Energy-Food-Water Security Nexus in Viet Nam

Tóm tắt: The security of Energy, Food and Water (EFW) – basic human necessities – have lately emerged as a key policy challenge for the Vietnamese policy-makers. This research ismnpremised on the argument that current policy focus for ensuring EFW security is deficient as it is based on siloed thinking, neglectful of the complex, multifaceted, interlinkages (nexus) between EFW, the economy, the society and the environment. An integrated approach to policy, informed by the nexus will therefore be needed to redress the security challenge. Against this backdrop, this research analyses the impacts of alternative developmental pathways (scenarios) on EFW security and the economic, social and environmental domains for Vietnam for the period 2014-2030. These scenarios represent different policy foci, for example; SC1-BAU (Business-as-Usual) Scenario representing continuation with existing policy trends; SC2 Scenario emphasising energy security; SC3 Scenario – food Security; SC4 Scenario – water security; SC5 Scenario – EFW security; and SC6 Scenario – EFW security with specific priority on the environment. Each scenario is underscored by its own technological, economic and other assumptions which are broadly in accord with the current or likely trends in Vietnam. The EFW security and wider impacts of each scenario are assessed in this research through the application of an EFW-security-extended input-output based integrated framework (model), specifically developed for this research. The analyses of these impacts suggest that continuation with existing policy trends will produce detrimental EFW security, and economic, social and environmental outcomes for Vietnam. SC2, SC3 and SC4 scenarios (emphasising energy, food and water security, respectively) will produce superior outcomes in their specific domains but inferior outcomes in other domains (for example, in the S2 scenario energy security will improve appreciably, but at the expense of food and water security). The nexus scenarios (i.e., SC5 and SC6), while producing the best overall EFW security and overall economy-wide outcomes, do offer distinctive choices. SC5 produces extremely positive EFW security and economic and social, but relatively inferior environmental (CO2 emissions), outcomes; SC6 on the contrary produces considerably positive EFW security, social and environmental outcomes, but relatively lower economic outcome (with approximately one percent lower GDP in comparison with SC5 scenario). Such insights into the impacts of various (nexus and non-nexus scenarios) and, more pertinently, associated trade-offs across the scenarios, should – it is contended – provide the Vietnamese policy makers a much robust platform to inform their policy choices to promote EFW security, while ensuring the much-needed socio-economic development of the nation

ENERGY-FOOD-WATER SECURITY NEXUS IN VIET NAM NGUYEN, THI ANH PHUONG Faculty of Engineering University of Technology, Sydney A dissertation submitted to the University of Technology, Sydney in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Energy Planning and Policy) 2019 i CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP/ORIGINALITY I, Thi Anh Phuong Nguyen declare that this thesis, is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, in the School of Information, Systems and Modelling at the University of Technology Sydney This thesis is wholly my own work unless otherwise reference or acknowledged In addition, I certify that all information sources and literature used are indicated in the thesis This document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution This research is supported by the Australian Government Research Training Program Signature of Candidate Nguyen, Thi Anh Phuong ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my great gratitude to all who have supported me over my Ph.D journey I am grateful to Professor Deepak Sharma, my principle Supervisor, for his envisioning me to the world of languages, policy, history, philosophy and life that strengthens my endless love for my country - Việt Nam His encouragement, support and insightful feedbacks are invaluable for my research which inspires me toward the positive in whatsoever that would happen otherwise The lessons from his criticisms, suggestions and ideas are well-taken, actually widely applicable in all-life aspects, and beyond the scope of this research I am gratefully for my second Supervisor - Doctor Suwin Sandu, who has given me a solid foundation about Input-Output modelling – which is a fundamentally quantitative method to undertake this research His advice during my flipped-classes help me a lot through tough periods of this journey Thanks to the Faculty of Engineering of University of Technology Sydney and Bach Khoa University for providing the right type of environment and financial assistance for me to carry out this research I would like to especially thank my friends, colleagues in the Energy Planning and Policy Program for their encouragement and cheerful assistance Particular thanks go to Garima, Kristy, Shegufa, Muyi, Mr Bagia, and Mr Swaminathan, for providing a consistent support, particularly as a medium of communications with my principle supervisor, while I was not in Sydney Thanks to Anh Dũng, Trang and Giang for their good wishes and unconditional support me at OISP, MCI despite any possible inconveniences, mainly due to my unlikely study trips Thanks to Chị Thảo – a great sister, who came to my life as a “gift” while I was at the bottom of the circle of this research Thanks to Mẹ Nguyên for her sympathy, understanding and encouragement so that I can go through this journey Special thanks to Mom and Dad, Anh Hai, Chị Ba and family for your unquestionable belief, aspiration and pride for my long-life learning pathway Finally, I’m grateful to my dear husband - Bình Phương, and my angels– Bon & Thỏ, who gave me utmost motivation and strength with their unconditional love during my PhD journey I owe to you - all, and this life a giving-back for all of the wonders I received Thanks – all– for accepting me as I am iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Certificate of authorship/originality i Table Of Contents iii List of Tables vi List of Figures vii Abbreviations/Glossary ix Abstracts xi CHAPTER INTRODUCTION Research Background Research Objectives Methodological Research Framework 10 Significance of this Research 15 Research Scope and Data Considerations 15 Organization of the thesis 18 CHAPTER HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF ENERGY-FOOD-WATER NEXUS IN VIETNAM 20 CHAPTER LITERATURE REVIEW 50 CHAPTER METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 85 iv CHAPTER DEVELOPMENT OF ENERGY-FOOD-WATER SECURITY SCENARIOS 125 CHAPTER ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACTS OF ALTERNATIVE SCENARIOS 158 v CHAPTER POLICY IMPLICATIONS & TRADE-OFFS IN VARIOUS SCENARIOS 229 CHAPTER CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 267 APPENDICES APPENDIX A: Foundations of assessment of CO2 Emissions 279 APPENDIX B: Data Preparation for Input-Output Modelling .282 APPENDIX C: nput-Output Modelling for Energy-Food-Water Scenarios 412 APPENDIX D: Assessments of impacts of CO2 emissions 548 BIBLIOGRAPHY 554 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1-1: Data sources 17 Table 3-1: Summary of energy-food-water nexus research 57 Table 4-1: Model Coverage 95 Table 4-2: Example of SC2 I-O Coefficient Table after established nested CES function 101 Table 4-3: Model Coverage for the SC3-Food Scenario I-O Table .105 Table 4-4: Model Coverage for the SC4-Water Scenario I-O Table 106 Table 4-5: Model Coverage for the Energy-Food-Water Nexus (SC5 & SC6) I-O 108 Table 4-6: Sectoral Classification of the 149 Sector Groups in the 2007 Vietnam I-O 115 Table 4-7: Model Coverage for the 2007 Vietnam I-O Table .119 Table 4-8: Energy Consumption in 2014 .122 Table 4-9: Value of Carbon Emission Factors by Two Conversion-Unit Rates .123 Table 5-1: Technological choices and development strategies for various scenarios .133 Table 5-2: Key Scenarios Features 152 Table 6-1: Energy demand in various scenarios during 2014–2030 161 Table 6-2: Growth rate of energy demand in various scenarios during 2014–2030 (%/year) 165 Table 6-3: Primary energy intensity (toe/million dollars) .168 Table 6-4: Total employment in various scenarios .205 Table 6-5: Changes in GDP among scenarios (2014-2030) 210 Table 6-6: Trade balance in Vietnam in various scenarios ($US million) 214 Table 6-7: Total emissions by sectors 223 Table 6-8: Summary of scenario outcomes during 2014–2030 .228 Table 7-1: Energy-Food-Water Security: 2014 – 2030 (SC1) .230 Table 7-2: Energy-Food-Water Security: 2014 – 2030 (SC1, SC2) .234 Table 7-3: Energy-Food-Water security: 2014 – 2030 (SC1, SC2 AND SC3) .238 Table 7-4: Energy-Food-Water Security: 2014 – 2030 (SC1, SC2, SC3, and SC4) .243 Table 7.5: Energy-Food-Water Securities: 2014–2030 (SC1, SC2, SC3, SC4, SC5) .247 Table 7-6: Energy-Food-Water Security: 2014 – 2030 252 Table 7-7: Trade-Offs In Social, Economic, And Environmental Outcome in Scenarios .258 Table 7-8: Summary of Policy Objectives, Scenario Outcomes, and Policy Concerns 261 Table 7-9: Summary of Scenarios’ Outcomes 263 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1: Vietnam’s Total Primary Energy Supply: 2006–2015 Figure 1-2: Rice Production in Vietnam, 1961–2012 Figure 1-3: Food Production Surplus and Consumption per capita in Vietnam, 1960–2005 Figure 1-4: Methodological Research Framewor 12 Figure 2-1: Vietnam’s expansion towards the South 29 Figure 2-2: Arable land in Vietnam: 1990-2012 41 Figure 4-1: Overall Methodological Research Framework 86 Figure 4-2: Input-Output Modelling Approach 88 Figure 4-3: The I-O Basic Structure 91 Figure 4-4: Extended I-O Table with Energy, Food and Water Sectors 94 Figure 4-5: Typical Nesting Structure of I-O Coefficients 98 Figure 4-6: Nesting Structure of SC2 - Energy Scenario 100 Figure 4-7: Nesting Structure of SC3 - Food Scenario 102 Figure 4-8: Nesting Structure of SC4 - Water Scenario 102 Figure 4-9: Nesting Structure of Energy-Food-Water Nexus Scenarios after establishing nested CES function 103 Figure 5-1: Key attributes for the Impact Assessment of different scenarios 127 Figure 5-2: Population Growth during 1984 – 2030 .136 Figure 5-3: The Ratio Of Electricity Output And Power Capacity In 2016 137 Figure 6-1: Energy demand in SC1-BAU 159 Figure 6-2: Total primary energy demand, various scenarios 160 Figure 6-3: Energy demand in various scenarios during 2014–2030 (MToe) 162 Figure 6-4: Share of fuel type in primary energy demand, various scenarios (%) 163 Figure 6-5: Share of fuel type in final energy demand in various scenarios (%) 164 Figure 6-6: Changes in primary energy demand, various scenarios .166 Figure 6-7: Energy intensity trends in Vietnam 167 Figure 6-8: Energy intensity changes in Vietnam 170 Figure 6-9: Trends in energy conversion efficiency in Vietnam 172 Figure 6-10: Changes in energy conversion efficiencies in Vietnam .174 Figure 6-11: Energy diversification changes: 2014 - 2030 176 Figure 6-12: Energy diversity changes: 2014 - 2030 177 Figure 6-13: Energy import-dependency: 2014 - 2030 178 Figure 6-14: Impacts of alternative scenarios on energy imports 180 Figure 6-15: Shares of household energy consumption: 2014 - 2030 181 Figure 6-16: Energy affordability changes: 2014 -2030 182 Figure 6-17: Food accessibility ratio in scenarios .184 Figure 6-18: Food accessibility ratio in comparison among scenarios 186 Figure 6-19: Food Import Dependency and Value of Food Import Ratio 187 viii Figure 6-20: Food import dependency ratio in comparison among scenarios 188 Figure 6-21: Value of food affordability ratio, various scenarios 191 Figure 6-22: Food affordability ratio in comparison among scenarios 191 Figure 6-23: Water availability: 2014-2030 193 Figure 6-24: Water demand and per capita demand, various scenarios 196 Figure 6-25: Changes in water demand in 2030 compared with 2014 196 Figure 6-26: Comparison of changes in water demand between scenarios 197 Figure 6-27: Water stress in various scenarios (2014–2030) .199 Figure 6-28: Water intensities for Vietnam in various scenarios, 2014–2030 202 Figure 6-29: Changes in water intensity compared with 2014 (%) 203 Figure 6-30: Water intensity reductions in Vietnam, 2014–2030 204 Figure 6-31: Employment growth rate 206 Figure 6-32: Change in employment, varios scenarios 207 Figure 6-33: Employment of economic sectors in various scenarios .207 Figure 6-34-a: GDP Growth, GDP Growth Rate: 1985 – 2030 (Various Scenarios) 209 Figure 6-34-b: Share of economic sectors in GDP: 1990 - 2030 211 Figure 6-35: Changes 8n Trade Balance in 2030, compared with SC1-BAU .215 Figure 6-36: Investment Requirment For Infrastructure, various Scenarios 218 Figure 6-37: Share of Investment in Infrastructure, various Scenarios (%) 219 Figure 6-38: Additional Investment for Power Sector (compared with SC1-BAU) .221 Figure 6-39: Share Of Co2 Emissions By Scenarios 223 Figure 6-40: Change of total emissions in 2030 compared with others 224 Figure 7-1: Trade-offs between Energy-Food-Water Securities: 2014-2030 (SC1) .229 Figure 7-2: Trade-Offs between Energy-Food-Water Securities: 2014-2030 (SC1, SC2) 233 Figure 7-3: Trade-offs between Energy-Food-Water Securities: 2014-2030 (SC1, SC3) .237 Figure 7-4: Trade-offs between Energy-Food-Water Securities: 2014-2030 (SC1, and SC4) .241 Figure 7-5: Trade-offs between Energy-Food-Water Securities: 2014-2030 (SC1 and SC5) 246 Figure 7-6: Trade-offs between Energy-Food-Water Securities: 2014-2030 (SC1, SC6) .250 Figure 7-7: Energy-Food-Water Security Trade-Offs in alternative scenarios .255 Figure 7-8: Trade-Offs in Economic, Social and Environmental Indicators across scenarios 257 Figure 7-9: Summary Of Impacts And Policy Implications In All Scenarios 265 ix ABBREVIATIONS/GLOSSARY ADB Asian Development Bank ADV Advanced Scenario APEC Asia - Pacific Economic Cooperation ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations BCE Before the Common Era CES Constant Elasticity Substitution CGE Computable General Equilibrium CLEW Climate, Land, Energy, and Water CO2 Carbon Dioxide CPV Communist Party of Vietnam DO Diesel Oil DSI Data Sciences International ECHAM4 European Centre Hamburg Model, 4th edition E-F-W Energy-Food-Water ESCAP The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific EVN Vietnam Corporation of Electricity FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FEM Fixed Effects Model GDP Gross Domestic Product GMS Greater Mekong Sub-region GSO General Statistics Office GSOVN General Statistics Office of Vietnam GW Giga Watt ICOR Incremental Capital and Output Ratio IEA International Energy Agency IFS International Food Standard IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle IMF International Monetary Fund IO Input–Output KVA Kilo Volt-Ampere 548 APPENDIX D Assessments of impacts of CO2 emissions This appendix presents all dataset required for this research, and discussed in sections 4.4 and 4.5 It contains the following tables: Table Title Page D–1 Matrix of energy consumption (million $) 545 D–2 Matrix of energy consumption (PJ) 547 D–3 CO2 Emission (Mt) 548 D–4 CO2 emission by type of energy 549 D–5 CO2 emission by sector 549 D–6 CO2 emission per capita and CO2 emission intensity 549 D –7 Carbon tax, Price impact of carbon tax and Employment impact of carbon tax 549 549 Table D – Year Matrix of energy consumption (million $) Energy Consumption Agriculture Energy Electricity Oil 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.11 0.20 0.02 2,400.99 1,586.73 2.22 13.63 372.71 74.75 1,390.10 2,464.26 252.74 Electricity Other renewables Electricity Solar 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.01 1.61 2,211.51 0.00 0.00 120.19 187.33 Electricity Hydropower Gas, fuel distribution by pipeline Steam distribution, hot water, air conditioner and ice producing 1.74 0.00 0.01 0.19 0.03 4.31 7.64 0.78 6.86 0.00 0.00 0.25 5.68 724.32 0.20 0.25 7.23 1.30 190.22 337.20 34.58 302.62 0.00 0.00 10.23 7.01 Transport 602.04 107.40 0.03 0.11 1.58 0.28 21.83 38.71 3.97 34.74 0.00 0.00 0.99 2.09 656.19 378.60 0.10 0.45 9.51 2.46 197.33 349.82 35.88 313.94 0.00 0.00 13.73 7.78 2,191.20 0.00 1.53 549.05 144.47 0.44 247.55 438.82 45.00 393.81 0.00 0.00 36.45 1,524.09 1.92 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.32 0.57 0.06 0.51 0.00 0.00 0.02 5.20 11,381.62 8,831.16 9.31 64.67 1,907.84 375.51 4,722.40 8,371.53 858.62 7,512.91 0.00 0.00 556.53 742.10 Agriculture Energy 19.09 6.99 0.00 0.03 0.74 0.13 12.30 21.81 2.24 19.57 0.00 0.00 0.92 18.35 Industry 1,457.01 2,901.48 0.58 0.90 27.92 4.91 543.09 962.76 98.74 864.01 0.00 0.00 37.05 22.66 Transport 2,294.95 430.23 0.09 0.41 6.09 1.07 62.34 110.51 11.33 99.18 0.00 0.00 3.57 6.75 Services 2,501.35 1,516.58 0.30 1.61 36.72 9.30 563.42 998.79 102.44 896.35 0.00 0.00 49.76 25.15 Residential 5,015.49 0.00 3.51 1,256.74 330.68 1.01 566.61 1,004.43 103.01 901.40 0.00 0.00 83.43 3,488.53 2.17 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.01 1.03 0.32 0.03 0.41 0.38 0.24 0.03 7.59 10,373.11 6,430.64 7.74 62.08 969.85 279.54 15,912.94 4,968.13 522.96 6,312.88 5,901.98 3,735.43 559.64 1,115.72 Water Agriculture Energy 21.55 7.12 0.00 0.05 0.52 0.13 39.57 12.35 1.30 15.70 14.68 9.29 1.05 26.76 Industry 1,644.83 2,954.16 0.71 1.19 19.62 5.02 1,746.77 545.35 57.41 692.97 647.86 410.04 42.28 33.04 Transport 2,590.78 438.04 0.11 0.54 4.28 1.10 200.51 62.60 6.59 79.54 74.37 47.07 4.08 9.84 Services 2,823.78 1,544.12 0.37 2.12 25.80 9.51 1,812.14 565.76 59.55 718.90 672.11 425.38 56.77 36.67 Residential 5,231.22 0.00 3.33 1,196.08 313.91 12.04 1,190.85 371.79 39.14 472.43 441.68 279.54 123.80 7,348.31 Agriculture 1.92 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.33 0.58 0.06 0.52 0.00 0.00 0.02 5.48 11,733.69 9,235.54 8.75 61.45 1,813.54 356.90 4,560.59 8,579.40 829.20 7,699.46 0.00 0.00 532.15 753.39 Water Energy 19.03 6.97 0.00 0.03 0.74 0.13 12.27 21.75 2.23 19.52 0.00 0.00 0.92 19.34 Industry 1,452.75 2,893.72 0.58 0.90 27.90 4.90 541.60 960.10 98.47 861.63 0.00 0.00 37.02 23.87 Transport 2,288.23 429.08 0.09 0.41 6.08 1.07 62.17 110.21 11.30 98.90 0.00 0.00 3.57 7.11 Services 2,494.03 1,512.52 0.30 1.61 36.69 9.29 561.86 996.03 102.16 893.88 0.00 0.00 49.72 26.50 Residential 4,891.17 0.00 3.43 1,225.59 322.48 0.99 552.57 979.53 100.45 879.06 0.00 0.00 81.37 3,402.06 Water 2030 SC3 FOOD Electricity Gas turbine 5.01 Services 2030 SC2 ENERGY Electricity Coal-fired 382.22 Residential 2030 SC1 BAU Other products extracting from oil, gas Crude oil Coal Gasoline, lubricants Industry Water 2014 Coke coal and other by-product cokes Natural gas 550 Agriculture Energy 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.35 0.62 0.06 0.56 0.00 0.00 0.03 6.02 8.58 60.58 1,786.68 351.52 4,531.60 8,033.30 823.93 7,209.37 0.00 0.00 525.77 746.78 6.45 0.00 0.02 0.33 0.06 1.96 3.48 0.36 3.12 0.00 0.00 0.15 2.34 Industry 2,918.36 0.58 0.91 28.14 4.95 546.21 968.28 99.31 868.97 0.00 0.00 37.34 24.08 Transport 2,307.71 432.73 0.09 0.41 6.14 1.08 62.70 111.15 11.40 99.75 0.00 0.00 3.60 7.17 Services 2,515.26 1,525.40 0.31 1.62 37.00 9.37 566.65 1,004.51 103.03 901.49 0.00 0.00 50.14 26.72 Residential 5,424.71 0.00 3.80 1,359.28 357.66 1.09 612.85 1,086.38 111.41 974.95 0.00 0.00 90.24 3,773.16 2.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.98 0.30 0.03 0.39 0.36 0.23 0.03 8.29 11,725.42 7,734.34 8.72 67.63 1,116.96 289.48 15,969.56 5,016.36 524.82 6,344.35 5,931.41 3,754.06 615.17 1,315.00 Energy 25.81 9.78 0.00 0.06 0.66 0.15 41.82 13.06 1.37 16.59 15.51 9.82 1.05 29.62 Industry 1,561.59 2,744.84 0.68 1.13 19.59 4.51 1,596.56 498.46 52.47 633.38 592.15 374.78 41.75 36.71 Transport 2,389.59 395.41 0.10 0.49 4.15 0.96 183.11 57.17 6.02 72.64 67.91 42.98 3.99 10.85 Services 2,604.50 1,393.83 0.34 1.95 25.03 8.30 1,654.91 516.67 54.39 656.52 613.79 388.48 55.62 40.43 Residential 5,033.34 0.00 3.44 1,229.33 321.83 1.11 1,088.90 339.96 35.79 431.98 403.86 255.61 114.57 6,800.24 Water Agriculture Energy 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.91 0.33 0.03 0.37 0.35 0.22 0.04 11.64 11,708.50 7,036.19 10.16 67.48 1,302.49 263.17 14,992.57 5,470.53 510.61 6,172.51 5,770.75 3,652.37 867.29 1,858.91 25.81 8.91 0.00 0.06 0.77 0.14 39.14 14.20 1.33 16.09 15.04 9.52 1.47 41.71 Industry 1,558.50 2,495.81 0.79 1.12 22.85 4.10 1,491.36 541.17 50.79 613.13 573.23 362.80 58.67 51.59 Transport 2,384.88 359.54 0.12 0.49 4.84 0.87 171.05 62.07 5.83 70.32 65.74 41.61 5.61 15.24 Services 2,599.37 1,267.38 0.40 1.95 29.20 7.54 1,545.88 560.95 52.65 635.55 594.18 376.06 78.16 56.81 Residential 2,915.21 0.00 2.07 795.39 239.40 180.10 699.68 204.72 22.25 268.34 103.10 158.78 147.53 4,283.01 Water 2030 SC6 LOW CARBON 0.00 8.30 Agriculture 2030 SC5 FEW 0.00 8,166.81 1,465.12 Water 2030 SC4 WATER 2.09 10,800.47 Source: Estimates based on modelling developed in this research Note: This Table shows the results obtained by the application of Equation 5.3, as detailed in Section 5.2.1, p.101 (Unit: Million USD) 551 Table D – Year Matrix of energy consumption (PJ) Energy Consumption Agriculture Energy Total 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.26 363.97 321.33 160.67 289.31 90.71 0.00 0.00 1,225.99 0.40 0.22 0.00 0.00 2.81 0.24 17.86 9.62 0.00 0.00 213.83 Transport 226.35 6.21 0.05 2.05 1.10 0.00 0.00 235.77 Services 247.42 21.98 0.31 18.53 9.98 0.00 0.00 298.21 1,080.19 0.03 4.73 23.24 12.51 0.00 0.00 1,120.71 0.89 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.94 1,723.39 1,477.55 738.78 1,284.78 393.61 0.00 0.00 5,618.11 7.81 0.41 0.02 1.16 0.62 0.00 0.00 10.02 Industry 549.73 167.62 0.92 50.99 27.46 0.00 0.00 796.72 Transport 862.79 24.87 0.20 5.85 3.15 0.00 0.00 896.87 Services 942.89 88.00 1.20 52.90 28.48 0.00 0.00 1,113.47 Residential 2,472.48 0.06 10.83 53.20 28.64 0.00 0.00 2,565.20 Agriculture 1.06 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.14 1,409.69 1,280.60 556.59 1,337.37 394.44 368.77 233.40 5,580.86 Water Industry 9.01 0.42 0.02 1.69 0.50 0.47 0.30 12.40 620.91 170.67 0.66 74.66 22.02 20.59 13.03 922.53 974.11 25.33 0.14 8.57 2.53 2.36 1.50 1,014.53 Services 1,064.83 89.60 0.85 77.45 22.84 21.36 13.52 1,290.45 Residential 2,657.14 0.69 10.28 50.90 15.01 14.03 8.88 2,756.94 Agriculture 0.90 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.95 1,765.17 1,519.40 759.70 1,323.79 406.32 0.00 0.00 5,774.39 Transport Energy 7.82 0.41 0.02 1.15 0.62 0.00 0.00 10.03 Industry 548.17 167.18 0.92 50.85 27.38 0.00 0.00 794.49 Transport 860.27 24.81 0.20 5.84 3.14 0.00 0.00 894.26 Services 940.18 87.77 1.20 52.75 28.40 0.00 0.00 1,110.30 Residential 2,411.19 0.06 10.56 51.88 27.93 0.00 0.00 2,501.62 Agriculture 0.98 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.00 1.04 1,632.20 1,400.45 700.22 1,219.39 373.90 0.00 0.00 5,326.15 Water Energy 3.21 0.38 0.01 0.18 0.10 0.00 0.00 3.88 Industry 552.83 168.60 0.93 51.28 27.61 0.00 0.00 801.25 Transport 867.60 25.02 0.20 5.89 3.17 0.00 0.00 901.88 Services 948.18 88.52 1.21 53.20 28.65 0.00 0.00 1,119.75 Residential 2,674.21 0.06 11.71 57.54 30.98 0.00 0.00 2,774.50 Agriculture 1.03 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.10 1,565.04 1,493.96 654.19 1,416.81 417.87 390.67 247.26 6,185.80 Water Energy Water 10.71 0.57 0.02 1.79 0.53 0.49 0.31 14.43 Industry 589.72 158.57 0.66 68.24 20.13 18.82 11.91 868.03 Transport 898.53 22.86 0.14 7.83 2.31 2.16 1.37 935.18 Services 982.46 80.87 0.82 70.73 20.86 19.50 12.34 1,187.59 Residential 2,577.22 0.06 10.54 46.54 13.73 12.83 8.12 2,669.05 Agriculture 1.14 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.21 1,392.90 1,342.33 588.07 1,279.56 370.81 346.67 219.41 5,539.75 Energy 2030 SC6 LOW CARBON Electricity Solar 0.01 Energy 2030 SC5 FEW Electricity Renewable 0.10 Water 2030 SC4 WATER Electricity Hydro 41.85 Energy 2030 SC3 FOOD Electricity Fossil 2.08 Agriculture 2030 SC2 ENERGY Gas 144.27 Residential 2030 SC1 BAU Oil Industry Water 2014 Coal Water 11.12 0.52 0.02 1.78 0.51 0.48 0.30 14.74 Industry 589.58 144.18 0.77 67.86 19.48 18.21 11.53 851.61 Transport 852.14 20.79 0.16 7.78 2.23 2.09 1.32 886.51 Services 981.79 73.53 0.96 70.34 20.20 18.88 11.95 1,177.64 1,537.80 10.39 7.83 30.15 8.53 3.28 5.05 1,603.01 Residential Source: Estimates based on modelling developed in this research (Unit: PJ) 552 Table D -3 Year 2014 2030 SC1 BAU 2030 SC2 ENERGY 2030 SC3 FOOD 2030 SC4 WATER 2030 SC5 FEW 2030 SC6 LOW CARBON CO2 Emission (Mt) Energy Consumption 2014 Coal Oil Gas Electricity Fossil Electricity Hydro Electricity Renewable Electricity Solar Total Agriculture 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 Energy 17.83 15.74 7.87 14.17 4.44 0.00 0.00 60.05 Water 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 Industry 4.00 0.86 0.00 4.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.24 Transport 6.22 0.13 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.85 Services 6.85 0.45 0.01 4.53 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.84 39.25 Residential 33.48 0.00 0.09 5.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 Agriculture 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 Energy 74.53 63.90 31.95 55.56 17.02 0.00 0.00 242.97 Water 0.26 0.01 0.00 0.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.55 Industry 15.24 3.46 0.02 12.46 0.00 0.00 0.00 31.19 Transport 23.72 0.51 0.00 1.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 25.67 Services 26.08 1.82 0.02 12.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 40.85 Residential 76.63 0.00 0.20 13.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 89.84 Agriculture 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 Energy 73.72 66.97 29.11 69.94 20.63 19.28 12.21 291.85 Water 0.32 0.01 0.00 0.41 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.75 Industry 17.24 3.52 0.01 18.25 0.00 0.41 0.00 39.43 Transport 26.79 0.52 0.00 2.09 0.00 0.05 0.00 29.46 Services 29.48 1.85 0.02 18.93 0.00 0.43 0.00 50.70 Residential 91.22 0.01 0.19 12.44 0.00 0.28 0.00 104.15 Agriculture 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 Energy 68.89 59.30 29.65 51.66 15.86 0.00 0.00 225.36 Water 0.26 0.01 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 Industry 15.20 3.45 0.02 9.94 0.00 0.00 0.00 28.62 Transport 23.65 0.51 0.00 1.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 25.31 Services 26.01 1.81 0.02 10.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 38.16 Residential 74.73 0.00 0.20 10.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 85.07 Agriculture 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 Energy 64.59 55.42 27.71 48.25 14.80 0.00 0.00 210.77 Water 0.09 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 Industry 15.33 3.48 0.02 10.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 28.86 Transport 23.86 0.52 0.00 1.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 25.53 Services 26.23 1.83 0.02 10.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 38.49 Residential 82.88 0.00 0.22 11.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 94.35 Agriculture 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 Energy 69.78 66.61 29.17 63.17 18.63 17.42 11.02 275.80 Water 0.37 0.01 0.00 0.35 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.74 Industry 16.39 3.27 0.01 13.34 0.00 0.37 0.00 33.39 Transport 24.72 0.47 0.00 1.53 0.00 0.04 0.00 26.76 Services 27.22 1.67 0.02 13.83 0.00 0.39 0.00 43.13 Residential 87.66 0.00 0.20 9.10 0.00 0.26 0.00 97.22 Agriculture 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 Energy 59.09 56.94 24.95 54.28 15.73 14.71 9.31 235.00 Water 0.41 0.01 0.00 0.31 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.74 Industry 16.46 2.98 0.01 11.66 0.00 0.36 0.00 31.48 Transport 23.46 0.43 0.00 1.34 0.00 0.04 0.00 25.27 Services 27.30 1.52 0.02 12.09 0.00 0.38 0.00 41.30 Residential 53.05 0.21 0.15 5.29 0.00 0.07 0.00 Source: Estimates based on modelling developed in this research (Unit: 58.77 Million tons) Note: This Table shows the results obtained by the application of Equation A-17, as detailed in Section appendix A 553 Table D – CO2 emission by type of energy 2030 SC1 BAU 2014 2030 SC2 Energy 2030 SC3 Food 2030 SC4 Water 2030 SC5 EFW 2030 SC6 Low Carbon Coal 37.83 132.25 130.44 123.21 122.02 120.71 98.72 Oil 33.40 113.38 118.49 106.06 104.70 115.23 95.14 Gas 16.70 56.69 51.50 53.03 52.35 50.46 41.68 Electricity - Fossil 30.07 98.59 123.75 92.40 91.16 109.28 90.69 Electricity - Hydro 9.43 30.20 36.50 28.36 27.95 32.23 26.28 Electricity - Renewable 0.00 0.00 34.12 0.00 0.00 30.13 24.57 Electricity - Solar 0.00 0.00 21.60 0.00 0.00 19.07 15.55 127.42 431.12 516.40 403.06 398.19 477.10 Total Source: Estimates based on modelling developed in this research (Unit: 392.63 Million tons) Table D – CO2 emission by sector 2030 SC1 BAU 2014 2030 SC2 Energy 2030 SC3 Food 2030 SC4 Water 2030 SC5 EFW 2030 SC6 Low Carbon Agriculture 0.01 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 Energy 60.05 242.97 291.85 225.36 210.77 275.80 235.00 Water 0.17 0.55 0.75 0.50 0.14 0.74 0.74 Industry 9.24 31.19 39.43 28.62 28.86 33.39 31.48 Transport 6.85 25.67 29.46 25.31 25.53 26.76 25.27 Services 11.84 40.85 50.70 38.16 38.49 43.13 41.30 Residential 39.25 89.84 104.15 85.07 94.35 97.22 58.77 Total 127.42 431.12 516.40 403.06 398.19 477.10 392.63 Source: Estimates based on modelling developed in this research Table D – (Unit: Million tons) CO2 emission per capita and CO2 emission intensity 2014 2030 SC1 BAU 2030 SC2 Energy 2030 SC3 Food 2030 SC4 Water 2030 SC5 EFW 2030 SC6 Low Carbon Total emission (Mt) 89.80 127.42 431.12 516.40 403.06 398.19 CO2 emission per capita (tons/people) 1.05 1.40 4.18 5.01 3.91 3.86 4.63 968.87 1,305.81 1,500.40 1,164.15 1,052.07 1,118.26 929.90 CO2 emission intensity (tCO2/$ thousand GDP 477.10 Source: Estimates based on modelling developed in this research Note: This Table shows the results obtained by the application of 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Vietnam was subject to Chinese over-lordship Since being dominant by China, the culture and mind-set of Vietnam has been influenced by Chinese, including in institutions for deploying water, land, and... of the Energy-Food-Water Security Nexus in Vietnam, which refers to Objective in identifying the causes and influences that initiated the formation of Vietnam’s water-food-energy security nexus. .. restore Vietnamese independence, ended the long millennium of Chinese dominance over Vietnam in the year 939 (Le, 2014) Vietnam history was blended between a long history of resisting against being