Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Grammatical Change in English World-Wide www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Studies in Corpus Linguistics (SCL) issn 1388-0373 SCL focuses on the use of corpora throughout language study, the development of a quantitative approach to linguistics, the design and use of new tools for processing language texts, and the theoretical implications of a data-rich discipline For an overview of all books published in this series, please see http/benjamins.com/catalog/scl General Editor Consulting Editor Elena Tognini-Bonelli Wolfgang Teubert The Tuscan Word Centre/ The University of Siena University of Birmingham Advisory Board Michael Barlow Graeme Kennedy Douglas Biber Michaela Mahlberg Marina Bondi Anna Mauranen Christopher S Butler Ute Römer Sylviane Granger Jan Svartvik M.A.K Halliday John M Swales Yang Huizhong Martin Warren University of Auckland Northern Arizona University University of Modena and Reggio Emilia University of Wales, Swansea University of Louvain University of Sydney Jiao Tong University, Shanghai Victoria University of Wellington University of Nottingham University of Helsinki Georgia State University University of Lund University of Michigan The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Susan Hunston University of Birmingham Volume 67 Grammatical Change in English World-Wide Edited by Peter Collins Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Grammatical Change in English World-Wide Edited by Peter Collins University of New South Wales, Australia John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences – Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi z39.48-1984 Cover design: Franỗoise Berserik Cover illustration from original painting Random Order by Lorenzo Pezzatini, Florence, 1996 doi 10.1075/scl.67 Cataloging-in-Publication Data available from Library of Congress: lccn 2014045768 (print) / 2014046354 (e-book) isbn 978 90 272 0375 (Hb) isbn 978 90 272 6890 (e-book) © 2015 – John Benjamins B.V No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher John Benjamins Publishing Co · P.O Box 36224 · 1020 me Amsterdam · The Netherlands John Benjamins North America · P.O Box 27519 · Philadelphia pa 19118-0519 · usa Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Table of contents Introduction Peter Collins part 1. Inner Circle Englishes Diachronic variation in the grammar of Australian English: Corpus-based explorations Peter Collins 15 At the crossroads of change: Possession, periphrasis, and prescriptivism in Victoria English Alexandra D’Arcy 43 Do-support in early New Zealand and Australian English Marianne Hundt 65 The progressive in Irish English: Looking both ways? John M Kirk 87 Cross-variety diachronic drifts and ephemeral regional contrasts: An analysis of modality in the extended Brown family of corpora and what it can tell us about the New Englishes Christian Mair Passives of so-called ‘ditransitives’ in nineteenth century and present-day Canadian English Matthias L.G Meyer 119 147 Dual adverbs in Australian English Pam Peters 179 The evolution of epistemic marking in West Australian English Celeste Rodríguez Louro 205 May and might in nineteenth century Irish English and English English Marije Van Hattum 221 The present perfect and the preterite in Australian English: A diachronic perspective Xinyue Yao www.ebook777.com 247 Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Grammatical Change in English World-Wide part 2. Outer Circle Englishes Recent diachronic change in the progressive in Philippine English Peter Collins 271 Linguistic change in a multilingual setting: A case study of quotatives in Indian English Julia Davydova 297 Patterns of regularisation in British, American and Indian English: A closer look at irregular verbs with t/ed variation Bernard De Clerck & Klaar Vanopstal 335 An apparent time study of the progressive in Nigerian English Robert Fuchs & Ulrike Gut 373 American influence on written Caribbean English: A diachronic analysis of newspaper reportage in the Bahamas and in Trinidad and Tobago Stephanie Hackert & Dagmar Deuber 389 Cultural keywords in context: A pilot study of linguistic acculturation in South Asian Englishes Joybrato Mukherjee & Tobias Bernaisch 411 Recent quantitative changes in the use of modals and quasi-modals in the Hong Kong, British and American printed press: Exploring the potential of Factiva® for the diachronic investigation of World Englishes Dirk Noël & Johan Van der Auwera 437 The development of an extended time period meaning of the progressive in Black South African English Bertus Van Rooy & Caroline Piotrowska 465 Index 485 Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Introduction Peter Collins University of New South Wales, Australia Until fairly recently we have had to rely on unsystematic and impressionistic sources for information on grammatical change in contemporary English, by contrast with sound change in progress, which has been subject to a good deal of sociolinguistic research As corpus-based studies have begun to gather momentum, there are signs that real progress is being made The most significant research to date is that reported in Leech et al.’s landmark 2009 volume, Change in Contemporary English In this innovative contribution to the long tradition of research on the historical development of the grammar of English, the authors demonstrate the capacity of a corpus-based approach to quantify recent changes in a range of grammatical categories, including the modal auxiliaries, progressive, subjunctive, passive, genitive and relative clauses, in British and American English At the same time they explore the role played in this process by a range of linguistic factors (such as grammaticalisation), discourse-level factors (such as colloquialisation) and socio-historical factors (such as Americanisation and prescriptivism) A more recent volume whose focus is also on current, relatively short-term, change in English grammar – more specifically the verb phrase – is Aarts et al (2013) While Leech et al.’s work is based on the ‘Brown family’ of corpora, contributors to Aarts et al avail themselves of a wide range of corpora, and there is a notable concern with questions of methodology The focus in both of these collections, which demonstrate the power of corpus linguistic techniques to provide valuable quantitative insights into changes in the E nglish language, is squarely upon on the British and American ‘supervarieties’ of English The investigation of postcolonial varieties of English from a diachronic rather than synchronic linguistic perspective has, however, been largely neglected The existence of this gap in the World Englishes research paradigm was recognised by Noël, Van der Auwera & Van Rooy, in their capacity as editors a recent special issue of the Journal of English Linguistics (Volume 42, 2014, “Diachronic Approaches to Modality in World Englishes”) The papers in this issue seek to illuminate distinctive grammatical patterns in selected postcolonial varieties using concepts and methods from historical linguistics, eschewing the hitherto more common approach involving synchronic comparisons between postcolonial Englishes and the parent variety, accompanied doi 10.1075/scl.67.01col © 2015 John Benjamins Publishing Company www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Peter Collins by explanations proffered in terms of such notions as language contact, or language acquisition, or “universals of New Englishes” Following Noël et al.’s lead, the contributions to this volume apply and extend the techniques of corpus linguistics and diachronic linguistics to the task of describing and explaining grammatical change in English varieties (or sub-varieties in some cases) other than the two supervarieties The book is divided into two parts, based on Kachru’s (1985) distinction between ‘Inner Circle’ varieties on the one hand, those in which English is the first language for the majority of the population and the language in which almost all public and private interaction is conducted (Part 1), and on the other hand ‘Outer Circle’ varieties, in which English is usually a second language learnt in school, despite its status as an official language (Part 2) Part contains five chapters on ‘antipodean’ southern hemisphere Englishes (by Collins, Peters, R odriguez Louro, and Yao on Australian English, and by Hundt on both Australian and New Zealand English); two on Irish English (by Kirk, and Van Hattum); and two on Canadian English (by D’Arcy, and Meyer) One paper, by Mair, explores the implications for other Englishes of changes that have occurred in British and American English The chapters in Part 2 represent the following regions: South-East Asia (Collins’s on Philippine English, and Noël & Van der Auwera’s on Hong Kong English); South Asia (Davydova’s and De Clerck & Vanopstal’s, both on Indian English; and Mukherjee & Bernaisch’s on Indian, Pakistani and Sri Lankan Englishes); the Caribbean (Hackert & Deuber’s on Bahamian and Trinidad/Tobagan Englishes); and Africa (Fuchs & Gut’s on Nigerian English, and Van Rooy & Piotrowska’s on Black South African English) Four overarching research questions were identified as considerations for contributors to bear in mind in preparing their papers, as follows: How the diachronic tendencies observed in a particular variety differ from those of the parent variety (British English for all the postcolonial Englishes bar Philippine English, whose parent is American English)? What are the possible causes of the diachronic tendencies observed? These may include, for example, the evolutionary status of a variety in Schneider’s (2007) dynamic model, the characteristic style orientation of a variety (has English become rooted in informal registers or is it a formal choice?), English teaching traditions and learner strategies in institutionalised L2 varieties, prescriptivism (as manifested in the pursuit of codification and in the presence of a complaint tradition), and internal changes in registers (such as the increasing use of direct speech or free indirect speech in fiction) Do you observe different rates of change in the same direction from one variety to another, or in different directions? Do the observed changes converge with, or diverge from, or run in parallel with, those in the parent variety? Are the changes regionally specific, found in a particular variety but not attested in others)? How Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Introduction are the changes observed to be explained (for example, is there evidence of colonial lag or colonial innovation)? Are there any universal routes of development? Any variety-specific mechanisms? Any mechanisms that distinguish non-native Englishes from native Englishes? While most of the chapters address central grammatical categories, such as progressives (Collins; Fuchs & Gut; Kirk; Van Rooy & Piotrowska); modality (Mair; Noël & Van der Auwera; Van Hattum); the present perfect (Yao), ditransitive constructions (Meyer), and do-support (D’Arcy; Hundt), a smaller number are concerned with morphology (De Clerck & Vanopstal on -t/-ed variation in verbs; Peters on adverb suffixation), and with topics on the periphery of grammar (Mukherjee & Bernaisch’s paper on cultural key words is concerned with the lexis-grammar interface; Rodriguez Louro’s on epistemic markers with the pragmatics-grammar interface; Davydova’s on quotatives with the discourse-grammar interface) The majority of chapters focus on a single variable, but two explore the ‘bigger picture’ afforded by investigation of a set of variables (Collins on Australian English; and Hackert & Deuber on Caribbean Englishes) A major challenge for contributors was the paucity of resources suitable for the historical study of postcolonial Englishes Within the World Englishes paradigm the most well-known and widely used resource is the International Corpus of English (ICE) collection While, strictly speaking, the chronologically parallel ICE corpora are amenable only to synchronic comparisons, they have been used as the basis for indirect, apparent time, comparisons by various linguists (for discussion of the apparent-time construct see Labov 1994: 43–72) Some previous ICE-based studies have extrapolated findings for ongoing change from differences between speech and writing, based on the assumption that changes tend to be more advanced in spoken than in written texts (e.g Collins 2009; Van der Auwera, Noël & de Wit 2012) A further possibility – exploited in Fuchs & Gut’s chapter on the progressive in Nigerian English – is the use of synchronic corpora for apparent time studies that compare speakers of different age groups based on the assumption that changes will be more advanced in the usage of younger than older speakers Yet another strategy is to identify changes in apparent time via comparisons of postcolonial varieties and their ‘parent’ variety, based on the assumption that extent of divergence will be an indicator of advancement (Mair & Winkle 2012; Mukherjee & Bernaisch in this volume) The problem of a short supply of corpora suitable for the real time historical study of postcolonial Englishes is addressed in various ways by the contributors to this volume Some use the strategy employed in Leech et al (2009) of using parallel or nearparallel (sub-)corpora representing differing time points Mair in fact introduces the latest member of the American Brown-family (the 1930s ‘Before-Brown’ corpus) in www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Peter Collins order to demonstrate the descriptive advantages of extending the three-decade period investigated in Leech et al (2009), including provision of a better benchmark for use in investigations of the New Englishes Some chapters draw comparisons between an ICE corpus and (selected categories from) another corpus with an earlier sampling date For example, Collins’s chapter on Philippine English makes use of a recently compiled ‘Brown-family’ corpus (‘Phil-Brown’) along with the written categories of ICE- Philippines to compare developments between the 1960s and 1990s Peters’ chapter compares data from ICE-Aus and ICE-GB with that representing earlier Australian and British English collected by herself Kirk draws comparisons between data collected from ICE-Ireland and the Corpus of Irish English Correspondence (CORIECOR), which comprises approximately three million words of personal letters dating from about 1700 to 1940 Other contributors use historical corpora in which texts are sampled over a period of time at regular intervals The studies by Collins (Part 1), Hundt, Peters, Van Hattum and Yao all make use of Clemens Fritz’s facetiously named Corpus of Oz Early English (COOEE), compiled for his doctorate on the origins of Australian English (see Fritz 2007) COOEE comprises four macro-genres, fourteen text categories, and covers the period from 1788 to 1900 Yao and Collins’s chapters also use a recently-compiled multigeneric corpus of 20th century Australian English (AusCorp), comprising news, fiction, and scientific texts organised in ten year periods In order to draw comparisons with earlier British and American English, Collins, Yao and Hundt draw data from ARCHER (A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers), version 3.2, a multigeneric corpus with texts divided into 50-year periods from 1600 (for British English) and 1750 (for American English) till the end of the 20th century Hundt’s New Zealand data are derived from the 19th and 20th century Corpus of Early New Zealand English (CENZE), which was designed to be as similar in its design to ARCHER as the availability of texts would allow The diachronic dimension of Meyer’s study derives from his use of two generically-matched corpora: a 19th century corpus (comprising texts from the new Corpus of Early Nineteenth-Century Ontario Newspaper English, and various non-fiction and fiction texts) and from the multigeneric Strathy Corpus of Canadian English (which comprises over 50 million words of texts produced from the 1920s to the present day) Van Hattum uses a self-compiled corpus of historical Irish English and English English trial proceedings and personal letters, taken from a variety of sources including CORIECOR, the Old Bailey Corpus, COOEE and ARCHER The historical corpora described thus far are all multigeneric Some contributors use monogeneric corpora comprising newspapers collected across a set of time points D’Arcy’s study is based on a set of issues of a Canadian newspaper, the British Colonist, from 1858 to 1935 Noël & Van der Auwera’s database comprises issues of Hong Kong’s South China Morning Post and several major American and British newspapers, at three data points (1990, 2000, and 2010) Hackert & Deuber’s study is based on press Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Bertus Van Rooy & Caroline Piotrowska There are two criteria for the classification of instances in the data as on-going states From the context, it should be evident that the event has longer rather than shorter duration, but at the same time, the possibility of the eventual termination of the state should still exist and not be excluded by either some evidence in context or by the nature of the predicate itself (e.g unchanging attributes like ‘be old’) Ideally, temporal adverbials in the vicinity of the progressive verb were used to make the judgement, but otherwise the possibilities allowed by the broader textual context had to be interpreted A typical example from the data is: (3) A decade does not seem to have made much difference to Elijah Cele’s tenor, I found him leading his choir at Fairview Mission School, and it was almost as good as when he sang on the BBC network He, and the farmers, are anxiously waiting – as they have been for twenty years – for the handing over of the title deeds to their land The white farmers are opposing this (Reportage, Drum, July 1952, p 26–27) The state of waiting has been going on for twenty years already, and in the context there is an indication that the white farmers oppose the completion of the handing over of the title deeds Particularly in the context of South Africa in 1952, it is not evident that the waiting will stop, but rather it is likely to continue However, the possibility that the waiting might come to an end is not definitely excluded, and therefore an on-going rather than a permanent state is denoted here Another example of the on-going state meaning is: (4) The present seems to us to abound with much to enable our countrymen to be hopeful even in the face of the present eruption of the old volcano That volcano is now belching forth flames and lava in the shape of an irritating native policy Mr De Wet is doing everything to prove to the natives of this country that they possess no rights to the lands they are occupying. (Reportage, Imvo, 23 December 1885) From the context it is clear that the lands have been occupied since time immemorial, and while the occupation of the land is construed as being under threat, the conceptualisation of “the present eruption of the old volcano” implies that the occupation of land by “the natives in the country” is not necessarily coming to an end The story has as heading “A Silver Lining”, and reports on the activities of various individuals, organisations and newspapers to counter the threat to the native people continuing to live on the land they occupy Thus, the preferred overall construal is of longer, rather than temporary duration Similar to its counterparts in native varieties, the perfect progressive in BSAfE is sometimes used to construe situations of longer duration Therefore, perfect progressives are also grouped with the on-going state progressive, unless in context there is a clear temporal limit In the following extract, the past progressive perfect is tied to a The development extended time period meaning of the progressive Free ebooks ==>of an www.ebook777.com period of fifteen years already, although it did stop some time later Thus, after a long period of time, a state came to an end, and turned out not to be a permanent state after all (5) At this time the notorious “Y” Gang had been sitting pretty for 15 years and had indulged in all sorts of terroristic activities from brutal assaults to extortion, under the leadership of “Old Man Y”. (Reportage, Drum, October 1952, p 7) The most unusual extension of the progressive in the temporal domain, when judged from the perspective of native varieties of English, is the unlimited state, where duration is profiled by the progressive, but the potential termination of the state is unlikely or impossible In the written data, both historical and contemporary, this usage is quite rare, and occurs mainly in spoken BSAfE (see Van Rooy 2014) One of the few examples of this meaning is the following: (6) This happened on June 26 Cycling on the East London road via Mount Coke, then branching off to Berlin, we saw a village on top of a mountain As the main road was not leading there it was necessary to look for a footpath up the mountain side. (Reportage, Imvo, 12 June, 1947) A rural village on a mountain is not connected to the surrounding area by a main road In the context of the text, nothing else is mentioned about the road, and no suggestion is left that there are plans to build a road to the village The state of a main road not leading there is therefore not likely to end As noted by Van Rooy (2014), there are two more specialised uses of the unlimited state progressive that occur more frequently than the more general case The characterising progressive occurs in restrictive relatives serving to express an attribute of the antecedent (journals in (7) below): (7) It is not, however, in his relation to the European electors that we propose to notice Mr Innes’s visit to his Peddie constituents; this may be left for journals which are professedly catering for our white neighbours. (Reportage, Imvo, April 7, 1886) There is no suggestion in the text that the journals in question will ever stop catering for a white readership, and thus the state denoted by the progressive is not limited in time In the contextual frame progressive, a longer-term state functions as an epistemic frame for the understanding of some other event This usage ties in quite closely with the modal prototype of the progressive identified by De Wit & Brisard (2014), in that the progressive is motivated on epistemic, rather than temporal grounds De Wit & Brisard (2014) incorporate subjective senses of the progressive under this heading www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Bertus Van Rooy & Caroline Piotrowska A very small number of such senses are observed in the BSAfE corpora when the verb is a stative verb, as in the following: (8) Much criticism has been leveled at the low standard of entry which has been maintained for the Diploma Course but in view of the fact that the Institution was not only catering for men drawn from the Ciskei but also from the North West Cape, Transvaal, O.F.S., and Natal it was not deemed advisable to raise the standard of education above the 6th standard up to the present.(Imvo, 10 August, 1946) In the example, there is a sense that the entry level criteria are under debate, and may change, but against that background, it is clear that the state of ‘catering’ for men from different parts of the country is given The givenness of the wider reach of the Institution is exactly the context within which a debate is framed about the most appropriate entrance criteria 3. Results The overall frequencies of the progressive in the various data sets are represented in Table There is a clear rising trend in the overall frequency of the progressive from the late 19th century to the present, but register affects the picture The progressive occurs considerably more often in fiction than in news in the periods for which we have matching data sets Table 2. Overall frequencies, values normalised per 100,000 words (with raw frequency counts in brackets) Corpus Register Period Normalised frequency (raw frequency) Imvo1 Newspaper 1884–1888 174 (59) Imvo2 Newspaper 1914–1918 232 (256) Imvo3 Newspaper 1944–1948 310 (289) Drum Newspaper 1951–1959 344 (466) Current Newspaper 2000–2012 619 (259) Drum Fiction 1951–1959 560 (515) Current Fiction 2000–2012 622 (277) The three sets of data from the Imvo show a clear increasing trend We find a rise of 33% across the three decades from the 1880s to the 1910s (LL = 4.25; p < 0.05) and one of 34% across the three decades from the 1910s to the 1940s (LL = 11.30, p < 0.001) The development extended time period meaning of the progressive Free ebooks ==>of an www.ebook777.com The difference of 11% between ‘Imvo3’ and ‘Drum’ is negligible (LL = 1.96, p > 0.05), which is on the one hand to be expected as there is a mere three year window between them, and on the other hand quite reassuring in showing that two different newspapers, printed in the Eastern Cape and Johannesburg respectively, had quite similar values, and thus increases our confidence in the generalisability of our data BSAfE follows the trend observed for other varieties of English, because here too the overall frequency of progressives increases significantly during the period under investigation The rising trend in the frequencies is still observable when comparing the Drum data from the 1950s with current data sampled 50 years later in the 2000s There is an increase of 80% in the newspapers (LL = 53.88, p < 0.0001), although the smaller increase of 11% in the frequency in fiction is not statistically significant (LL = 1.97, p > 0.05) The frequencies of the progressive in the two registers clearly not grow at nearly the same rate News started from a lower base, and in a sense, appears to have narrowed the gap with fiction At the same time, as Hundt & Mair (1999) argue, news tends to be more sensitive to change than most other written registers, which the present data seems to show quite strikingly Collins (this volume) likewise reports that the increase in frequency of the progressive is most consistent in news in British, American and Philippine English from the 1960s to the 1990s The combination of Aktionsart with the progressive form does not present a clear-cut picture The proportional results are reported in Figure 100% 90% 80% 70% Stative Achievement Accomplishment Communication Activity 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% _F _F rre nt Cu um Dr nt _N _N rre Cu vo um Dr Im vo Im Im vo 0% Figure 1. Distribution of Aktionsart categories in the data There is a slight rise in the relative frequency of stative verbs in the contemporary fiction and newspapers compared to similar data from Drum fifty years earlier, but there appears to be a very gradual decrease from the earliest period of www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Bertus Van Rooy & Caroline Piotrowska Imvo data to the Drum data 70 years later All in all, the proportion of stative verbs remains between 10% and 20% The distribution of the various types in the first set of Imvo data and the current newspaper writing is the closest together, and therefore the news writing seems to end at about the same point where it started 120 years earlier However, what the data shows is that stative progressives are consistently more frequent in BSAfE right through its recorded history than in native speaker data Since comparative data for native-speaker White South African English is not available at present, we rely on the findings on British English from ARCHER that are reported by Kranich (2010: 153) She reports that state and stance verbs together fluctuate between 9% and 13% of all verbs in the progressive aspect during this period, which is below the range of stative verbs in BSAfE Achievement verbs remain at or below 1% in Kranich’s data, whereas they range between 5% and 10% in the BSAfE data To balance out the larger share of stative and achievement verbs, accomplishment verbs occur relatively less frequently in BSAfE (fluctuating around 20%) than in British English, where they constitute about 30% of all progressives in British English from the second half of the 19th century to the second half of the 20th century (Kranich 2010: 153) The analysis of Aktionsart shows that BSAfE has not undergone language change in this respect during the 20th century The propensity for selecting stative and achievement verbs relatively more often than in British English (and presumably other native varieties) has been present from the beginning of the recorded period Louwrens (1996) examined the restrictions on the progressive in Northern Sotho, one of the Bantu languages spoken in South Africa, and concludes that the progressive form is used more widely with stative verbs He also notes that the same is true for the other South African languages The difference between BSAfE and native varieties can therefore be regarded as a case of transfer from the substrate languages, rather than a gradual change in the development of BSAfE The final analysis concerns the semantics of stative verbs, when used in the progressive aspect Using the framework presented in the previous section, all 153 stative verbs that had been identified in the historical data were classified The contemporary data from newspapers and fiction, classified by Van Rooy (2014), are used as a basis of comparison The results in Table present a fine-grained picture of all the various uses of the progressive, and largely show that the uses that are characteristic of BSAfE, where statives are used to denote longer durations, are attested from the earliest periods A very small number of ‘other’ uses, such as the subjective, or attitudinal, progressive are not analysed separately in this paper To get a sense of the overall picture, Figure below presents the data in a simplified form, where only the three principal meanings (‘temporary’, ‘on-going’ and ‘unlimited’ state) are represented The development extended time period meaning of the progressive Free ebooks ==>of an www.ebook777.com Table 3. Distribution of meanings of the progressive when combined with stative verbs, raw numbers of all examples extracted from the corpora Set Newspapers Temporary Fiction Imvo1 Imvo2 Imvo3 Drum Current Drum Current 18 12 17 18 55 17 Temporal frame 1 0 1 0 10 2 On-going state 9 9 13 9 3 13 Perfect progressive 1 1 5 4 5 0 Unlimited state 2 1 2 1 0 3 Characterising 2 1 3 0 1 3 Contextual frame 3 2 2 0 0 0 Other 1 2 4 1 2 Grand total 37 45 36 75 40 26 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% Unlimited state On-going State Temporary 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Imvo1 Imvo2 Imvo3 Drum Current Drum Current Newspapers Fiction Figure 2. Distribution of principal semantic types in the data The oldest available data, from Imvo in the 1880s, contains more on-going than temporary state progressives, but with the extremely low frequency of stative progressives (as with progressives in general during the period), no significance can be attached to the movement, as smaller samples of data tend to be subject to more fluctuations than bigger samples However, the oldest data does attest to the presence of both meanings right from the beginning In subsequent periods of the newspaper data, the temporary state meaning is more frequent, but the on-going state meaning maintains a strong presence The unlimited state meaning remains present only marginally after the first newspaper sub-corpus, although the more specialised senses of the characterising use and the con- www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Bertus Van Rooy & Caroline Piotrowska textual frame occur with slightly higher frequencies The senses of the unlimited state are reduced to a single instance in the current newspapers, but where they were equally marginal in Drum fiction in the 1950s, they are more strongly attested in current fiction, and can therefore not be regarded as absent from written contemporary BSAfE A very striking finding that becomes apparent in Figure is the very extensive fluctuation of the relative proportion of temporary state and on-going state progressives from the 1950s to the present In newspapers, the temporary state progressives increase their share of all progressive by more than 10%, but in fiction, the movement is very sharply in the opposite direction, where temporary state progressives constitute more than 80% of all stative progressives in the 1950s data, but decline sharply to about 50% in the current data Such fluctuations within registers, especially given that they move in opposite directions, are clearly indicative of underlying instability in the variety, and therefore that something like endonormative stabilisation in Schneider’s terms has not yet been achieved As shown by Van Rooy (2014), the unlimited duration sense of the progressive accounts for a third of the examples in contemporary spoken BSAfE, but less than a quarter of the examples in the written data, of which most are attested in student writing Thus, the unlimited state meaning, which differs most from native-speaker usage, has not yet gained enough acceptance to find its way heavily edited registers such as fiction and news At the same time, this low-frequency meaning is not a recent innovation, being attested throughout the recorded history of written BSAfE 4. Discussion The progressive aspect in BSAfE has changed mainly by increasing in frequency during the course of the 20th century, as has happened to most native varieties and also to the other non-native variety for which data is available, Philippine English On-going change is therefore in principle possible in a non-native variety, but the available evidence does not enable a conclusion as to whether the change is simply a consequence of BSAfE modelling itself on the STL-strand in South Africa, or whether it has happened under its own momentum The fact that the progressive in BSAfE is about 200 instances per 100,000 more frequent than in White South African English at end of the 20th century may suggest that there is some internal momentum, but this possibility requires more investigation before it can be accepted As far as the functions and uses of the progressive are concerned, the evidence for gradual functional change over the course of time is less convincing This finding is remarkably similar to the finding of Leech et al (2009: 142) that the progressive has continued to increase in frequency during the course of the 20th century in English (BrE) and American English (AmE), but no clear functional areas can be identified where special new uses were acquired The development extended time period meaning of the progressive Free ebooks ==>of an www.ebook777.com BSAfE displays a stronger preference than native varieties for combination with stative and achievement verbs throughout its history, but the preference may plausibly be attributed to transfer from the Bantu languages where, according to Louwrens (1996), such combinations are more easily permitted Since this preference is attested in BSAfE right from the start, it should not be interpreted as an instance of language change, but as persistent transfer from the substrate languages Similarly, the semantic possibilities of an extended, rather than a limited period of time have also been shown to be a continuous feature of BSAfE from the start Van Rooy (2006, 2014) considers the meaning of a longer time-period associated with the BSAfE progressive to be another instance of transfer from the substrate languages The Southern Bantu progressive encodes a meaning that is better regarded as persistitive In translating from the Bantu languages, the verbal prefix -sa-, the persistitive/progressive marker, is usually expressed overtly by the adverb still, and not simply the progressive form of the English verb The presence of the extended semantic range, combined with its likely origin in transfer from the persistitive aspect of the substrate languages (as show in some detail by Van Rooy 2006, 2014),4 provides support for Schneider’s (2007: 11) emphasis on the role of language contact in language change As far as our understanding of internal change in a non-native variety is concerned, this chapter offers tentative evidence for the possibility that BSAfE undergoes a quantitative change similar to that in native varieties On a functional-semantic level, however, the influence of language contact seems to be a stronger factor Together, these two conclusions point to the need for further investigation of more constructions and varieties to determine the interplay between on-going change and language contact in the development of non-native varieties References Barnett, Ursula A 1983 A Vision of Order: A Study of Black South African Literature in English (1914–1980) Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman Bowerman, Sean 2008 White South African English: Morphology and syntax In Varieties of English, 4: Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Rajend Mesthrie (ed.), 472–487 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter . Van Rooy (2006) has already pointed to the possibility of the semantics of the Bantu persistitive aspect motivating the semantic range detected in BSAfE student writing, and this finding is extended to a range of other written and spoken registers by Van Rooy (2014) In a study of the prefix in question, -sa-, in Sepedi, one of the South African Bantu languages, Louwrens (1996) concludes that the core meaning is not temporariness, but a more general imperfective meaning of incompleteness, to which he adds the notion that the termination of the state of affairs, event or state, is conceivable www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Bertus Van Rooy & Caroline Piotrowska Bybee, Joan 2006 From usage to grammar: The mind’s response to repetition Language 82: 711–33 DOI: 10.1353/lan.2006.0186 Coetzee-Van Rooy, A Susan 2011 Discrepancies between perceptions of English proficiency and scores on English tests: Implications for teaching English in South Africa SAALT Journal for Language Teaching 45(2): 151–181 Collins, Peter, Borlongan, Ariane & Yao, Xinyue 2014 Modality in Philippine English: A diachronic study Journal of English Linguistics 42(1): 68–88 DOI: 10.1177/0075424213511462 Croft, William 2012 Verbs: Aspect and Causal Structure Oxford: OUP DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199248582.001.0001 De Kock, Leon 1996 Civilising Barbarians: Missionary Narrative and African Textual Response in Nineteenth-Century South Africa Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press Denison, David 1998 Syntax In The Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol IV: 1776–1997, Suzanne Romaine (ed.), 92–329 Cambridge: CUP De Wit, Astrid & Brisard, Frank 2014 A cognitive grammar account of the semantics of the English present progressive Journal of Linguistics 50(1): 49–90 DOI: 10.1017/S0022226713000169 Finn, Stephen M 1986 The abuse of English by students at Vista University English Usage in Southern Africa 17(1): 1–8 Gamaroff, Raphael 1988 The problematic progressive English Usage in Southern Africa 19(1): 20–31 Gut, Ulrike & Fuchs, Robert 2013 Progressive aspect in Nigerian English Journal of English Linguistics 41(3): 243–267 DOI: 10.1177/0075424213492799 Hoffman, Sebastian 2010 Towards an International Historical Corpus of Post-Colonial Varieties of English Poster presented at the 31st ICAME conference, Giessen, Germany Hundt, Marianne & Mair, Christian 1999 ‘Agile’ and ‘uptight’ genres: The corpus-based approach to language change in progress International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 4: 221–242 DOI: 10.1075/ijcl.4.2.02hun Jespersen, Otto 1931 A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, Vol Heidelberg: Carl Winters Kachru, Braj B 1998 English as an Asian Language Links & Letters 5: 89–108 Kranich, Svenja 2010 The Progressive in Modern English: A Corpus-Based Study of Grammaticalization and Related Changes Amsterdam: Rodopi Labov, William 2010 Principles of Linguistic Change, Vol 3: Cognitive and Cultural Factors Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell DOI: 10.1002/9781444327496 Leech, Geoffrey, Hundt, Marianne, Mair, Christian & Smith, Nicholas 2009 Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study Cambridge: CUP DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511642210 Louwrens, Louis J 1996 On the occurrence of the progressive -sa- in Northern Sotho verbs of state South African Journal of African Languages 16(4): 123–127 Mesthrie, Rajend 2008 Synopsis: Morphological and syntactic variation in Africa and South and Southeast Asia In Varieties of English, 4: Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Rajend Mesthrie (ed.), 624–635 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Quirk, Randolph, Greenbaum, Sidney, Leech, Geoffrey & Svartvik, Jan 1985 A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language London: Longman Platt, John, Weber, Heidi & Ho, Mian L 1984 The New Englishes London: Routledge & Kegan Paul The development extended time period meaning of the progressive Free ebooks ==>of an www.ebook777.com Roessingh, Hetty, Kover, Pat & Watt, David 2005 Developing cognitive academic language proficiency: The journey TESL Canada Journal 23: 1–27 Rothmayr, Antonia 2009 The Structure of Stative Verbs [Linguistik Aktuell/Linguistics Today 143] Amsterdam: John Benjamins DOI: 10.1075/la.143 Scheffler, B 1978 Common language errors English Usage in Southern Africa 7(1): 25–27 Schmied, Josef 1991 English in Africa London: Longman Schneider, Edgar W 2007 Post-Colonial English: Varieties around the World Cambridge: CUP DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511618901 Sharma, Devyani 2009 Typological diversity in new Englishes English World-Wide 30(2): 170– 195 DOI: 10.1075/eww.30.2.04sha Trudgill, Peter 2004 Dialect Contact and New-Dialect Formation: The Inevitability of Colonial Englishes Edinburgh: EUP Trudgill, Peter 2010 Investigations in Sociohistorical Linguistics: Stories of Colonisation and Contact Cambridge: CUP DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511760501 Van Rooy, Bertus 2006 The extension of the progressive aspect in Black South African English World Englishes 25(1): 37–64 DOI: 10.1111/j.0083-2919.2006.00446.x Van Rooy, Bertus 2010 Societal and linguistic perspectives on variability in World Englishes World Englishes 31(1): 3–20 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-971X.2009.01621.x Van Rooy, Bertus 2014 Progressive aspect and stative verbs in Outer Circle varieties World Englishes 33(2): 157–172 DOI: 10.1111/weng.12079 Van Rooy, Bertus & Wasserman, Ronel 2014 Do the modals of Black and White South African English converge? Journal of English Linguistics 42(1): 51–67 DOI: 10.1177/0075424213511463 Vendler, Zeno 1957 Verbs and times The Philosophical Review 66: 143–160 DOI: 10.2307/2182371 Wasserman, Ronel 2014 Modality on Trek: Diachronic Changes in Written South African English across Text and Context Ph.D dissertation, North-West University Williams, Christopher 2002 Non-Progressive and Progressive Aspect in English Fassare: Schiena Editore www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Index A ACE (Australian Corpus of English) 16, 127 acrolect 304–305, 322, 324, 328–329 adverb 7, 179–204, 481 age 3, 9, 17, 47, 55, 300, 374, 376, 380–381, 383–384, 447, 467 agile genre 18, 280 aktionsart 471–472, 477–478 American English 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 15–16, 44, 59, 65, 69, 89, 119, 121, 132, 138, 154, 156, 163, 182, 206, 247, 271, 278, 298, 333, 375, 378, 389, 391, 438, 473, 481 Americanisation 1, 9, 39, 114, 120–121, 124, 128, 262, 389–410 Americanism 22, 338, 341, 345, 350 Antipodean Englishes 5, 6, 127, 128 apparent time 3, 17, 53, 55, 217, 325, 373–375, 381–382, 383, 413 appositive 402–403, 405–406 ARCHER (A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers) 4, 15, 19, 26, 36, 65, 71, 73, 83, 228, 251, 253, 259, 274, 289, 338, 478 aspectuality 90, 91, 98, 99, 105, 111–112, 263, 273–274, 275, 285, 287 atelic 91, 93, 101–102, 110, 249, 250, 256, 262 AusCorp (Australian Corpus) 4, 19–20, 251, 253 Australian English 2–5, 7–8, 15–42, 44, 65–86, 123, 127–128, 179–204, 181, 205–219, 247–268, 300, 390 auxiliarisation 32 auxiliary verb 5, 6, 32, 44–47, 54, 57, 59, 70, 73, 74, 90, 96, 102, 112, 113, 119–146, 192, 248, 254, 272, 377, 396, 420, 471 B Bahamas 5, 9, 389–410 bare infinitival 18, 21, 23–33, 39, 96 bare negation 34–35, 39, 67–68, 70, 74, 75–79, 80, 82–83 B-Brown (Before-Brown) corpus 119–146 be like 8, 217, 297–334 be passive 5, 9, 16, 20–21, 36–38, 39, 165–166, 262, 390, 396–397, 407 Black South African English 2, 10, 465–483 B-LOB (Before-LOB) corpus 119–146 British Colonist 4, 50–60 British English 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 15–42, 44, 51–52, 57, 65–66, 68–71, 72, 78–79, 87–89, 104, 119–146, 157, 164–165, 174–175, 179, 182, 184, 185, 188, 194, 197, 198–202, 212–213, 217, 234, 247–248, 251–253, 254, 262–263, 272, 274–275, 278–281, 285, 288, 292, 298, 300, 302–306, 311, 330, 335–371, 375–376, 384, 391–393, 413–414, 437–464, 480 Brown corpus 6, 22, 89, 123, 126, 132, 164–165, 182, 277, 337, 342, 345, 350–357, 394–399, 441 Brown family 1, 3–4, 6, 20, 26, 119–146, 272, 274, 277–278, 280, 390, 400, 438–439, 442–443 C Canadian English 43–63, 147–177, 302, 303, 311 Caribbean English 9, 389–410 CENCONE (Corpus of Early Nineteenth Century Ontario Newspaper English) 153 CENZE (Corpus of Early New Zealand English) 4, 71–72, 82 CLMET (Corpus of Late Modern English Texts) 70, 80 COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English) 120–121, 156–157, 163, 170, 171, 174, 278, 420, 443 codification 2, 195, 272, 339, 340 COHA (Corpus of Historical American English) 121, 132–133, 163, 175, 420, 443 collective noun 16, 20, 21, 28–29, 39 collocation 9, 30, 167, 180, 194, 210, 341, 411, 417, 422–462 colloquialisation 1, 9, 32, 57, 119, 274–275, 280, 281, 283, 289, 292, 337 colonial innovation 3, 8, 17, 39, 291, 336, 338, 350, 390–391, 394, 395, 396–397, 398, 405, 439 colonial lag 3, 7, 8, 17, 39, 65, 202, 312, 336, 337–338, 350, 364 colonisation 51, 66, 392 complementiser 206–208, 210–211, 213, 301, 308, 310, 328 CONCE (Corpus of Nineteeenth-Century English) 153, 274 concord 16, 18, 20, 21, 24, 28–29, 39 conditional 17, 25, 27–28, 87, 125, 224, 232, 241–242, 243, 244 conservatism 8, 17, 18, 22, 26, 27–28, 29, 31, 35, 36, 39, www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Index 45, 51, 57, 65, 78, 81, 82, 83, 124, 150, 202, 262, 263, 279, 281, 284, 292, 298, 325, 326, 328–329, 338, 340, 350, 402, 407, 441 constructional attrition 438 contraction 23, 34, 46, 56–57, 68, 69, 79, 82–83, 113, 125, 138–139, 289–290, 292, 394–396, 407 COOEE (Corpus of Oz Early English) 4, 19–20, 36, 71–73, 77–78, 80, 184, 195–197, 228, 251, 253 CORIECOR (Corpus of Irish English Correspondence) 4, 89, 100–101, 102, 104, 106, 109, 113–114, 228–229 counterfactual 39, 222, 225–226, 232, 238, 241–242 cultural keywords 411–435 D dative 148–151, 154, 156, 160, 164, 167, 171 DCPSE (Diachronic Corpus of Present-Day Spoken English) 130, 132, 280–281 democratisation 391, 405, 406, 407 densification 391 differential change 17, 65, 73, 83, 123, 338, 398 ditransitive 147–148, 155, 156, 164, 174, 256, 341, 418 divergence 3, 5, 7, 9, 16, 17, 38, 39, 44, 65–66, 124, 263, 414, 440, 466–467 diversity/unity ratio 9, 421–422, 429, 432 do-support 5, 6, 18, 21, 34–36, 39, 46, 58, 65–86, 278 dual adverb 179–204 durative 9, 91–92, 93, 94, 98, 101, 102, 109, 110–111, 113, 274, 376, 382 Dynamic Model 337, 339, 466 E -ed 22–23, 335–371 emigration 6, 89, 97, 112, 114 endonormativity 6, 8, 16, 124, 271–272, 283, 289, 292, 339–341, 364, 466, 480 English English 45–46, 91, 221–246 epistemic 7, 95, 113, 205–219 ethnicity 9, 374, 377, 381–384, 416–417 evidentiality 7, 205–219 evolution 2, 8, 123, 195, 271, 292, 335, 339, 350–351, 356, 365, 412, 440–446, 451–463 exonormativity 38, 195, 217, 271–272, 291–292, 339, 341, 466 extended now 6, 7–8, 97, 108–109, 110, 112, 249–250, 259–260, 263 extraterritorial 65, 83 F Factiva 440, 446–448, 463 first passive 6–7, 147–148, 150–151, 158, 160–76 FLOB (Freiburg-Lancaster Oslo/Bergen) corpus 6, 89, 119–146, 164, 274, 277, 279, 282–291, 337, 342, 344–345, 350–358, 394, 396 formality 2, 9, 25, 32, 52, 53, 55, 57, 68, 82, 102, 110, 124, 130, 166, 184, 213, 250, 284, 314, 316, 326, 329, 343, 374, 378–379, 382, 383, 384, 396, 414, 424 Frown (Freiburg-Brown) corpus 6, 119–146, 164–165, 274, 277, 279, 282–291, 337, 344–345, 350–359, 394, 396, 441, 450 futurate 93, 103, 111, 273, 285–287, 292 G gender 305–306, 313–318, 329, 373, 380–384 genre 17, 18–19, 52, 57, 72, 126, 130, 132–135, 141, 153, 165–166, 184, 253, 277, 278–280, 289, 395, 422, 438–440, 442, 445–446, 452–454, 457, 459, 462–463 GloWbE (Corpus of Global Web-based English) 337, 338, 342–347, 351, 356, 357, 359–360, 362, 364, 420 got 5, 36, 43–47, 50–60, 79, 81, 121, 136–139, 141, 146, 254, 261, 394, 441, 442–444, 447, 449–450, 452–455, 458–459, 462 grammaticalisation 7, 32, 90, 91, 105, 111–112, 114, 119, 121, 137–139, 191, 196, 199, 206–208, 210–211, 213–216, 241, 244, 248–252, 255–256, 259, 261–262, 273, 284, 285, 291, 301, 302, 322, 323 H habitual 9, 69–70, 92–93, 96–97, 102, 110, 114, 125, 273, 286–287, 291, 373, 375–376, 382, 384 have 43–63, 68–71, 73, 75–83, 248–267 have got 121, 135–139, 443–464 Hindi 304, 308–310, 328, 340 homomorphy 180–181, 186 Hong Kong English 2, 438, 440 hypercorrection 39, 201 I ICE (International Corpus of English) 3–4, 16, 26, 88–90, 92–118, 121, 135, 138–139, 182–184, 193, 194–201 idiomatisation 194, 202 imperfective 60, 87, 91, 112, 256, 273–274, 481 Indian English 297–334, 335–371, 413 indigenous 298, 314, 316, 318, 320, 323, 330, 341, 373, 377, 384, 412, 415, 466 informality 2, 18, 27, 32, 79, 89, 99, 100, 130, 135, 139, 182, 186, 188, 202, 213, 223, 280, 305, 314, 316, 326, 329, 341, 343, 379, 382, 383, 396, 405, 407 inner circle 2, 8, 47, 66, 292, 438 Irish English 87–118, 221–246, 261, 300, 321 irregular verb 22–23, 163, 335–371, 394 K Kolhapur corpus 123, 128, 135, 305, 342, 344–345, 356–360 Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.comIndex L Late Modern English 16, 30, 65, 67–70, 71, 111, 121, 252, 254, 274, 285, 288 lexical passive 149–150, 160–163, 166–169, 175 lexicogrammar 9, 30, 414–415, 418, 432–433 light verb 16, 20, 21, 30–31, 35, 39, 290 LLC (London Lund Corpus) 89, 108, 182 LOB (Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen) corpus 6, 22, 89, 106, 119, 121, 123, 126, 128–130, 134, 136, 164–165, 182, 272–291, 337, 342, 344–348, 350–359, 390, 394–399 log likelihood 125–127, 129, 131, 136–137, 144, 279, 313, 315, 318, 320, 323, 448 -ly adverb 179, 182–183, 188, 194, 196, 201–202 M mandative subjunctive 16, 17, 20, 24–27, 39, 247, 272, 394 mesolect 8, 304–305, 316, 318, 322, 328 modal 6, 9–10, 25, 26, 68, 73, 93, 96, 102, 105–106, 108, 109, 110, 114, 115, 119–146, 221–246, 262, 273, 287, 375, 437–464, 468, 469 modalisation 440, 457–461 modality 1, 6, 9, 59, 96, 119–146, 208, 254, 281, 475 morphology 3, 16, 22–24, 180, 241–242, 335–371 multilingual 5, 297–334, 373 multivariate analysis 7, 9, 183, 213–217, 257–258, 312–324, 379 N nativisation 124, 202, 271, 339–340, 341, 411–415, 432, 466 New Delhi 5, 297–334 New Englishes 2, 4, 6, 121–124, 128, 134–135, 138, 140–141, 289, 378, 411–414, 421, 424, 432, 439–442 newspapers 4–5, 9–10, 19, 44, 50, 52, 57, 71–72, 75, 89, 102, 110, 132–133, 152–153, 338, 365, 375, 389–410, 413, 418–420, 429, 432, 437–464, 469–470, 474, 476–480 New Zealand English 4, 65–86, 127–128, 300, 302–303, 311 Nigerian English 9, 373–387, 390 non-finite complementation 5, 16, 31–34 North American English 5, 44–47, 51, 53, 56, 59–60, 67, 121–122, 298, 312, 314, 319 O objective possibility 7, 224– 227, 230–232, 241, 243–244 okay 8, 299, 306–309, 322–328, 341 Old Bailey Corpus 4, 228 outer circle 2, 281, 292, 438 P Pakistani English 413–415, 416, 419, 424, 428–429, 431 parent (colonial) 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 15, 18, 26, 38, 43, 47, 122, 183, 197, 199, 253, 271, 278, 284, 291–292, 298, 306, 330, 466–467 passé composé 250, 252 passivisable object theory 148, 155, 157–158 passivisation 148, 155, 157–159, 164, 169, 171–173 past participle 20, 22–23, 36, 154, 186, 192, 222, 230, 248–249, 250, 261, 335–371, 394 persuasiveness 9, 376, 378–384 Phil-Brown corpus 4, 123, 272, 275–277 Philippine English 2, 8, 123, 271–296 possession 5, 35, 43–63, 68, 69–70, 76, 79–80, 137, 249, 254, 261, 278 Post-Colonial Englishes 27, 43–45, 47, 66, 114, 124, 182, 339, 378 pragmaticalisation 114, 208 prepositional passive 6–7, 148, 151–152, 155, 156, 175 prescriptivism 2, 5, 22, 27, 36, 39, 151, 164, 180, 188, 201, 235, 244, 284, 292, 398, 408 present perfect 7–8, 17, 222, 242, 247–267, 281–282, 328 preterite 7–8, 17, 20, 221–222, 241, 247–267, 337–338, 342, 344, 350 progressive 6, 8, 9, 10, 21, 66, 87–118, 256, 263, 271–296, 373–387, 441, 465–483 progressive passive 6, 8, 92, 102, 110, 114, 272, 284–285, 292, 375 progressivisabilty 278 pseudo-title 9, 402–406, 407 punctuality 87, 91, 93, 94, 102–103, 113, 376, 382 Q quasi-modal 10, 17–18, 90, 121, 272, 280, 437–464 quotative 8, 211, 217, 297–234, 374, 383 R reference variety 6, 7, 17, 22, 26, 37, 66, 73, 251, 262 register 2, 72, 88–89, 92, 102, 110, 130, 137, 153, 250–251, 280, 376, 379–381, 391, 411, 441–442, 476–477, 480, 481 regularisation 22–23, 83, 176, 335–371 relative clause 158, 169, 398–402 relative item 9, 158, 262, 280, 310, 397–402 remoteness 7, 224–244 resultative 8, 94, 99, 110–111, 112, 114, 181, 248–250, 261–263 S SAVE (South Asian Varieties of English) corpus 9, 413–415, 418–422, 424, 432 SCMP (South China Morning Post) 446–447, 459–461 second passive 6–7, 148, 149–150, 154, 159–163, 167, 169–176 semi-modal 6, 73, 107–108, 119–146, 438 sex 302, 303, 324 ‘s-genitive 21, 23–24, 39 www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Index South Asian Englishes 413–415, 418–420, 424, 432–433 South East Asian Englishes Southern Hemisphere Englishes 2, 5, 45, 66, 70–71, 80, 81, 82, 182 Sri Lankan English 418–419, 424, 426, 432–433 standardisation 113, 115, 134, 148 stative 5, 8, 9, 10, 35, 44, 46–47, 50–53, 57–60, 67–69, 73, 79, 80–81, 87, 93–94, 95, 103–105, 110, 114–115, 248–249, 261, 273, 278, 290–292, 376, 382, 384, 468, 471–473, 477–481 stigma 46, 51, 53, 151, 304, 402 Strathy corpus 4, 152–154, 166–175 subjectification 91, 111–112, 208, 210, 289 subjective possibility 7, 222–224, 225–229, 233–240, 241–244 substrate 10, 44, 308–309, 468, 478, 481 superstrate 96, 308–310, 322 supervariety 1, 2, 6, 8, 123–124, 141, 275, 280, 281, 283, 288, 291, 292, 440, 442 T -t 22–23, 335–371 temporal 91, 110–111, 237, 250–260, 262–263, 273, 286, 287, 300, 472, 474–475 temporariness 69, 91, 124, 126, 141, 273, 290, 472–474, 478–481 TIME 121, 133, 438, 441, 442, 443–445, 447, 450–458, 460–463 to-infinitival 21, 32, 90, 262, 281, 283 transfer 6, 10, 96–97, 100, 103, 110, 112–115, 317, 466–468, 478, 481 Trinidad and Tobago 5, 9, 389–410 U uptight genre 18, 279 V Victoria 5, 43–63 vowel change 8, 356, 362–363, 365 W WCWNZE (Wellington Corpus of Written New Zealand English) 127 were-subjunctive 5, 17, 25, 27–28, 39 White South African English 10, 471, 478 World Englishes 1, 3, 10, 65, 114–115, 123, 330, 374, 417, 440 Z zero adverb 7, 179, 204 zero complementiser 211 zero quotative 298, 299, 303, 306–307, 309, 312, 313, 315–317, 319, 325, 326–328