Pronunciation for english as an international language from research to practice

Pronunciation for English as an International Language Pronunciation plays a crucial role in learning English as an international language, yet often remains marginalised by educators due to a lack of required phonetic and phonological knowledge Pronunciation for English as an International Language bridges the gap between phonetics, phonology and pronunciation and provides the reader with a research-based guide on how best to teach the English language The book follows an easy-to-follow format that ensures the reader will have a comprehensive grasp of each given topic by the end of the chapter Key ideas explored include: • • • • • articulation of English speech sounds and basic transcription; connected speech processes; current issues in English language pronunciation teaching; multimedia in English language pronunciation practice; using speech analysis to investigate pronunciation features Using the latest research, Pronunciation for English as an International Language will facilitate effective teaching and learning for any individual involved in teaching English as a second, foreign or international language Ee-Ling Low is Associate Professor of English Language & Literature and Head, Office of Strategic Planning and Academic Quality at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Routledge Research in Language Education The Routledge Research in Language Education series provides a platform for established and emerging scholars to present their latest research and discuss key issues in language education This series welcomes books on all areas of language teaching and learning, including but not limited to language education policy and politics, multilingualism, literacy, L1, L2 or foreign-language acquisition, curriculum, classroom practice, pedagogy, teaching materials, and language teacher education and development Books in the series are not limited to the discussion of the teaching and learning of English only Books in the series include: Teaching Chinese Literacy in the Early Years Psychology, pedagogy and practice Hui Li Pronunciation for English as an International Language From research to practice Ee-Ling Low The Role of English Teaching in Modern Japan Diversity and multiculturalism through English language education in a globalized era Mieko Yamada Pronunciation for English as an International Language From research to practice Ee-Ling Low First published 2015 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 E L Low The right of E L Low to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Low, Ee Ling, author Pronunciation for English as an international language : from research to practice / Ee-Ling Low pages cm—(Routledge Research in Language Education) English language—Pronunciation by foreign speakers English language—Pronunciation—Study and teaching English language—Phonology—Study and teaching I Title PE1137.L69 2014 428.3'4071—dc23 2014012822 ISBN: 978–0–415–72512–5 (hbk) ISBN: 978–1–315–81413–1 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon Contents List of illustrations Foreword Acknowledgements List of abbreviations Introduction and theoretical paradigms vii x xii xiv Articulation of English speech sounds and basic transcription 20 Acoustics of English speech sounds 37 Vowels 46 Consonants 63 Connected speech processes 76 Stress 86 Rhythm 97 Intonation 115 10 Current issues in EIL pronunciation teaching 128 11 Multimedia in EIL pronunciation practice 150 12 Using speech analysis software to investigate pronunciation features 168 vi Contents 13 Bibliography on phonetic features and EIL pronunciation teaching Afterword References Index 185 216 220 240 Illustrations Figures 2.1 2.2(a) 2.2(b) 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.3 8.1 Vocal folds coming together (left) and apart (right) Schematic representation of the oral tract Schematic representation of the nasal tract The organs of speech located on the upper and lower articulators Lower articulators with parts of the tongue labelled Vowel quadrilateral showing mouth and tongue position Vowel quadrilateral with diagonal line separating rounded and unrounded vowels Vowel quadrilateral showing all the long monophthongs in English Vowel quadrilateral showing short monophthongs in English Vowel quadrilateral showing the closing diphthongs Vowel quadrilateral showing the centering diphthongs in English Vowel quadrilateral showing the complete monophthongs found in English Sound wave (upper half) and spectrogram (lower half) of a female producing the word bead Sound wave (upper half of diagram) showing female speaker producing the sentence Please say bead again The dB measurement of the word bead (see the shaded part) pronounced by a female speaker Duration measurement between the vowel in bit versus beat Female speaker producing the word armchair Male speaker producing the sentence John can swim and Can John swim? Primary cardinal vowels Secondary cardinal vowels Vowel quadrilateral for the monophthongs of British English Low’s Venn Diagram showing the pull for Expanding Circle varieties towards the norms of both the Inner and Outer Circle varieties 21 22 22 23 25 30 30 31 31 32 33 33 38 39 42 43 44 44 48 49 61 112 viii Illustrations 10.1 11.1 12.1 12.2 12.3a 12.3b 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 Pakir’s quadrant analysis of the three paradigms International English, World Englishes and English as a lingua franca Summary of typical activities for using songs to teach pronunciation Selecting the ‘Record mono sound’ function Sound recorder in Praat Loading a pre-recorded sound file Selected sound file now appears under Praat objects Sound waves shown from the pre-recorded sound file entitled ‘citation vowels’ Selected segment of the sound file shows up in the shaded part Spectrogram display of the selected sound segment F1 measurement for the vowel /i:/ F2 measurement for the vowel /i:/ VOT for aspirated /t/ vs the unaspirated version on the right where VOT is not visible The measurement of the VOT for non-aspirated /t/ in the word take British English (left) production of the word armchair and Singapore English (right) production of the word armchair British English (left) production of the word old chair and Singapore English (right) production of the word old chair Spectrographic display for a Singaporean uttering the sentence John was sick of Fred and Sandy 131 153 169 170 170 171 171 172 172 174 174 178 178 180 180 182 Tables 2.1 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 6.1 6.2 7.1 Place and manner of articulation of English consonants Dimensions of speech sounds Phonemic vowel inventory of British English Vowel inventory of standard Singapore English as informed by recent acoustic studies Sample Bingo card designed to help students discriminate between the long/short vowel pair in FLEECE and KIT Parts of the syllable Possible onset combinations in English Possible coda combinations in English The consonantal inventory of British English IPA chart of all pulmonic consonants Table of consonants in Singapore English in final position based on recent experimental studies Consonantal inventory for Hong Kong English List of weak forms in English Place and manner of English consonants Parameters contributing to stress 27 39 50 54 62 64 64 64 66 66 68 69 78 80 88 Illustrations 10.1 12.1 12.2 12.3 Listener-dominated norms governing the communicative context in EIL Compare diphthongs in different varieties of English Compare the different values obtained for the British English and the Singaporean English realisation of armchair and old chair The different values obtained for the British English and the Singaporean English realisation of armchair and old chair ix 130 177 179 181 236 References Rajadurai, J (2007) Intelligibility studies: A consideration of empirical and ideological issues World Englishes, 26(1), 87–98 Rajagopalan, K (2005) Non-native speaker teachers of English and their anxieties: Ingredients for an experiment in action research In E Llurda (Ed.), Non-native language teachers: Perceptions, challenges, and contributions to the profession (pp 283–303) New York: Springer Ramus, F., Nespor, M., & Mehler, J (1999) Correlates of linguistic rhythm in the speech signal Cognition, 73(3), 265–292 Reves, T., & Medgyes, P (1994) The non-native English speaking EFL/ESL teacher’s self image: An international survey System, 22(3), 353–357 Richards, J (1969) Songs in language learning TESOL Quarterly, 3(2), 161–174 Roach, P (1982) On the distinction between ‘stress-timed’ and ‘syllable-timed’ languages In D Crystal (Ed.), Linguistic controversies (pp 73–79) London: Edward Arnold Roach, P (2000) English phonetics and phonology: A practical course (3rd ed.) 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Analytical expression for critical-band rate and critical bandwidth as a function of frequency Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 68, 1523–1525 Index Abercrombie, D 98, 99, 100, 101 Acar, A 132, 133 accent 11, 98, 115, 143–4 accentual function of intonation 119, 120 accommodation 12, 85, 147, 148 acculturation 3, ACE (Asian Corpus of English) acoustic dimension of speech sounds 39t, 40 acoustic measurement 168 consonants 177–8, 178f lexical stress placement 178–81, 179t, 180f, 181t rhythm 181–3, 182f see also acoustic measurement of vowels acoustic measurement of vowels diphthongs 176–7, 177t Expanding Circle of English 58–9 Outer Circle varieties 53–7 vowel durations 41, 42, 43f, 176 vowel quality 173–6, 174f acoustics of English speech sounds 16–17, 37 duration and timing 40, 41, 42, 43f loudness, amplitude and intensity 40–1 perception of sound 37–40 pitch and F0 40, 42, 43–5, 44f, 86–7 sound waves 38–9, 38f, 39f see also Praat; speech analysis software Adam’s apple 21 affricates 27t, 64, 65, 66t, 80t AI (amplitude integral) 41 airstream mechanisms 20–1 Akahane-Yamada, R et al 156 Alptekin, C 131 Alsagoff, L 111 alveolar consonants 25, 27t, 66t, 80t alveolar ridge 24 Amalgum English 13 Amin (1999) 136 amplitude 40–1 amplitude integral (AI) 41 anacrusis 116 Anchimbe, E A 135 Andrews, S 136 Ann, J 91, 92 Ao, R 58, 71 approximants 26, 27t, 64, 66t, 67, 80t Arslan, R S 96 articulation of English speech sounds 16, 20 articulatory system 20–4 consonants 24, 25–8, 63 vowels 28–34 articulatory dimension of speech sounds 39t, 40 articulatory system airstream mechanisms 20–1 speech organs 21, 21f, 23–4, 23f vocal tract 21–3, 22f Arvaniti, A 108 Asian Corpus of English (ACE) assessment for EIL 146–9, 218 assimilation 76, 77, 78–9, 85 Aston, G F 87 Asu, E L 106 attitudinal function of intonation 119–20 Audacity 162 Audible 161 Audio Memos Free – The Voice Recorder 165, 167 audio-recording 165 auditory dimension of speech sounds 39t, 40 automaticity 151 awareness 12 Azirah, H 177 Index 241 Baik, M J 160–1 Ball, M J 46 Barry, W J et al 105 BATH and NURSE 62 Beare, K Beckman, M 41, 87, 112 Benke, E 140 Bian, F 93, 95 bibliography 19, 185 EIL 185–6 intelligibility 213–15 NESTs vs NNESTs in pronunciation teaching 212–13 phonetic features of varieties of English 191–8 phonetics and pronunciation 186–91 pronunciation acquisition and learning 205–11 pronunciation teaching 198–205 bilabial consonants 25, 27t, 66t, 80t Bilal, H A et al 53–4, 59–60 bilingual students 13, 14, 106, 108, 109–10 Bingo! cards 61–2, 62t Black South African English 123 Bloch, B 100 Bloomfield, L 134 Boersma, P 40, 168 Bolinger, D 87, 90, 101, 102, 122 Bolton, K 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 55, 128, 141 Bradlow, A R et al 157 Braine, G 135, 138, 139, 141 British contour-based tradition see intonation: British model British English 12 terminology 15 tones 14, 118–19 Bronstein, A J 46 Brown, A 5, 88, 117, 123 Brown, G et al 116 Bruthiaux, P Brutt-Griffler, J 4, 136 Butler, Y 138, 140 Cambridge English for Speakers of other Languages 147 Cameroon English 124–5 Canagarajah, A S 8, 11, 135 Canale, M 133 CAPT see computer-assisted pronunciation teaching cardinal vowels 47–9, 48f, 49f Carter, P M 106, 109 Catalan 102 CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference for Language) 148 Celce-Murcia, M et al 72, 112 Chan, J 69 Chand, V 67 chapter structure and overview 15–19 Chastain, K 12 Chen, Y et al 93 Cheung, Y L 139–40 Chinese English connected speech processes 84 consonants 70–1 intonation 125 rhythmic patterning 111, 114 stress 93, 95 vowels 58–9 Yunnan English 58–9, 71 Chun, D M 146, 158–9 citation forms 76 Clark, E 141 CLOTH and THOUGHT 61 coda 63–4, 64t code-switching 131 cognitive teaching 131 Common European Framework of Reference for Language (CEFR) 148 communicative competence 12, 13, 15, 95, 133, 218 comprehensibility 12, 143–4 computer-assisted pronunciation teaching (CAPT) 155 intonation 158–9 rhythm 159–60 software applications 160 stress 159–60 visual pronunciation feedback 155–6 vowels and consonants 156–7 Computerized Speech Laboratory 160 Coniam, D 159 Connected Speech 160 connected speech processes 17, 76 assimilation 76, 77, 78–9, 85 basic concepts 76–82 elisions/deletions 47, 79, 81, 85 Expanding Circle varieties 84 implications for teaching and learning 84–5 linking 81–2, 85 Outer Circle varieties 82–4 research 82–4 weak forms and vowel reduction 77, 78t, 82–3, 84, 85, 146 see also intonation; rhythm; stress consonant cluster deletion 73–4, 83, 84–5 242 Index consonants 17, 63 acoustic measurement 177–8, 178f affricates 27t, 64, 65, 66t, 80t alveolar consonants 25, 27t, 66t, 80t approximants 26, 27t, 64, 66t, 67, 80t articulation and classification 24, 25–8, 63 bilabial consonants 25, 27t, 66t, 80t dental consonants 25, 27t, 66t, 80t Euro-English 69, 70 Expanding Circle varieties 70–1 fricatives 26, 27t, 65, 66t, 80t glides 67 glottal consonants 26, 27t, 66t, 80t implications for teaching and learning 71–5 intelligibility 71–2, 73–4 IPA pulmonic consonants 66t, 80t labiodental consonants 25, 27t, 66t, 80t lateral approximant 26 liquids 67 manner of articulation 24, 26, 27t, 66t, 80t nasals 26, 27t, 65, 66t, 80t Outer Circle varieties 65, 67–70 palatal consonants 26, 27t, 66t, 80t palato-alveolar consonants 25–6, 27t, 66t, 80t phonetic symbols 35 phonological description 63–4 place of articulation 24, 25–6, 27t, 66t, 80t post-alveolar consonants 80t research 65–71 software applications for teaching 157 songs for teaching 152–3 stops 26, 65 syllabic consonants 47, 63 transcription 35 velar consonants 26, 27t, 66t, 80t voice onset time (VOT) 177–8 voicing 21, 24, 25, 26, 28 contrastive stress 90, 146 Cooper, W E 115 copyright 154, 162 Corpus of Academic English 148 Coskun, A 132 Couper-Kuhlen, E 89, 101 critical teaching 131 cross-cultural pragmatic competence 14, 111, 112, 131 Cruttenden, A 13, 25, 43, 47, 60, 76–7, 84, 113, 115, 119, 122 Crystal, D 2–3, 5, 63, 86–7, 90, 111 Cumming, R E 107 current issues in EIL pronunciation teaching 18, 128 assessment 146–9, 218 EIL research and implications for pronunciation practice 128–33 intelligibility and norms 143–6 native vs non-native English-speaking teachers 134–43 /d/ deletion 79 Dasher, R 101, 102 Date, T 74, 145 Dauer, R M 99–100, 101–2 Davies, A 134 Davies, D R De Bot, K 158 de-stressing 146 decibel (dB) measurement 41, 42f deletions 47, 79, 81, 85 Dellwo, V 105, 106 Demirezen, M 96 dental consonants 25, 27t, 66t, 80t derivational suffixes 89 Derwing, T 129, 143–4 Deterding, D 47, 54, 58, 70, 71, 76–7, 82, 84, 92, 106, 111, 112, 123, 144–5, 174, 175, 177, 182 devoicing 47 Diez, F G et al 109 digital audiobooks 161–2 diphthongs 29, 32–3, 32f, 33f, 52–3, 176–7, 177t discoursal competence 133, 146 discoursal function of intonation 119, 121–2, 125 discourse intonation 158, 160 Doganỗay-Aktuna, S 138 DRESS and TRAP 60 Duguid, A 57, 125 East African (Swahili) speakers of English 55–6 Edmonds, L A 157 Edwards, J 112 EFL see English as a foreign language Ehsani, F 155, 156 EIL see English as an international language ELF see English as a lingua franca elisions (deletions) 79, 81, 85 Ellis, E 137 Index 243 Ellis, N C 146 emphatic stress 90, 146 Encyclopedia Britannica 163 English and Low (2012) 68 English as a foreign language (EFL) 3, 5, 129 English as a global language see English as an international language English as a lingua franca (ELF) 1, 6, 8–10, 11, 13, 128, 130, 131f English as a second language (ESL) 3, 129 English as an international language (EIL) 16 bibliography 185–6 defining EIL 2–4, 10 and the ELF paradigm 9–10, 128, 130, 131f international corpus 219 and the WE paradigm 7–8, 11, 128, 130, 131f English as an official language 2–3 ‘English’ terminology 15 epiglottis 24, 25f ESL see English as a second language Euro-English consonants 69, 70 intonation 125 stress 91, 92–3 vowels 57 Expanding Circle of English connected speech processes 84 consonants 70–1 intonation 125 native speaker teachers 135 norms 129–30, 130t stress 93–4 vowels 58–9 experiential teaching and learning 133 F0 see pitch Ferragne, E 105, 106 Field, J 94, 144 FLEECE and KIT 61 Flege, J E et al 129 Fletcher, J 56–7 Fogelberg, D 154 FOOT and GOOSE 61 foot/feet 77, 97 foreign language learning fricatives 26, 27t, 65, 66t, 80t Fry, D 87 Gimson, A C 76–7, 84, 115, 119 given/new information 90, 119, 122, 146 glides 67 glottal consonants 26, 27t, 66t, 80t glottis 21 goals of pronunciation teaching 12–13, 14 Goh, C C M 123 GOOSE and FOOT 61 Grabe, E et al 100, 101, 104–5, 110, 179 Graddol, D Grammar of Spoken Singapore English Corpus (GSSEC) 123 grammatical competence 133 grammatical function of intonation 119, 120–1 Grant, N 55–6 Gupta, A F 12, 73 Gut, U et al 83, 106, 124 /h/ deletion 79 Hahn, L D 144, 145–6 Halliday, M A K 90 Han, M S 100, 101 hard palate 24 Hay, J 108–9 Hayward, K 40, 173, 175 He, D 141, 142 Heng, M G 82 hertz (Hz) 43 Higgins, J 72, 73 Ho, L 58, 70 Hoequist, C J 100 Hoffman, T 56 Hong Kong English 55 connected speech processes 83–4 consonants 69, 69t Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers of English (LPATE) 141 vowels 55 House, J 133 Householder, F W 89 Huguet, A 137 Hung, T T N 55, 69, 72, 73 Hurley, D S 158 Hymes, D 133 Hz (hertz) 43 identity, sociocultural 11, 15, 111, 129, 132, 147, 148 IELTS (International English Language Testing System) 147 IM see interval measures 244 Index implications for EIL pronunciation teaching and learning accent 11 communicative competence 95, 133 connected speech processes 84–5 consonantal distinctions 71–5 exposure to native and non-native interactions 132 goals of pronunciation teaching 12–13, 14 guiding assumptions 13–14 intelligibility 11–12, 13, 14, 71–2, 73–4, 129, 132, 145–6 intonation 125–7, 146 local variation 15 minimal pairs 72 multicultural competence 131, 133, 142 multilingual students 14, 129, 130 phoneme frequency 73 rhythm 110–14 stress 94–6 teacher talk frequency profiles 75 vowel phoneme distinctions 59–62 Inbar-Lourie, O 136–7 Indian English consonants 67–8 North Indian diphthongs 57 North Indian vowels 56–7 stress 92 inflectional suffixes 89 Inner Circle of English 5, 129–30, 130t intelligibility and accent 143–4 bibliography 213–15 comfortable intelligibility 13 consonant cluster deletion 84–5 consonantal distinctions 71–2, 73–4 definition 12 functional intelligibility 12 implications for teaching and learning 11–12, 13, 14, 71–2, 73–4, 129, 132, 145–6 and linguistic shibboleths 14 mutual intelligibility 13, 132, 217–18 and norms in EIL pronunciation practice 143–6 and stress 94, 96, 144 vowel phoneme distinctions 59 WE speaker–listener intelligibility matrix 129 see also comprehensibility; interpretability intensity 40, 41 interactional sensitivity training 131 intercultural competence 131 intermediate languages 102 International English Language Testing System (IELTS) 147 international languages 2–4 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) pulmonic consonants 66t, 80t Internet as resource bank 160–2 interpretability 127, 143, 146 interval measures (IM) 102–3, 104, 105 intonation 14, 115, 118 discourse intonation 158, 160 Euro-English 125 Expanding Circle varieties 125 implications for teaching and learning 125–7, 146 Outer Circle varieties 122–5 patterns 43, 44–5, 44f research 122–5 software applications for teaching 158–9 see also intonation: British model intonation: British model 115 accentual function 119, 120 attitudinal function 119–20 discoursal function 119, 121–2, 125 forms 115–19 functions 119–22 grammatical function 119, 120–1 tone units (tone groups) 115–17 tones 14, 118–19 transcription 117–18 IPA see International Phonetic Alphabet iPhone and iPad 165–6 as mobile English pronunciation aids 166 software 165, 166–7 as tools for pronunciation podcasting 166–7 isochrony 98, 99–100, 101 /j/: linking /j/ 81 Janse, E et al 110 Japan language training 12, 156, 157 mora-timing 100, 101 speakers of English 74 Jassem, W 87 Jenkins, J 1, 6, 8–9, 10, 11, 13, 57, 59, 60, 69, 70, 71–2, 73, 74, 84, 94, 126–7, 132, 138, 147–8 Johnson, K 37, 38, 76–7, 87–8, 115, 174 Jones, D 47, 86 Jowitt, D 124 Index 245 Kachru, B B 5, 8, 129, 134 Kachruvian Three Circles of English 5–7, Kamhi-Stein, L et al 137–8 Kandiah, T Kay Elemetrics Visi-PitchTM 157, 160 Kelch, K 139 Kent, R D 175 Kenworthy, J 13 Kenyan English 56 key issues 217–18 Khamkhien, A 93–4, 95 Kirkpatrick, A 8, 9, 73, 74, 144–5 KIT and FLEECE 61 Knodt, E 155, 156 Kohler, K J 76 Kruatrachue, F 71 Kurtz, B et al 163 L-vocalisation 67 labiodental consonants 25, 27t, 66t, 80t Ladefoged, P 37, 38, 43, 48, 76–7, 87–8, 100, 115, 173, 174 language acquisition 110 language contact 147 larynx 21 Lasagabaster, D 140 lateral approximant 26 Laver, J 47, 87, 98, 101 lax vowels see short vowels Lee, E M 54 Lenneberg, E 129 levelling 47 Levis, J 123, 128–9, 146, 155, 158 lexical stress 90–3, 94, 115, 144 acoustic measurement 178–81, 179t, 180f, 181t LFC see lingua franca core Li, S 58, 70–1 Liang, K 139 Lim, L 49, 54, 123 Lim, S S 47 Lin, H 106 lingua franca see also English as a lingua franca lingua franca core (LFC) 9, 71–2, 73, 74, 132, 148 linguistic shibboleths 14 linking 81–2, 85 Lippi-Green, R 141 lips 23, 24, 29 liquids 67 listener-dominated norms 129–30, 130t, 217 Liu, J 136 Llurda, E 9, 131, 137, 142 local variation 15 long vowels 29, 41, 51–2, 61–2 loudness 40 Loukina, A et al 105, 107–8 Loveday, L 158 Low, E L et al 5, 11, 40–1, 47, 49, 54, 58, 59, 68, 71, 82, 86, 88, 91–2, 99, 100, 101, 102–5, 106, 107, 110, 117, 123, 133, 176, 179, 181, 182–3 Lowenberg, P 146–7 lower/active articulators 23, 23f, 24, 25f Low’s Venn Diagram 111, 112f Lu, J et al 159–60 lungs 21 McKay, S L 2, 3, 8–10, 13–15, 60, 128, 131 Mahboob, A 140 Mailfert, K 158 Malaysian English 123, 124 Malmberg, B 86 manner of articulation 24, 26, 27t, 66t, 80t Manuel, S 156 Mattys, S L 105, 106, 109 Maum, R 135 Mauranen, A 148 Maxwell, O 56–7 Medgyes, P 135–6, 140 Meng, P 165 Mennen, I 126 Mesthrie, R 65, 82, 122–3 Miller, L 141, 142 Miller, M 99–100 minimal pairs 72, 152 MLE see Multicultural London English mobile phones see iPhone and iPad Mobile Podcaster 167 mobile technologies 162–3 mobile phones and tablets 165–7 podcasting 163–5, 166–7 Modiano, M 6, 131 Moholt, G 156 Mok, P P K 106, 108 monitoring strategies 12 monophthongs 29, 30–2, 31f, 33f, 34, 61f Moon, R 92 mora-timed languages 100, 101 moras 100 Morley, J 11, 12, 132 Morton, J 87 Moussu, L 139, 140, 142 mouth position 28, 30f 246 Index Moyer, A 129 Mufwene, S 147 Mukherjee, J 134 multicultural competence 131, 133, 142 Multicultural London English (MLE) 15, 109 multilingual students 14, 129, 130 multimedia in EIL pronunciation practice 18–19, 150 mobile technologies 162–7 songs 150–4, 153f technology 155–62 Munro, M J et al 129, 143–4, 156–7 Nakamura, S 108 Nakatani, L H 87 Nakayama, Y 12 nasal sounds 22 nasal tract 22, 22f nasals 26, 27t, 65, 66t, 80t ‘native-speaker accent’ 11 native speaker fallacy 12, 132, 135, 142 native vs non-native English-speaking teachers (NESTs vs NNESTs) 134, 218 bibliography 212–13 challenges faced by NNESTs 141–2 native speakers 134, 135 NEST selection criteria 142 NNESTs’ self-perceptions 135–8 non-native speakers 134–5 professional development 142–3 recommendations 142–3 students’ perceptions of NNESTs 139–41 nativeness principle 128–9 Nespor, M 102, 104 NESTs see native vs non-native Englishspeaking teachers Ng, E C 124 Nigerian English connected speech processes 83 intonation 123, 124 stress 91 NNESTs see native vs non-native Englishspeaking teachers Nokes, J 108–9 Nolan, F 87, 106, 116–17 norms for pronunciation for EIL 111, 112f in EIL testing 147–8 and intelligibility 143–6 Kachruvian circles listener-dominated norms 129–30, 130t, 217 native-speaker norms 9, 10 Outer Circle of English 129–30, 130t nuclear (sentence) stress 87, 90 nuclear syllable (nucleus) 87, 116–17 NURSE and BATH 62 onset 63–4, 64t oral sounds 22 oral tract 22, 22f Ouafeu, Y T S 124–5 Outer Circle of English acoustic studies 53–7 connected speech processes 82–4 consonants 65, 67–70 intonation 122–5 norms 129–30, 130t stress 91–3 vowels 53–7 Paccia-Cooper, J 115 Paikeday, T M 134 Pairwise Variability Index (PVI) 102–5, 106, 107, 108–9, 110–11, 181 Pakir, A 130 Pakistani English 53–4 palatal consonants 26, 27t, 66t, 80t palato-alveolar consonants 25–6, 27t, 66t, 80t Paran, A 141 Patten, I 157 pauses 99, 116 Payne, E et al 108, 110 Pellegrino, F 105 Peng, L 83–4, 91, 92 Pennington, M C 146 Pennycook, A Peter, B 110 Phillipson, R 6, 10, 12, 135 phoneme frequency 73 phonetic symbols 28, 35–6 phonetics 20 bibliography 186–91 dimensions of speech sounds 39–40, 39t features of varieties of English: bibliography 191–8 see also acoustics of English speech sounds; articulation of English speech sounds phonological description consonants 63–4 vowels 46–9 phonological environment 76 phonotactic constraints 63–4 Index 247 Pickering, L 125, 126, 158 Pike, K 86, 89, 99, 100 pitch and F0 40, 42, 43–5, 44f, 86–7 level/direction of unaccented syllables 116 place of articulation 24, 25–6, 27t, 66t, 80t plosives 26, 27t, 66t, 80t podcasting definition 163 iPhone and iPad 166–7 software 165, 167 for teaching and learning EIL pronunciation 164–5 use 163–4 Podcasts app 166–7 Poedjosoedarmo, G 47, 76–7, 174, 177 Polish 102 politeness 146, 158 polysyllabic words 88 Port, P F et al 101 post-alveolar consonants 27t, 66t, 80t post-vocalic r-deletion 67 Praat (speech analysis software) 40, 160, 162, 168, 183–4 acoustic measurement of consonants 177–8, 178f acoustic measurement of lexical stress placement 178–81, 179t, 180f, 181t acoustic measurement of rhythm 181–3, 182f acoustic measurement of vowels 42f, 43f, 173–7, 174f, 177t loading and viewing speech sample 169, 170f, 171–3, 171f, 172f speech recording 168–9, 169f, 170f visual pronunciation feedback 155–6 pragmatic competence 14, 111, 112, 131 primary stress 88, 144, 145, 146 process teaching 131 progressive assimilation 78 pronunciation acquisition and learning bibliography 205–11 research imbalance 217 teaching bibliography 198–205 PVI see Pairwise Variability Index quadrant analysis 130, 131f /r/ linking /r/ 81–2 post-vocalic r-deletion 67 Rafiqzad, K 12 Rahilly, J 46 Rajadurai, J 145 Rajagopalan, K 141 Ramus, F et al 102–3, 104, 105, 106 Read, C 175 reduction see vowels: reduction regional variation 57, 58, 59, 62, 74 regressive assimilation 78 regressive assimilation of place (RAP) 78–9 repetition 151, 152 research changing contexts, paradigms and norms 128–30, 130t, 131f connected speech processes 82–4 consonants 65–71 EIL paradigm and implications 130, 131–3 imbalance of coverage 217 intonation 122–5 rhythm 99–110 stress 90–4 vowels 49–59 Reves, T 135–6 rhoticisation 67 rhythm 18, 97–8 and accent 98 acoustic measurement 181–3, 182f affecting factors 98–9 implications for teaching and learning 110–14 and language acquisition 110 pauses 99 research 99–110 software applications for teaching 159–60 songs 152 and stress 98 stress-timed rhythm 112, 113 and syllable structure 99 syllable-timed rhythm 111, 113 and vowel quality 98 rhythm indices and measurement 102–10 interval measures (IM) 102–3, 104, 105 Pairwise Variability Index (PVI) 102–5, 106, 107, 108–9, 110–11, 181 VarcoC and VarcoV 105, 106 rhythmic patterning 77 Richards, J 151, 154 RMS value 40–1 Roach, P 47, 76–7, 94, 100–1, 115, 119, 126 Rogerson-Revell, P 12–13, 60, 76–7, 85, 94, 95 248 Index Rosell-Aguilar, F 164 Rubdy, R 10 Sailaja, P 67–8 Saito, K 74 Samimy, K 136 Santana-Williamson, E 139 Saraceni, M 6–7, 10 Saunders, N 73, 74, 145 SCE (Singapore Colloquial English) 15 Schneider, E W et al 49–53 schwa 28, 79 Scovel, T 129 secondary stress 88 segmental features 11, 132, 151, 152–3, 153f Seidlhofer, B 9, 132, 148 self-confidence 12 SEMs (stress exaggeration methods) 159–60 sentence (nuclear) stress 87, 90 Setter, J 69, 73, 83–4, 145 Sewell, A 58, 69, 70–1 SGEM (Speak Good English Movement) 141–2 Sharifan, F 7, Shim, R J 160–1 short vowels 29, 41, 49, 50–1, 60–2 Sierra, J M 140 Sifakis, N C 132 SII (speech intelligibility index) 12 Singapore Colloquial English (SCE) 15 Singapore English connected speech processes 82–3 consonants 68–9, 68t intelligibility 12, 73–4, 145 intonation 123–4 lexical stress placement 178–81, 179t, 180f, 181t pronunciation features 11 rhythmic patterning 111 Speak Good English Movement (SGEM) 141–2 Standard Singapore English (SSE) 15 stress 91–2 vowels 54–5, 54t Well Said app 166 Smith, L E 3, 12, 143, 146 Smith, S 165 Smyth, D 59, 71, 93 sociocultural competence 131 sociolinguistic competence 133, 146 soft palate (velum) 21, 24 software applications for podcasting 165, 166–7 for speech analysis 19, 160, 162 suprasegmental features 155–6, 160 for teaching rhythm 159–60 see also computer-assisted pronunciation teaching; Praat songs for EIL pronunciation practice 150–1 copyright issues 154 pronunciation focus 152–3, 153f rationale for using 151–2 selection criteria 153, 154 Sougari, A 132 sound, perception of 37–40 sound pressure level (SPL) 41 sound waves 38–9, 38f, 39f Speak Good English Movement (SGEM) 141–2 spectrograms 38f speech analysis software 19, 160, 162 see also Praat speech apraxia 110 speech disorders 110 speech intelligibility index (SII) 12 speech organs 21, 21f, 23–4, 23f speech recording software 168–9, 169f, 170f speech samples on the Internet 161 see also Praat speech sounds see phonetics speech tools from the Internet 162 SPL (sound pressure level) 41 staccato effect 81 Standard Singapore English (SSE) 15 standard southern British English (SSBE) 30, 49 Stenson, N et al 159 stereotypes 131 Stoel-Gammon, C 110 stops 26, 65 strategic competence 133 Streaming Speech 160 stress 17–18, 86 basic concepts 86–90 de-stressing 146 definition 86–7, 90 emphatic (contrastive) stress 90, 146 Euro-English 91, 92–3 Expanding Circle varieties 93–4 implications for teaching and learning 94–6 and intelligibility 94, 96, 144 lexical stress 90–3, 94, 115, 144, 178–81 Index 249 linguistic treatment 88, 89–90 Outer Circle varieties 91–3 phonetic treatment 86–8, 88t polysyllabic words 88 primary stress 88, 144, 145, 146 research 90–4 and rhythm 98 secondary stress 88 sentence (nuclear) stress 87, 90 software applications for teaching 159–60 word stress 88, 89 stress-based languages see stress-timed languages stress exaggeration methods (SEMs) 159–60 stress-timed languages 77, 98, 99, 100–1, 102 stress-timed rhythm 112, 113 suffixes 34, 89 suprasegmental features 11, 132, 145–6 software applications 155–6, 160 songs for teaching 151, 152, 153, 153f visual pronunciation feedback 155–6 Swahili speakers of English 55–6 Swain, M 133 Swan, M 57, 92, 125 syllabic consonants 47, 63 syllable-based languages see syllabletimed languages syllable length 98 syllable structure 99, 116 syllable-timed languages 77, 98, 100–1, 102 syllable-timed rhythm 111, 113 syllables 46–7, 63–4, 64t, 90 Szakay, A 109 /t/ deletion 81 tablets see iPhone and iPad Tan, R S K 54, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177 Tang, C 136 Taylor, D S 103 Taylor, L 147, 149 teacher talk frequency profiles 75 technology and EIL pronunciation practice 155 Internet as resource bank 160–2 software applications for teaching 155–60 use of English teeth 23, 24 tense vowels see long vowels Terhardt, E 175 terminology 15 Teschner, R V 112 TESOL Inc 135 Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) 147 testing see assessment for EIL Thai English communicative competence 95 consonants 71 stress 93–4 vowels 59 Thomas, E 109 Thorsen, N 116 THOUGHT and CLOTH 61 Three Circles of English see Kachruvian Three Circles of English timing 41, 42, 98 TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) 147 Tomlinson, B 148 tone units (tone groups) 115 boundaries 116 head 117 nucleus 87, 116–17 prehead 117 tail 117 tones: British English 14, 118–19 tongue 21, 24, 25f, 28, 30f tonic syllable see nucleus Torgersen, E N 109 trachea 21 Trakulkasemsuk, W 59, 71 transcription consonants 35 intonation 117–18 suffixes 34 vowels 29, 30, 35–6 TRAP and DRESS 60 triphthongs in English 47 Trofimovich, P et al 75 Tsukada, K 59 Turkish English 96 Udofot, I 91 upper/passive articulators 23–4, 23f uvula 24 Van Bezooijen, R 158 VarcoC and VarcoV 105, 106 velar consonants 26, 27t, 66t, 80t velum (soft palate) 21, 24 Verdugo, D R 126 video-recording 165 Vienna–Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE) 9, 132, 148 250 Index visual pronunciation feedback 155–6 vocal cords/folds 21, 21f vocal tract 21–3, 22f lower/active articulators 23, 23f, 24, 25f upper/passive arcitulators 23–4, 23f voice onset time (VOT) 177–8 voiced sounds 21, 25, 38 voiceless sounds 21 voicing 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 47 vowel quadrilaterals 29, 30f, 31–4, 31f, 32f, 33f, 61f vowels 17, 46 acoustic measurement 41, 42, 42f, 43f, 173–7, 174f, 177t articulation and classification 28–34 cardinal vowels 47–9, 48f, 49f deletion 47 devoicing 47 diphthongs 29, 32–3, 32f, 33f, 52–3, 176–7, 177t duration 41, 42, 43f, 103–4, 176 Euro-English 57 Expanding Circle varieties 58–9 implications for pronunciation practice 59–62 intelligibility 59 length 29, 41, 49–53, 60–2 lip position 29 monophthongs 29, 30–2, 31f, 33f, 34, 61f mouth position 28, 30f Outer Circle varieties 53–7 phonemic inventory 49–53, 50t, 60 phonetic symbols 35–6 phonological description 46–9 quality 98, 173–6, 174f reduction 47, 77, 82–3, 84, 85 research 49–59 rounded vowels 29, 30f software applications for teaching 156–7 songs for teaching 152–3 tongue position 28, 30f transcription 29, 30, 35–6 triphthongs in English 47 unrounded vowels 29, 30f weak vowels 53 /w/: linking /w/ 81 Wagner, P 105 Walter, C 57, 92–3, 125 Wang, Q 106 Wang, S D 165 Wang, X 156–7 Warschauer, M 13 WASP 160 WaveSurfer 162 WE see World Englishes WE speaker–listener intelligibility matrix 129 weak forms 53, 77, 78t, 84, 85, 146 Web Technology Surveys Wee, L 123 Weenink, D 40, 168 Well Said app 166 Wells, J C 47, 49 Welsh English 47 White, L 105, 106, 109 Whitley, M S 112 Whitworth, N 106 Widdowson, H 132, 135 Wiltshire, C 92 windpipe 21 Wong, R 112 word stress 88, 89 World Englishes (journal) World Englishes (WE) definition 6, 10 and EIL 7–8, 11, 128, 130, 131f and ELF 10, 11, 128, 130, 131f and Three Circles paradigm 6–7, YouTube speech samples 161 Zwicker, E 175