Ebook English for nursing and health care: Part 2

Masai bone Mandible Clavicle Humerut Iliac crest Iliac fossa Sacrum Coccyx Ischium Femur Patella Cranium Zygomatic bom Maxilla. 7 Cervical vertebm Manubrium Sternum Xiphoid process[r]

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UNIT

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-LEVELS OF ORGANISATION

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E veryone is in te re s te d in th e h u m a n [hju:man] body, w hat happens w hen it is affected by disease [dazi:z] and how to stay h ealth y [heiei] A rticles on h e alth and m edicine appear daily in new spapers an d m agazines O rd in a ry peo p le w ho are n o t specifically tra in e d in scien ce are freq u e n tly asked to m ake d ecisio n s o n scien tific m atters w hich affect society

T h e sc ien tific [saian'tifikl term for th e study o f body s tru c tu re is anatom y |on'a?tomi| Part o f this w ord m eans to ‘c u t’ because early a n a to m is ts

dissected (cu t) th e h u m an body to learn about its stru c tu re T h e p ctic e o f any h e a lth care professional requires a basic u n d e rsta n d in g o f a n ato m y a n d m ost a n a to m ic d a ta is now o b ta in e d th ro u g h th e use o f c o m p u te d tom ography, m agnetic reso n an ce im aging and p o s itro n e m iss io n to m o g p h y , th e r th a n th ro u g h experim ental studies

Physiology [fiziWadji] is th e stu d y o f h o w body p a r ts f u n c tio n , in clu d in g th e ir ch em ica l an d physical processes A n ato m y and physiology are closely re la te d A n y th in g th a t d istu rb s th e n o rm al w ork in g o f th e body is co n sid ere d a disease |dazi:z] and is studied as th e science of

pathology [paB'oladjil

A ll living th in g s are organised from very sim ple lev els to m ore co m p lex levels L iving m a tte r b egins w ith sim ple ch em ica ls [kemikalzl w h ic h are form ed in to th e co m p le x su b sta n c es th a t m ake living cells, w hich are th e basic u n its of life |l,iif| G ro u p s o f specialised cells form tissu es and d iffere n t tissues fu n c tio n to g eth e r to form o rg a n s V arious o rg an s fu n c tio n to g e th e r to m,ike up th e system s ot th e h u m an body All th e hum an sciences study different aspects of th e h u m an body, its structure and fu n c tio n , its b e h a v io u r an d its a sso c ia tio n w ith its

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e n v iro n m e n t To study th e aw esom e co m p le x ities of th e h u m an body, it is necessary to break it dow n in to sections th a t can be exam ined in d etail, rem em bering th a t all the parts must in teract w ith one a n o th e r successfully to ensure our survival

To study different parts o f th e body, we can divide th e body in various ways to give us p o sitio n or lo c a tio n G e n e l divisions are th e head , th e th o x , th e abdom en, th e pubes and th e lim bs o r extrem ities

D iagram s are show n w ith th e figure s ta n d in g in th e a n ato m ical p o sitio n unless stated otherw ise T h e pictures show figures in th e an ato m ical position w ith h an d s facing th e front and feet slightly apart

N B S tan d in g in th is way, th e an ato m ical rig h t is on th e left o f th e diagram and th e an ato m ical left is o n your right! T h e hum an body is m arvellously com plex and it is amazing how well it works m ost of th e tim e H ow does it start and how does it develop?

T h e h u m an gam etes o r germ cells are th e ova (p i.) ovum

(s ) in th e fem ale an d th e sp e rm cells (sp e rm ato zo a /sp e rm a to z o o n ) in th e m ale M eiosis occurs during th e ir fo rm atio n (o o g en esis) w h en these germ cells d e v elo p w ith a haploid number ( h a lf th e n u m b e r) o f chromosomes A ll o th e r cells in th e body c o n ta in th e full num ber o f chrom osom es and are called

diploid cells.

During fe rtilis a tio n , th e h ap lo id cells fuse to g eth e r and b ecom e a zygote w ith th e co m p lete num ber of chrom osom es, so a fem ale germ cell + m ale germ cell = zygote = th e beginnings o f a hum an life

O th e r cells reproduce by m ito sis, w hich is th e equal d ivision of n u clear m aterial (karyokinesis), followed by d ivision o f th e cell body (cytokinesis). T h e result o f this division is daughter cells, each c o n tain in g 23 pairs o f chrom osom es (i.e 46 chrom osom es altogether)

Because all tissues increase in size during child h o o d , a lot more cells divide in a growing child th an in an adult

cell + cell = tissue

[ti/u:z]

Tissues functioning are organs [sgsnzl

O rgans functioning together for the same

general purpose = body system [sisom) o rg an + orSan = ^ sVstem

together

tissue + tissue = organ Specialised groups

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THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BODY SYSTEMS

STRUCTURE

S tructure

refers to th e arran g em en t o f parts, organs, tissues, cells or particles

Function

is th e n o rm al, unique [ju :n i:k ] activity

A cell

is th e basic structural and fu n ctio n al u n it o f any living organism C ells may be

different shapes an d sizes and perform a variety o f functions

Tissue

is m ade up o f a specialised group o f cells T h e r e a re basic ty p es o f tissu e:

• Epithelial [epi’eirUsl] tissue forms th e skin th a t covers th e body, lines cavities and forms glands

• C onnective [kanektiv] tissue is extensive and forms th e support an d framework of

th e w hole body Bone, cartilage, tendons, fat, blood an d lym ph are all made up of

different types o f c o n n ec tiv e tissue

• M u scle [mAsal] tissue is designed to produce m o v em en t by forcible c o n tra c tio n and

includes different groups: skeletal muscle, sm o o th (o r visceral [visarall) muscle

and cardiac m uscle

• N ervous [ iv a s ] tissue m akes up th e co m m u n ica tio n n e tw o rk o f th e body T he

c e n tra l agency is th e b in a n d e a c h s tru c tu re in th e bo d y is in direct

c o m m u n icatio n w ith th e b in by nerves w h ic h come to g eth e r to form the spinal

cord

A n o rgan

is m ade up o f groups o f specialised tissues, w orking to g eth er w ith a specific fu n ctio n

A system

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s M atch in g E xercise

P u t th e w ords in the box below in th e space provided to com plete the defin itio n

cartilage [kaitalid^]

tissue [ti/u:]

myocardium [mai'aukaidiam] epithelium [epiffcWam]

cell [sell

function [fAgk/an] brain [brein] organ b:gan] smooth muscle

[smu8 mAsl]

mitosis [mai'taosis]

1 T h e process o f cell d iv isio n in v o lv in g th e D N A w h ic h doubles itself to produce id en tical d au g h ter cells is called

2 A group o f sp ecialised cells w ith th e sam e f u n c tio n is c a l l e d

3 T h e th ic k , m uscular [mAsk'ju:ia] layer o f th e h e a rt w all is k n o w n as t h e

4 T h e largest mass o f n erve tissue in th e body - th e ‘c en tral agency’ for c o m m u n icatio n w ith th e rest o f th e body - is a n organ called t h e

5 A type o f h a rd c o n n ec tiv e [kanektiv] tissue th a t acts as a sh o ck a b so rb er a n d red u ces fric tio n b e tw e e n b o n e s in m oveable jo in ts (o r a rtic u la tio n s) o f th e body is called

6 T h e tissue th a t forms a p ro tectiv e covering for th e body and also lines th e in testin al [intest'ainall tract, th e respiratory

[ra'spira'tri] tra c t an d th e urinary [jurranril passages is called

7 T h e basic u n it o f life is t h e

8 D ifferent tissues w orking to g eth er w ith th e sam e fu n ctio n form a n

9 T h e a c tio n o f peristalsis [peri'stolsisl - th e m o v e m e n t of food d o w n th e oesophagus [a'sDfagasl a n d th ro u g h th e in testin e - is form ed by involuntary o r

10 T h e norm al, unique [ju:ni:k] activ ity of various body parts is its

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i y S tudy th e p ictu re w ith th e body system s m a r ke d w ith n u m b e rs to 11 on page and n a m e th e m u sin g th e follow ing n a m es: (W rite th e m again u n d e r N a m e o f S y ste m below )

r—i [n3:vas] RESPIRATORY [ra'spira'tri] SYSTEM [di'djestiv] I C j

drcuiatm ry [ssikyieitni System ^

E n d o crin e lendaJkrin] System eletal

V,fltvCv' ' ' sM i ,// c I " i -git*? M u scu lar ImAskHida) System _ J >Sfem ' T

„ w Cl R e p r o d u c tiv e [ripra'd/iktiv) S y s te m ■*

- ,n ^ ntegUm f

t U rinary [ju:ranril System entary &

•V 8,u ^ System) JL

NAME OF SYSTEM STRUCTURE (is m ad e u p o f ) b o n e s [baonzl (+ cartilag e, lig am en ts)

Function(s):

sk eletal, card iac a n d sm o o th m u sc le s [nusslz] (+ te n d o n s ) Function(s):

h e a r t [ha:t] a n d blo o d vessels (a rte rie s, v e in s a n d cap illaries) F u nction(s):

lu n g s [Lujz] a n d a ir p a ssa g es N a s a l p a ssa g e s , u v u la [jurv'juia], F u n ctio n (s): p h a ry n x [fce'rinks], la ry n x [laerinks], tra c h e a [traTdal, b ro n c h i fbrngld],

b ro n c h io les [brogki'Dlz], alveoli [alViW iM air sacs)

5 b in , sp in al c o rd a n d n e rv es Function(s):

m o u th (te e th , to n g u e a n d saliv ary g lan d s), e p ig lo ttis, oesophagus F u n ctio n (s): [a'sofagas], s to m a c h [stAmak], in te s tin e s 111140513112] + a ccesso ry o rg a n s : liv e r [liva], g a llb la d d e r [go l'blaeda], p a n c r e a s [paerfkhas)

P a rts of this system are sometimes referred to as the gut.

k id n ey s [kidnizl, u re te rs [jutrataz], b lad d e r [blaeda], u r e th r a [juAiAal Function(s):

M a le : te s te s , d u c ts /s e m in a l v e s ic le s , p r o s ta te g la n d , p en is F u nction(s): F e m ale : o v a rie s , F a llo p ia n tu b e s ( o v id u c ts ) , u t e r u s [ju.-ta'rasl,

v agina lvald3aina], b re a s ts Ibrests)

G la n d s : p itu ita r y [pitju.Jitri]I p in e a l [pm'ial], th y r o id lea?™!] and F u n ctio n (s): p a r a th y r o id [paera^ai'rad], th y m u s [Oaimas], a d r e n a l [adrimal],

p a n cre as [paegk'rias], o v a rie s [auva'riz] a n d te s te s [testizl

1 ly m p h n o d es (to n sils a n d a d en o id s [aeda 'noidz]), ly m p h vessels, F u n ctio n (s): valves [vaelvz], th e sp leen [spli:n]

1 e p id e rm is , d e rm is , se b a c e o u s M x i/as] (o il-p ro d u c in g ) g lan d s, F u n ctio n (s): s u d o rife ro u s |su:daWaras] (sw eat-producing) glands

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GRAM M AR N O TES

T a lk in g a b o u t s t r u c t u r e

‘to be m ade up o f ’, ‘consists o f ’ o r ‘to be com posed o f ’

T h e r e are su b tle differences in th e use o f th e above phrases:

‘to be m ade u p o f’ is used for a detailed breakdow n o f a part or a structure e.g The joints (or articulations) are made up of bones, cartilage and ligaments.

‘con sists o f’ is used in a general way w hen all th e m ain parts o f a structure are nam ed

e.g The respiratory tract consists of the pharynx, trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.

‘to be com posed o f’ is used w hen th e m aterials or substances from w hich the structure is formed, are nam ed

e.g Both the brain and the spinal cord are composed of nerve cells and fibres.

/ y Now, com plete th e follow ing sen ten ces.

1 T h e p h a r y n x the naso-pharynx, th e oro-pharynx and th e laryngo-pharynx T h e brain s t e m th e m id-brain, th e pons and th e m edulla

3 T h e in te s tin e s parts, th e large and th e small intestine T he duodenum , th e jejunum and th e ile u m th e small in testine W h a t does th e skeletal s y s te m ? Bones, jo in ts and ligam ents

6 T h e female reproductive sy stem th e ovaries, the oviducts, the uterus and the vagina T h e s k i n epithelial tissue, collagen fibres, nerves, blood vessels and glands

Using the information you have, ask your partner some questions about the structure of other systems.

VERBS AND NOUNS

f C om plete th e table w ith th e m issin g w ord.

Verb N o u n Verb N o u n transport transportation circulate tek'juleit]

regulate Ireg1 juleit] digestion form ation rem ove

secrete (d irec tly in to

th e bloodstream ) e lim in a tio n d estru ctio n filter

excrete (in to a d u ct) p ro d u ctio n reproduction conceive

defend lining

co v er(in g ) develop

provide p ro tectio n

storage situate

dilate fu n ctio n (in g ) 129

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FUNCTION

fe z N ow m a k e som e sen ten ces u sin g this form at:

e.g The circulation of blood to the tissues is the function of the heart.

T h e ex cretio n o f w aste products Blood circulation

W aste ex cretio n W ater regulation P ro d u ctio n o f bile

Storage o f p ro tein and glycogen

(*T hc function is used when it is the only function, a function indicates one of several functions)

th e liver is a/th e* fu n ctio n o f th e kidneys

th e h e art

F u n c tio n (s ):

R ea d th e d escription o f the fu n c tio n s o f each body system Id e n tify th e system a n d label ea ch N o w tu r n b a ck to page a n d w rite a b rief su m m a ry o f th e fu n c tio n (s) o f e a ch body system

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(b)

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T h e purpose o f th is system is to take in air, filter it an d take it to the tissues responsible for gas exchange O xygen [nksi'djan] is th e n transported by th e b lood to all th e tissues in th e body C a rb o n d io x id e, a waste [weist] pro d u ct, is re-absorbed in to th e blood an d th e n ex creted from the body

T h is system form s th e basic fram ew ork o f th e body - it supports and p ro tects all th e in te rn al organs Bones serve as levers (w ith th e attached m uscles) for m o v em en t, produce blood cells and store calciu m [luel'siaml salts w h ich c a n be absorbed in to th e blood w h e n th ere is n o t enough calcium in th e diet

T h e se c re tio n o f h o rm o n e s Ih^'maunz], w h ic h re g u la te th e body's fu n ctio n s chem ically, is th e fu n c tio n o f th is system

T h is system is also called th e excretory system an d filters body liquids, e lim in a tin g chem icals an d excess fluids from th e body

T h is system c o n ta in s a n im p o rta n t organ w h ich pum ps b lood round the e n tire body T h is is necessary to supply cells w ith n u trie n ts an d oxygen an d to tran sp o rt w aste pro d u cts for ex cretio n

T h is system is e sse n tia l fo r r e p ro d u c tio n a n d th e p ro d u c tio n of horm o n es, sex cells (gam etes) [gsmi:ts] an d it also enables cep tio n [kon’sepjan] an d perm its th e carrying an d b irth o f babies (offspring)

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T h is com plex system, w hich is also th o u g h t o f as a n organ, p ro tects th e body from disease, h e lp s to regulate body tem p e tu re a n d acts as a sensory receptor

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A system w hich runs parallel w ith th e veins th ro u g h o u t th e body, drains fluid from th e tissues an d helps to defend th e body against in fectio n and disease

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W e n e e d th is system to p ro d u ce m o v em e n t, b o th v o lu n ta ry a n d involuntary, an d to keep ou r hearts beatin g to keep us alive [alaiv]

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T h is is th e m ost com plex system in th e body an d its fu n ctio n s are to regulate all th e o th e r systems in th e body, to receive an d send messages and to provide us w ith in fo rm atio n about our e n v iro n m en t len'vai'ran'mant]

Com plete the sentences using th e correct

Miordfs.) fro m th e box.

ovaries eproduc lines ire situ ate

nary syste blood pancreas cartilage o n cep tio r

regulate covers

bone kidneys ( x ) ; liver (x )

secrete oxygen excrete h e art ire p ro d u ced ■

form : com posed <|

d iv isio n ! J t e t o r y systen [is m ad e up o f

secretes

1 T h e c a r r ie s through th e arteries to th e body cells O n e fu n ctio n o f t h e is t o th e am o u n t o f w ater

in th e body

3 T h e also urea [ju:ri:a] (a n itro g e n w aste p ro d u ct) from th e body

4- T h e fu nctions as b o th an organ o f digestion and excretion T h e is an accessory organ of digestion

6 T h e beats 80 tim es per m in u te o n average

7 T h e are only found in females T hey are e n d o crin e glands w h i c h h orm ones and o v a here A n accessory lask'sesa'ri] o rgan of d ig estio n , w h ic h is also an e n d o c rin e

g l a n d , insulin and is called t h e

9 A ll th e bones in th e skeletal system from a fibrous c o n n e c tiv e tissue c a l l e d T h is tissue eventually hardens w ith calcium deposits to b e c o m e

10 T h e th e ureters, th e urinary bladder and u re th m ake up th e w hich c an also be called t h e 11 B oth th e spinal cord and th e b r a i n n erve cells 12 C e l l s b y - a process called mitosis 13 T h e skin w h ic h th e outside o f th e h u m an b o d y

cells, sw eat glands, oil-producing glands, blood vessels and nerve endings E p ith elial tissue a l s o all th e systems th a t h av e tracts op en in g o n to th e surface o f th e body

14 T h e h e a rt and lu n g s jn th e th o racic cavity 15 A zygote is form ed at th e tim e o f - it is th e u n io n o f th e

m ale and female sex cells, or gametes 131

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DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Id is necessary to have special words to talk about the position or location o f organ*

an d parts and to talk ab o u t d irec tio n in th e h u m a n body T h e words 'left' and 'right',

‘back’ o r ‘fro n t’ are n o t specific en o u g h and th e use o f ‘n orth’ an d ‘south’ would be

inappropriate! T h e d irectio n al term s used refer to th e body in th e anatom ic position.

T h ree imaginary planes are used to describe th e structural p lan of th e body and the

an ato m ic relationship of one p a rt to an o th er T h ese planes cu t through th e body at

right angles to each other

PLANES OF DIVISION

Divides th e body in to front and back halves

Directional terms used:

F ro n ta l / V en tral or Dorsal

A n te rio r or Posterior

M idsagittal Plane D ivides th e body in to right and left halves

Directional terms used: M ed ia l or L a te l A Sagittal plane lies away from th e m idline and divides th e bodv in to right and left parts

Transverse Plane D ivides th e body in t.' p an s above or below

Directional terms used: Superior or Inferior

C n ia l or C audal

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DIRECTIONAL TERMS

✓ N o w label th e diagram below w ith all the follow ing d irectional term s, m a tc h in g th e words th a t have opposite m ea n in g s.

D raw the m idline ( 1) - an imaginary line close to the middle of th e body - there is no opposite to thisl a n te rio r/v e n tra l (tow ards th e fro n t) lateral (fu rth er from the m idline/tow ards th e side) distal (farth er away from th e body) su p e rio r/c ran ia l (above or in a h ig h er positio n ) in ferio r/cau d al (below or lower th an ) proxim al (nearer to th e m ain part of th e body) medial (nearer to an im aginary m idline plane) p o sterio r/d o rsal (tow ards th e back)

t y S tudy th e directional term s a n d com plete th e follow ing sen ten ces.

e.g The hand is d ista l to the shoulder.

1 T h e thorax i s to th e abdom en

2 T h e nose and th e m outh are in a position on the face T h e elbow i s to the wrist

4 T h e k n ee i s to th e back o f th e thigh T h e ears are i n positions o n th e head T h e buttocks a r e to th e pubic region T h e navel (or um bilicus) is at t h e T h e fem ur (th e long bone in th e th ig h ) i s to

th e tibia and hbula

9 T h e knees a r e to th e hips 10 T h e brain i s to th e spinal cord 11 T h e oesophagus i s to th e stom ach

A lot o f muscles an d blood vessels are nam ed using directional terms so th a t th e ir lo ca tio n and relationship to o th er parts are easily understood

J * O n these diagram s, label 1 th e rig h t eye: (a) In terio r rectus muscle

(b) S uperior rectus muscle (c) M edial rectus muscle (d) L ateral rectus m uscle

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A c av ity is an y h o llo w space Body cavities are areas w hich confine o rg a n s an d systems th a t h av e related fu n ctio n s T h e m ajo r body cavities are th e d o n a l cav ity an d th e ventral cavity

T h e dorsal cavity is subdivided in to th e cranial cavity (c o n ta in in g th e brain) and th e

spinal cavity (co n ta in in g th e spinal cord)

T h e ventral cavity is divided in to parts: th e thoracic cavity, th e abdominal cavity

an d th e pelvic cavity. T h e ab d o m in a l a n d p elv ic cav itie s to g eth er are called the abdominopelvic cavity.

$ L a b el th e body cavities an d th e organs situ a te d in the abdom inopelvic cavity.

1 _

C om plete th es e se n ten c es

1 T h e h e art and th e lungs are situ ated in th e

134

2 T h e d o m e-sh ap e d m u scu lar o rg an th a t separates this cavity from th e abdom inal cavity is t h e T h e spinal cord is located in t h e 4- T h e b rain an d th e spinal cord are situ ate d in a space

k now n as t h e

5 T h e abdom inal and pelvic cavities to g eth e r are known as t h e

6 W h e re are th e d ifferen t p a rts o f th e digestive system located? Look at th e diagram of organs located in the abdom inal cavity and w rite an approxim ate position for e a c h o n th e list using d ire c tio n a l term s (e.g The oesophagus passes through the diaphragm and its inferior end lies medially in the abdominal cavity):

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CLINICAL DIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN m For th e purpose o f clinical ex am in atio n

a n d rep o rtin g , th e ab d o m en is divided in to c o rre sp o n d in g regions called

quadrants. T h e um bilicus [Amba'laikas] (or n a v el) is th e in tersectin g p oint

O n diagram I , m ark:

th e R ight U pper Q u a d ran t (R U Q ) th e R ight Lower Q u a d ran t (R L Q ) th e Left U pper Q u a d ran t (L U Q ) th e Left Lower Q u a d ran t (LLQ )

G >

^ L istening 18 - E xercise P ctise saying th e w ords in th e box before lis te n in g to th e d ic ta tio n N o w , lis te n to th e recording U se it as a d icta tio n to help you label diagram 2.

N ow , tes t yo u rse lf a n d m a r k th e an a to m ic regions in th e box on th e diagram

is usu a lly u s e d ? W h a t you th in k is th e rea so n?

W h ere w ould a p a tie n t w'ith acu te ap p en d icitis feel th e m ost pain?

In th e R ight Lower Q u a d ran t or th e R ight Iliac R egion o f th e abdom en W h ere is th e liver located?

In th e R ight H y p o ch o n d riac Region! .W h a t organs are situ ated in the H ypogastric (or Pubic Region)?

T h e U m b ilicu s

[Am'bilikas] o r [Amba'laikasJ

T h e U m b ilical

[Am'bilikl] o r [Amba'laiklJ

R egion

T h e P e lv ic /P u b ic [pjufcik) o r H y p o g astric [haipaiygasstrik]

R egion T h e R ig h t an d L eft L atera l [tarsi! R eg io n s

T h e R ig h t a n d L eft H y p o c h o n d riac

[h aip a u 'k D n d ric e k ]

R egions T h e L eft an d R ig h t In g u in al [iq'gwinai) o r Iliac [ili:'*k] R eg io n s T h e E p ig astric [epi'gastrik]

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THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

R ea d th e tex t before a tte m p tin g th e w r itte n exercises.

T h e skeletal system includes all o f th e bones of th e body show n on th e right and includes cartilage (fibrous connective tissue), jo in ts (articulations) and ligam ents (fibrous tissue bands th at c o n n ec t bones or cartilage) T h e study o f bones is called osteology'

T h ere are 206 bones in th e adult hum an skeleton and th eir fu n ctio n is to give th e body its shape, to support the body and p ro tect all th e delicate in tern al organs T h e skeleton also provides places for th e a tta c h m e n t of muscles and th e bones act as levers to provide m ovem ent of skeletal muscles T h e cavities inside long bones store fat in th e yellow m arrow and bones also store th e m inerals, calcium , m agnesium , phosphorous, potassium, sulphur and sodium Red blood cells are formed

(haematopoiesis Ihem'atau'prfsisl) in th e

bone marrow of c ertain bones Bones are individually classified as organs and bone tissue is capable o f a process w hich forms new bone

Osteoclasts are responsible for the re-sorption (or breakdow n o f b one) and

osteoblasts build it and assist in the grow th o f bones

Masai bone Mandible Clavicle Humerut Iliac crest Iliac fossa Sacrum Coccyx Ischium Femur Patella Cranium Zygomatic bom Maxilla

7 Cervical vertebm Manubrium Sternum Xiphoid process

5 Lumbar vtrubm

Ulna Radius Carpah

Metacarpus

14 Phalanges

Bones are classified according to th eir shape T h ere are m ain classifications: long bones, e.g hum erus, ulna, femur; sh o rt bones, e.g wrist & ankle bones; flat bones, e.g ribs, sternum , scapulae;

irreg u lar bones, e.g v ertebrae, face bone sesam oid bo n es are sm all bones w hich fo rm in ten d o n s, e.g patella

Calcaneus

Fibula

Tarsab Metatarsals 14 Phalanges

L abel th e sca p u la e (p i.) on th e diagram

(scapula - singular)

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THE STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE

C ancellous (spongy) bone filled ,w ith red bone marrow

T h e Proxim al Epiphysis

(a'pifa'sis]

T h e Diaphysis [dai'aefasis) or

Bone Shaft

T h e Distal Epiphysis

[a'pifa'sis]

Each bone can be labelled using its markings - that is,

the depressions, grooves, openings

(foramina), processes and projections that can be seen on the

surface of bones and are used as reference points.

G ro w th line or Epiphyseal line C o m p act (h ard ) bone

Bone cavity c o n tain in g yellow bone m arrow

A rtery

E ndosteum lend'Dstam]

T h e Periosteum

(or covering of th e bone) is com posed o f specialised fibrous c o n n ec tiv e tissue C artilage (tough, resistant co n n ectiv e tissue) covers th e ends o f long bones

D iv isio n s o f the Skele to n

1 T h e A xial [sksial] S k eleto n :

is com posed o f th e skull, th e vertebral co lu m n an d th e bones o f th e th o rax - th e rib cage and sternum

2 T h e A p p e n d icu lar (eipen'dikju:la) S k eleto n :

inclu d es all th e bo n es o f th e ex tre m itie s ( th e arm s a n d th e legs) a n d th e bones th ese are c o n n e c te d to , i.e th e shoulder girdle and th e pelvic girdle.

T h e sk u ll includes all th e bones o f th e head: th e cranial bones and all th e facial bones T h e verte b l c o lu m n consists o f 26 irregular bones, th e vertebrae (pi.) div id ed in to sections by th e ir p o sitio n from th e base of th e skull to th e caudal end: cervical v erteb rae ( C l to C ), 12 th o racic vertebrae (T1 to T ), lum bar v erteb rae (L I to L5), fused v erteb rae w hich m ake a triangular bone called th e sacrum (w h ich also m akes up p art o f th e pelvic girdle or pelvis) and a sm aller triangular b o n e consisting o f fused v erteb rae called th e coccyx [koksiks]

T h e rib cage (o r bony th o rax ) consists o f th e 12 th o racic v ertebrae dorsally, th e 12 pairs o f ribs laterally a n d th e sternum and costal cartilages anteriorly T h e first o r pairs o f ribs are c o n n e c te d to th e stern u m by cartilage a n d are referred to as true

ribs. T h e re m ain in g pairs o f ribs are called false ribs.

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C om plete th e follow ing se n ten c es.

1 T h e adult skeleton h a s hones

2 Bones are a ‘storehouse’ f o r and W h at are th e functions o f th e skeletal system?

4 List th e classifications of bone:

5 A long hone is divided in to th e shaft o r and the N am e types of bone tis s u e : N am e th e m ain divisions of th e s k e le to n : T h e bones of the thorax include th e 12 pairs of

9 Identify the site w here grow th occurs in long h o n e : 10 N am e th e bones of th e vertebral colum n th a t are m ade up of fused vertebrae:

the and the

L istening 19 - The sk e le ta l sy ste m L iste n to th e recording a n d c h e c k your answers.

N ow , m a tc h th e follow ing w ords w ith th e correct d efin itio n

1 T h e fatty substance inside th e c en tral cavity of long bones: T h e bones of th e head and face to g eth er are called th e T h e m aterial th a t forms th e skeleton in an embryo: T h e biggest v e rte b e are lo cated in th e re g io n o f th e

vertebral colum n

5 T h e to u g h (stro n g ) c o n n e c tiv e tissue th a t covers b o n e s is called th e

6 Blood cells are produced in th e T h e shaft of a long bone is also called th e T h e lining (th e inside surface) of a bone cavity is called th e T h e tail part o f th e low er verteb ral co lu m n , consisting o f o r small, fused

bones is called t h e 10 T h e bone located on th e side o f th e th u m b in th e forearm is th e 11 T h e end o f a long bo n e is i t s 12 T h e scientific nam e for th e k n ee-cap is th e 13 A n adjective w hich m eans ‘betw een th e ribs': 14 T h e type of co n n ectiv e tissue th at connects bone to a n o th e r :

epiphysi

radius

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JOINTS

R ea d th e tex t.

W here or more bones come together and usually need to move or articulate

[a:'tik'ju:leit]) there is a joint [dgamt] (or an articulation [a'tik'juiiei/an].) w hich is held together w ith strong, flexible bands of fibrous connective tissue calledligam ents [ligamants] Joints are classified according to the amount of movement perm itted, th at is immovable - a synarthrosis (singular), slightly moveable - an amphiarthrosis (singular) or freely moveable - a diarthrosis (singular).

1 IM MOVABLE o r FIB R O U S jo in ts (sy n a rth ro s es [sinla:0lreusi:zl plural) are those jo in ts th a t are fixed, such as th e jo in in g o f th e skull bones - th e lines a t these join ts are called sutures [su:t/az],

2 SLIGHTLY M O V EA BLE o r C A R T IL A G IN O U S joints (am phiarthroses

[amfi'a:0lrausi:z] plural) h av e only a m inim al am o u n t o f m o v em en t - th e vertebrae [ratabri] are examples o f these Between the vertebrae, there are disks o f an o th er strong connective tissue called cartilage [katiiidg] T his acts as a cushion, reducing friction and w ear an d tear o f th e bones (C artilage is also found o n th e ends o f long bones.) A n o th e r exam ple o f these cartilaginous joints is th e symphysis pubis [simfasas pjurbas) - th e anterior pelvic joint, w hich softens during pregnancy to allow m ore m ovem ent

3 FREELY M OVEABLE o r SYNOVIA L jo in ts (diarthroses [dai'a:0‘rai>si^l plural) have

a variety o f different m ovem ents, so they can also be nam ed according to th e type of m ovem ent A freely m oveable jo in t is referred to as a synovial [sin'auvial] jo in t because there is a cavity betw een th e joints containing a sticky synovial fluid (secreted by the synovial m em branes lining th e jo in t) w hich prevents friction betw een th e bones

L isten in g - Jo in ts Look a t th e p ictu re s o f joints below a n d lis te n ca refu lly to th e recording to describe ea ch one.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

f W h a t is it?

Medical name of joint

Type of joint

Classification

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E Further classifications of

Freely Moveable (Synovial) Joints or Diarthroses

W rite a n exam ple o f each on th e line.

B A L L A N D S O C K E T J O I N T S : T h es e give a lo t o f freed o m an d allow m o v em e n t on planes

H I N G E J O I N T S : T h is type o f jo in t restricts m o v em en t to plane

P I V O T J O I N T S : T h is type o f jo in t allows th e bones to ro tate o n o n e an o th er

& L iste n again a n d ch ec k your a n sw ers.

FRACTURES

A fracture [fraek't/a] is any break or rupture in a bone Severe force can cause a fracture m almost any bone The word ‘fracture’ is often written as the symbol '# ’

e.g # N O F = fractured N eck of Femur.

T h e bones o f a baby o r a young ch ild are n o t as h a rd as a n a d u lt’s bo n es (because

th ere are less calcium salts and th ey consist o f a lo t o f cartilage) T h ey are softer and

m o re e la stic so n o t b re ak easily Very o ften , th e in ju ry se e n in a c h ild is a

g reenstick fracture, i.e th e bo n e does n o t break rig h t th ro u g h b u t is on ly in ju red on

o n e side Im agine ben d in g a b n ch o f a tree th a t is n o t dry o r d ead - it m ay bend

an d partially split b u t does n o t separate in to pieces

There are 4 general classifications of fractures and a n u m b e r of m ore specific classifications:

1 Sim ple - th e b o n e is b ro k en b u t th ere is n o b reak in th e skin

2 C o m p o u n d - th e skin over th e fracture has b een p u n c tu re d o r to m o r a n o th e r organ is also dam aged

3 C o m m in u ted [kDminju:tidj - th e b o n e is fractured in o n e o r m ore places, is sp lin tered o r crushed

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4 G re e n s tic k - th e b o n e does n o t break rig h t th ro u g h b u t is only in ju red o n one

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CAUSE AND EFFECT

W h a t h ap p en s in th e h u m a n body w h e n a bone is fra c tu r e d 1

C A U S E

A n increase in c ircu latio n to th e injured part

Fluid and leucocytes (w h ite blood cells) leave the bloodstream and e n te r th e tissues - th ere may also be bleeding in to th e tissues

T he pressure o n n erve endings increases

T he body attem p ts to keep th e p a rt still

S IG N O R S Y M P T O M

redness, a sensation of h eat

swelling

loss of m obility (fu n ctio n )

.> Look at the follow ing example a n d make sentences to answ er the questions.

W h e n a b o n e is fractured, why you n o tice redness around th e area.’

B ec a u se redness is ca u sed by an increase in circulation

or B ec a u se an increase in circu latio n resu lts in/causes/leads to redness

1 W hy does th e injured p art start swelling? W hy you feel p a in w h en a bo n e is fractured?

3 W hy is th ere a sen satio n o f h e at w hen a bone is fractured? W hy is th ere loss o f fu n c tio n w h en a bone is fractured? W h at does a deficiency in calcium cause?

6 W hy are th e bones o f old people m ore likely to break?

7 W hy is exercise im p o rta n t for th e body, the skeletal system in particular?

q uestio n s. W h a t are th e m ain classifications o f joints?

2 W h a t is th e nam e ot th e c o n n ec tiv e tissue th a t joins one b o n e to an other?

3 W h a t is th e nam e ot th e strong, c o n n ec tiv e tissue th a t surrounds all bones?

4 W h a t are th e m ain classifications o f fractures? W h a t has h appened to a bo n e if it is classified as a

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-MOVEMENT, POSTURE AND LIFTING

S k eleta l m u scle s are a tta ch e d to bo n es an d m ove the skeleton T here are more than

650 in d iv id u a l m uscles in th e sk e letal m uscle system Each muscle is a distinct

structure b u t m uscles usually act in groups to ex ecu te body m ovem ents Because it

is u n d er conscious control, skeletal muscle is also called voluntary muscle.

A ll muscles in th e body n eed e n erg y to contractor sh o rten T h is energy is supplied

in th e form o f A T P (a d e n o s in e -tri-p h o s p h a te ) w h ic h is th e result o f th e cells

‘burn in g ’ o r using n u trie n ts, causing oxidisation

For th e cells to produce ATP, th ey m ust h av e a n ad eq u ate supply o f oxygen, glycogen an d o th e r nu trien ts

If th e body uses m ore oxygen th a n is available for strenuous exercise, lactic acid (a w aste pro d u ct o f m etabolism ) builds up (o r accum ulates) in th e m uscles, causing cram ps and muscle fatigue A fter strenuous exercise, we n e ed to b re ath e faster an d o ur hearts b eat faster so th a t m ore oxygen is p um ped to th e tissues T h is h elp s th e lactic acid to be re-absorbed and to be used for o th e r m etab o lic activities

POSTURE IpDs't/a]

T h e way we stand, sit and m ove is im p o rtan t to our general good h e a lth For th e skeletal muscles to stren g th en and support th e body and its in te rn al organs, they h av e to fu n ctio n correctly W hen th e axis o f th e body and th e axial skeleton are alm ost th e same, good posture is achieved

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L abel th e figures.

T h is causes th e abdom inal m uscles to becom e weak and may result in digestive, respiratory a n d /o r back problem s including an abnorm al curvature o f th e spine w ith an excessive lumbar curve, called lordosis.

H e has to tilt his pelvis or h ip girdle forw ard T h is results in rounded shoulders an d strained back muscles w h ic h p re v e n t c o rre c t b re a th in g T h is p o stu re c an lead to kyphosis (som etim es called hunchback) w hich

is an exaggerated curvature of the thoracic curve of the spinal column.