20 appliance
SW WS SWW WSW WWS
Mark the stress for the following three-syllable nouns
Mark the stress for the following three-syllable verbs
Mark the stress for the following three-syllable adjectives
Choose the correct prefix for the words given below Put stress marks on both forms dis‐, il‐, im‐, in‐, ir‐, mis‐, mal‐, over‐, post‐, re‐, un‐
Mark the primary and secondary stress on the following words with prefixes
Mark the primary and secondary stress on the words with suffixes where necessary
Mark the primary and secondary stress on the words with suffixes where necessary
Mark the primary and secondary stress on the words with suffixes where necessary
Decide where the main stress is in the first word and if it stays on the same syllable in the second word or moves Mark the stress
Mark the primary and secondary stress (if applicable) on the following compound nouns
Mark the primary and secondary stress on the following compound verbs
Mark the primary and secondary stress on the following compound adverbs
Mark the primary and secondary stress on the following compound adjectives
Put the words in the correct column of the table according to the type of words and mark the stress (primary and/or secondary)
Simple words Complex (derivative) words Compound words approach /əˈprəʊtʃ/
Mark the primary and secondary stress on the following compound words with more than two elements
Mark the primary and secondary stress on the following noun phrases
Identify the function words with weak forms and those with strong forms and transcribe the words
Function words Weak forms Strong forms
0 I gave it to her, not to you I /aɪ/, it /ɪt/, to /tə/ her /hɜ:/, you /ju:/
1 I waited for him for an hour
2 What are you looking at?
3 I am looking at the girl in a red dress
4 You are taller than your brother
5 He can play tennis well, but I can too
6 Where do you come from?
8 You should have let me know before leaving for London
9 I must complete the assignment on time
10 They met some years ago and became friends
11 Can I have some more tea?
12 How long have you been waiting there?
13 I don’t like that music at all
14 You said that you were not coming to the party on Friday
Underline the function words with weak forms and circle those with strong forms and transcribe the words
It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must
_ be in want of a wife However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his
_ first entering a neighborhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families,
_ that he is considered as the rightful property of someone or other of their daughters
"My dear Mr Bennet," said his lady to him one day, “Have you heard that Netherfield Park is
Mr Bennet replied that he had not
"Why, my dear, you must know, Mrs Long says that Netherfield is taken by a young man of
_ large fortune from the north of England; that he came down on Monday in a chaise and four to
_ see the place, and was so much delighted with it that he agreed with Mr Morris immediately;
_ that he is to take possession before Michaelmas, and some of his servants are to be in the house
_ by the end of next week."
"Is he married or single?"
"Oh! single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune; four or five thousand a year
What a fine thing for our girls!"