Contributions of the asian immigrants to the u s labour force in the 20th century

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIOAL STUDIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION GRADUATION PAPER CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE ASIAN IMMIGRANTS TO THE U.S LABOUR FORCE IN THE 20TH CENTURY Supervisor: Pham Thi Thanh Thuy, M.A Student : Nguyen Thi Mai Group : QH2008 E20 HANOI – 2012 ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ KHOA SƯ PHẠM TIẾNG ANH KHOÁ LUẬN TỐT NGHIỆP ĐÓNG GÓP CỦA NGƯỜI NHẬP CƯ CHÂU Á TỚI LỰC LƯỢNG LAO ĐỘNG MỸ THẾ KỈ 20 Giáo viên hướng dẫn: Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy Sinh viên: Nguyễn Thị Mai Khoá: QH2008 E20 HÀ NỘI – NĂM 2012 RETENTION AND USE OF THESIS I hereby state that I : Nguyen Thi Mai, K42E20, being a candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts accept the requirements of the university relating to retention and use of Bachelor‟s Graduation Paper deposited in the library In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in the library should be accessible for the purpose of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for care, loan, or reproduction of the paper Signature Nguyen Thi Mai Hanoi, May – 2012 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to express my sincere thanks to my supervisor Pham Thi Thanh Thuy, M.A for her continuous helps, stimulating suggestions and great encouragement during the time of writing this graduation paper Without her invaluable guidance and comments, my graduation paper would not have been completed I would also like to show my gratitude to my parents for their encouragement and support in my study Finally, I would like to give special thanks to my respectful teachers and my helpful friends for their encouragement and support of collecting materials for this study ABSTRACT Immigration has long been a fundamental part of American history Along with the Europeans, the Asians were the early immigrants to the United States of America (U.S.) However, due to the discrimination from the white, the contributions of Asian immigrants to the U.S economy, particularly to the U.S labour force seemed not to well recognized, especially, with their increasing in number and in quality since the passage of the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act Thus, this study is conducted as an attempt to show the undeniable contributions of the Asian immigrants in the 20th century for the U.S labour force The study also indicated some insignificant hindrances and supports from the legislative aspect of the U.S government for Asian immigrants at this time In this study, contributions of Asian immigrants to the U.S in the 20th century were examined through surveying and comparing different related documents such as books, journals, articles and related studies from the official resource of the federal government The investigation found that Asian immigrants contributed to the U.S labour force in terms of quantity and quality These contributions have built up since the turning of the 20th century; however, they became significant after the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 As regard the supports and hindrances to the Asian immigrants when entering the U.S labour force, the investigation in the paper revealed that in the first half of the 20th century, the U.S federal government imposed many acts to restrict the entry of Asians and then prevented them from contributing to the U.S labour force These restrictions only ended in 1965 and promoted the significantly contributions of Asian immigrants to the U.S economy in general and U.S labour force in particular TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Acknowledgements i Abstract ii List of tables and figures v CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Statement of the problem and the rationale for the study 1.2 Objectives and Research Questions 1.3 Research Methodology 1.4 Scope of the study 1.5 Significance of the research 1.6 Organization of the paper CHAPTER II HISTORY OF ASIAN IMMIGRANTS INTO THE U.S 2.1 Pre-1965 period 2.2 Post 1965 period 13 CHAPTER III CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE ASIAN IMMIGRANTS TO THE U.S LABOUR FORCE IN THE 20TH CENTURY 3.1 Contributions of Asian immigrants to the quantity of US labour force 15 in the 20th century 15 3.1.1 Pre-1965 period 15 3.1.2 Post-1965 period 17 3.2 Contributions of Asian immigrants to the quality of U.S labour force in the 20th century 22 3.2.1 Educational attainments 22 3.2.1 Occupational attainments 26 CHAPTER IV THE SUPPORTS AND HINDRANCES FOR ASIAN IMMIGRANTS WHEN ENTERING THE U.S LABOUR FORCE 29 4.1 The hindrances for Asian immigrants 29 4.2 The supports for Asian immigrants 34 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION 37 5.1 Summary of the research 37 5.1.1 The contributions of Asian immigrants to the U.S labour force in the 20th century 37 5.1.2 The hindrances and the supports for Asian immigrants to enter the U.S labour force in the 20th century 38 5.2 Limitations of the research 40 5.3 Suggestions for further studies 41 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Statement of the problem and the rationale for the study From the history of making the nation, it is often said that the United States is a nation of immigrants Since its early days, more than fifty million people have been admitted to the U.S., which was a larger number of immigrants Numerous factors of low wages, unemployment, disease, forced military conscription, religious persecution, and starvation inspired immigrants to come to the United States, firstly to benefit their own interests, and automatically to contribute to the cultural and economic wealth of this country “The contribution of immigrants can be seen in every aspect of our national life We see it in religion, in politics, in business, in the arts…” (Kennedy, 1964, p.10) Thus, the immigrants are considered one of the key factors forming the appearance of the U.S today although sometimes they are still regarded the subjects of intense national debates because of alarming number of illiterates, paupers and criminals Among the various groups of immigrants to the U.S, the Asians are one of the fastest growing population groups in the United States The first Asian immigrants came early in the mid-1800s since thousands of Chinese immigrated to California to work on the railroad Then Asian immigration has been an integral part of immigration to the United States since the mid-nineteenth century and one of the two dominant sources of post-1965 immigration to America when the Immigration and Naturalization Services Act of 1965 abolished national-origin quotas fixed in the 1920s and opened the nation's shores to new immigrants (Yang, 2010) At the end of the twentieth century, Asians have become the nation's fastest growing ethnic minorities Today, about half of the people immigrating to the United States are from Asia, and along with other immigrants and people of color, Asian Americans have been transforming the face of America Therefore, the Asian group can represent the most obvious contributions of the immigrants to the U.S in the 20th century In fact, there are undeniable impacts of the Asian immigrants on the cultural landscape “Many buildings, landscapes, archeological resources, and much material culture found in the United States today reflect cultural connections to Asia.” (Joyner, 2005, p.13) However, the most significant benefits that the Asians have brought to the U.S are economic aspects They have entered the U.S labour force and Asian immigrants have been compiling “an amazing record of achievement, climbing the economic ladder with remarkable speed” (Goel, 1989, p.78) The growth of Asian immigrants, especially in the 20th century has represented a large and increasing share of the labor force of the U.S., which is known for the valuable human resource for U.S economic development Because of the development of the Asian immigrants in the 20th century, but lack of the research which focus on the contributions of the Asian immigrants to U.S labour force in this specific period, it has intrigued the researcher of this thesis to conduct the graduation paper on the topic “Contributions of the Asian immigrants to the U.S labour force in the 20th century” 1.2 Objectives and Research Questions The primary aim of the thesis is to investigate a comprehensive analysis of the Asian immigrants‟ contributions to the U.S labour force To be more specific, the contributions of the Asian immigrants to the quantity and the quality of U.S labor force Moreover, in the process of entering the U.S labour force, the supports and hindrances for the Asian immigrants are also analyzed These objectives are specified in the following research questions What are the contributions of Asian immigrants to the labor force in the U.S? What are the supports and hindrances for Asian immigrants when entering U.S labour force? 1.3 Research Methodology This research is a secondary research and the approach applied is comparative document analysis Different documents related to Asian immigrants and their contributions to the U.S labour force are collected from internet, books, magazines, and journals These documents are synthesized, analyzed, compared, contrasted and evaluated to find out answers for each research question 1.4 Scope of the study Asian immigrants come from a wide range of countries from the Asian continent According to Barnes and Bennett (2002), the term Asian “refers to people having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent” such as Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, Vietnam and so on However, due to time limitation, only six major Asian legal immigration groups, namely, Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Japanese, Koreans and Vietnamese are considered in this study since the data on the small immigration groups and the illegal immigrants are hard to access 1.5 Significance of the research Once having been finished, this research would be helpful for many purposes Firstly, the research can provide a deep insight into the Asian immigrant human resources for US economy Thus, it helps the U.S economists to value the role of the Asian immigrants in the U.S economy effectively In addition, the research would benefit the Asians in general and the Vietnamese immigrants in particular to consider entering the U.S economy Finally, the research would serve as a supplementary source and a valued reference for researchers who are interested in studying the success of Asian immigrants in the U.S economy 10 rights of the immigrants were passed In 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt worked out a secret so-called “Gentlemen's Agreement” with Japan to limit the immigration of Japanese laborers to the United States It represented an effort by President Theodore Roosevelt to calm growing tension between the two countries over the immigration of Japanese workers As the number of Japanese workers in California increased, they met with growing hostility and although in 1900, Japan agreed to deny passports to laborers seeking to enter the United States; it did not stop the many workers who obtained passports to Canada, Mexico, Hawaii then moved on to the United States Racial discrimination for Japanese immigrants intensified, especially in 1906, the San Francisco school board arranged for all Asian children, including Japanese to be placed in a segregated school Under pressure by the United States, and hoping to halt anti-Japanese sentiments in the United States, the Japanese government agreed to prohibit the emigration of Japanese laborers to the United States The Gentleman's Agreement with Japan was concluded in the form of a Japanese note agreeing to deny passports to laborers intending to enter the United States and recognizing the U.S right to exclude Japanese immigrants holding passports originally issued for other countries (Foner & Garraty, 1991) A final Japanese note dated in 1908, made the Gentleman's Agreement fully effective Under the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907-1908, the Japanese government agreed to limit passports issued to Japanese in order to permit wives to enter the United States as well The agreement was superseded by the exclusionary Immigration Act of 1924 Further immigration restrictions were imposed against Asians by the Immigration Act of 1917 which created an “Asiatic barred zone” (LeMay, 1941) The 1917 Immigration Act, also known as the Asiatic Barred Zone Act, was a law passed by Congress that restricted the immigration of undesirables from other countries, including idiots, poor, criminals, beggars, those who have any form of dangerous contagious disease, aliens who have a physical disability that will restrict them from earning a living in the United States One of the key aspects of the 1917 Act was that people from what was called the Asiatic Barred Zone were restricted 39 from entering the country Any country not owned by the U.S adjacent to the continent of Asia along specified longitudes and latitudes were restricted from immigrating Another important provision of the Immigration Act was the literacy test imposed on immigrants, and medical examinations were also required before entering the U.S Overall the Immigration Act of 1917 was intended to tighten the restrictions on those entering the country, especially from the area of Asia and surrounding countries and those with mental and physical handicaps In 1924, Congress passed a major comprehensive immigration law prohibiting the immigration of “aliens ineligible to citizenship” and the only “aliens ineligible to citizenship” were Asian (LeMay, 1941) The Immigration Act of 1924, which became known as the Asian Exclusion Act and the National Origins Act, prohibited the entry into the United States for permanent residence of all persons whose national origin were from nations within Asia Pacific Triangle including Japan, China, Laos, Siam (Thailand), Cambodia, Korea, Vietnam, Indonesia, Burma (Myanmar), India, and Malaysia The act halted the immigration of all Asians and completely excluded immigrants from Asia After 1924 no Asian immigration was permitted This immigration law closed the doors of the United States to all Asian immigration except Filipinos With Filipinos, since the Philippine Islands were an American possession after the Spanish-American War in 1898, Filipinos were U.S nationals possessing the right to migrate to any part of the United States Since they were not aliens, the 1924 immigration act that prohibited the immigration of “aliens ineligible to citizenship” did not apply to them Therefore, when exclusionary immigration laws had cut off the supply of Asian labor from China, Japan, and India, Filipinos could step in to fill the labor needs of U.S at that time However, for local white males, Filipinos posed both an economic and sexual threat to their dominance Thus, in 1934 Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934, which made the Philippines a commonwealth and promised full independence 10 years later, but limited Filipino migration to the U.S to a quota of 50 persons each year The 40 Tydings-McDuffie Act was in effect a Filipino exclusion act As a result, there was little growth in the Filipino population from 1934 to 1946 (LeMay, 1941) In brief, the fear of massive Asian immigration which could result in severe labour market competitions as well as the racism of the majority of whites were the major factors that led to the series of restrictive Asian immigration acts in the first half of the 20th century in the U.S This caused serious hindrances for Asians when trying to enter the U.S labour force 4.2 The supports for Asian immigrants At the middle of the 20th century, the context of World War II affecting the U.S politics and made a change for Asian immigrants In 1943, at the urging of President Franklin D Roosevelt, who wished to give a gesture of support to a wartime ally, Congress repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act, gave a minimal immigration quota to Chinese, and, most important of all, made Chinese aliens eligible for naturalization Three years later Congress passed similar laws giving the same rights to Filipinos and Indian, and in 1952 it erased all racial or ethnic bars to the acquisition of American citizenship (Daniels, 2008) Unlike immigration legislation of the pre-World War II era, these changes in immigrant laws were motivated by foreign policy concerns rather than concern about the anti-immigrant sentiment among domestic constituents Following these changes, the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act was a watershed in the history of legal immigration in the U.S In place of nationality and ethnic considerations, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 substituted a system based primarily on reunification of families and needed skills The circumstances which led to this major shift in policy were a complex combination of changing public perceptions and values, politics, labour issues and legislative compromises The election of President Kennedy in 1960, an ardent advocate of major revision of immigration policy and the civil rights movements marked a distinct change in the national attitude towards the restriction policy These 41 factors together broke the immigrant quota system Moreover, the success of the Kennedy administration's economic policies resulted in the end of the recession and the healthy and expanding economy of the 1960s eased fears of job competition (Hong, Domokos & Ham, 2001) The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 was signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson LeMay (1941) claimed that it abolished Asia-Pacific Triangle, entirely discarded of the quota system and established a preference system under which the unification of families and the immigration of professionals were especially supported He also indicated the major provisions of the 1965 Act including significant things: abolition of the Asia-Pacific Triangle; revision of occupation based preference system in order to meet the growing needs of U.S labour market for skilled and unskilled workers; and inclusion of refugees as one of the preference categories It radically changed the make-up of the Asian American communities in the United States, since Asians could profit most from that law The split families could be united after decades of separation and many highly-skilled workers were allowed to immigrate and bring their families The 1965 act‟s provision for professionals was especially helpful for opening up immigration from Asia Korean and the Philippine health professionals entered in larger numbers By the late 1970s over 70,000 medical doctors alone had immigrated (LeMay, 1941) Thanks to this act, immigration from Asia increased dramatically, marking the beginning of one of the greatest demographic transformations in American history For Vietnamese immigrants who came to the U.S significantly after the ending war of Vietnam and the U.S, the Refugee Act of 1980 really encouraged them to enter the U.S The Refugee Act of 1980 provided a definition of a refugee, created the Office of Refugee Resettlement, set the number of refugee admissions at 50,000 per year and allowed a refugee to adjust his or her status after one year to become a permanent resident and after four more years, to become a United States citizen It created The Federal Refugee Resettlement Program to provide for the effective resettlement of refugees and to assist them to achieve economic self-sufficiency as 42 quickly as possible after arrival in the U.S With the release of these acts, it created an open door for the Asian immigrants to come to the U.S and contribute to the home country (LeMay, 1941) 43 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION 5.1 Summary of the research 5.1.1 The contributions of Asian immigrants to the U.S labour force in the 20th century In this paper, the investigation reveals that the Asians immigrants contributed to both the quantity and quality of the U.S labour force Actually, the contributions of the Asians could be seen in two periods in the 20th century, including pre-1965 period and post-1965 one Actually, the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act has changed greatly the entry for the whole Asian immigrants, generating a surge in the Asian American population to the U.S Firstly, in regards of quantity aspect, from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the Asian immigrants expected to find job opportunities and met the labour demands of the U.S economy in the fields of low paid-jobs which the local people did not want to take Due to the increase in number of Asian immigrants, the U.S citizens started to worry that the immigrants would take their jobs away and increased the unemployment rate of the natives This raised the high intension for discrimination against the immigrants, especially the Asian immigrants Thus, in the first half of 20th century, or the pre-1965 period, the number of Asians who were able to come to U.S to find job was remarkably limited through a numerous of restrictive laws However, after the passing of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, the period for Asian immigration came to the bloom The number of Asians immigrating to the U.S went up significantly and it reached the peak in 1980s and 1990s Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Indian, Korean and Vietnamese became the six leading groups of Asian immigrants in the U.S They, therefore, enlarged the U.S labor force, met the high demands of the economy which was developing rapidly at that time In general, the Asian immigrant laborers increased 44 quickly since the second half of the 20th century, and this contributed largely to meet the U.S labour demand among other immigrant groups Secondly, Asian immigrants also made undeniable contributions to the quality of the U.S labour force This quality was seen differently in terms of each period Before 1965, especially in the late of the 19th to the first decades of the 20th century, the Asian immigrants mainly from the China, Japan and Korean entered the U.S labour force as the low-educated people who had enough skills to work in farms and to other manual jobs The development of the U.S economy at that time related to the agricultural and industrial activities which highly required for manual works and the Asian performed the jobs which the white natives did not hope to take The new trend of Asian immigration turned to be absolutely affected by the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, which gave the preference for highly educated people and professionals to immigrate to the U.S After 1965, Asian immigrants had extraordinary advancements in educational attainment which created a new stereotype of the model minority for the Asians With the new speed of the U.S economy in the 20th century in favor of the high technology development, asking for the well-educated laborers, Asian immigrants contributed harmoniously to the U.S labour force Along with the high level of education, Asians also promoted the quality of the U.S labour market through participating in the various range of jobs such as scientists, engineers, managers, computer analysts, nurses, doctors and so on They themselves even ran their own business, and this promoted the U.S economy in general and the U.S labour force in specific at that time It could be therefore noted that the Asian immigrants provided the U.S with the abundant and qualified labour source in the 20th century As in the right way, they would make some significant contributions to the U.S economy as well in the next decades 5.1.2 The hindrances and the supports for Asian immigrants to enter the U.S labour force in the 20th century 45 When entering the U.S labour force in the 20th century, Asian immigrants faced many difficulties Because of visible different appearance with the natives, the Asians often suffered from social discrimination When participating in the U.S labour market, they were blamed for taking away the job of the natives, and thus it encouraged the high tension against the coming of Asian immigrants Among the visible factors which hindered the Asians, the most effective one was the discriminatory legislation The Congress passed a series of restrictive legislations to prevent the Asians immigrating to the U.S in the first half of 20 th century The Chinese was the first Asian group to be excluded The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, and then the extension in 1892 and in 1902 barred the entry of Chinese laborers The Japanese also suffered from the Gentlemen's Agreement of 19071908, which denied issuing passports to laborers intending to enter the U.S Then the restriction took the effect with the rest of Asian immigrants through the Immigration Act of 1917 with the “Asiatic barred zone” and the Immigration Act of 1924, which was known as the Asian Exclusion Act and the National Origins Act Even Filipinos, who were addressed as a part of the U.S., were imposed the limitation immigration law with the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934 posting a quota of 50 persons each year In general, the fear of massive Asian immigration to cause severe labour market competitions led to the series of restrictive Asian immigration acts in the first half of the 20th century in the U.S As the result, this produced serious hindrances for Asians when trying to enter the U.S labour force However, luckily, these hindrances had been gradually removed by the U.S Congress itself Due to the change of the world as well as the U.S context after World War II, the restrictive legislations for Asian immigration changed positively, and the Asians actually could benefit from that The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act put an end to nationality and ethnic considerations and gave the efforts on helping immigrants gain reunification of families and needed skills Thanks to this act, immigration from Asia increased dramatically and created a new face for the Asian American labour force with professional skills Later, the Asians, particularly Vietnamese refugees received the support from the Refugee Act of 46 1980 This act both gave legal status to refugees and assisted them to achieve economic self-sufficiency These supports from these acts created a legal framework for Asians to enter the U.S and join the home labour force easily However, to overcome the hindrances of discrimination, the supports from these acts was not enough The Asian immigrants themselves tried their best to adapt the new environment and actively enter the U.S labour force to gain the success they get today 5.2 Limitations of the research Though the research has been conducted to the best of the researcher‟s efforts, there remain some limitations due to the scope of the study The researcher only investigated Asian immigrant contributions at federal level, which means that all the resource of data came from the summary of all states in the U.S for the whole statistics Meanwhile, the contributions of Asian immigrants in each state have been different, and sometimes it can not be deeply reflected through the viewpoint of the federal government Besides, only six major Asian immigrant groups were investigated in this study However, many other Asian groups have been entering the U.S labour force and have gained the specific success as well as actively contributed to the U.S human resource for developing the U.S economy The limitation of the study also comes with the elimination of the illegal Asian immigration in this investigation In fact, along with the legal ones, illegal Asian immigrants have come to the U.S since the 20th century They both brought the hope of finding the jobs in the land of opportunities, actually entered the U.S labour force and made some effects on the U.S labour market at that time In addition, when considering the supports and the hindrances to the Asian immigrants, the study merely focused on legislation, which seemed to be the most visible factor in the twentieth century affecting the Asian immigrants when joining the U.S labour force These limitations have influence on the generalization of the findings 47 5.3 Suggestions for further studies Further studies can expand on this study in different ways Firstly, additional studies on Asian immigration to the U.S labour force should put focus on one or some states of the U.S In fact, the Asian immigrants are highly populated in some states of the U.S, especially the state of California As different states in the U.S have different local policies to immigrants, then the local contributions of the Asian immigrants would be various Secondly, further studies can also have an insight into the contribution of Asian immigrants to the U.S economy in general, in which labour 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The contributions of Asian immigrants to the U. S labour force in the 20th century 37 5.1.2 The hindrances and the supports for Asian immigrants to enter the U. S labour force in the 20th century. .. aim of the thesis is to investigate a comprehensive analysis of the Asian immigrants? ?? contributions to the U. S labour force To be more specific, the contributions of the Asian immigrants to the. .. the labour supply in the 20th century and the movement of Asian in this period contributed to this need of U. S 3.2 Contributions of Asian immigrants to the quality of US labour force in the 20th