Trong ca 2 mo hinh, thanh phan mang Iffdi chinh thffc cua VXH, cu the la ty ie thanh vien cua hp tham gia hiep hpi, td chffc cd tdc ddng dm dd'n sff tham gia hoat ddng kinh doanh PNN [r]
(1)TAC DONG CUA VON XA HOI DEN SU THAM GIA HOAT DONG KINH DOANH PHI NONG NGHIEP CUA
HO GIA DINH NONG THON VIET NAM • NGUYEN NHAT KHANH UYEN
TOM TAT:
Vdi muc tidu nghidn effu tde ddng cua vd'n xa hdi (VXH) de'n sif tham gia vdo boat dpng kinh doanh phi ndng nghiep (PNN) cua cae bd gia dinh ndng thdn Viet Nam, nghien cffu sff dung mo hlnh hdi quy logit vd tobit MEU nghien cffu bao gdm 3423 hd gia dinh, thupc vung ndng thdn 12 tinh thdnh phd cua bd dff lieu VARHS 2014 Kd't qua phdn tich hdi quy mo hlnh ttdn cho tha'y, ydu to' VXH nhff la ty Id thdnh vidn cua hp gia dinh nong thon tham gia vdo cdc to chffc, hiep hpi d dia phffdng cd tdc dong am Cac yd'u td khac nhff trinh dd hpc vd'n trung binh cua hd, tdng sd vidn trffdng eua hd, ed Idng nghe tai dia phffdng dffde tim tha'y la cd tdc ddng tich effc ca md hlnh
Tuf khoa: Vdn xa hdi, boat ddng kinh doanh phi ndng nghidp, bp gia dinh nong thdn Viet Nam
1 D$t vSndd
Theo thd'ng ke sd bd nam 2014 cua Tdng cue Thd'ng kd, eo khoang 67% ddn sd' Viet Nam sd'ng d viing ndng thdn va nong nghidp la linh vffe cd nhidu dong gop quan trpng eho phdt trien kinh te da't nffde nhffng nam qua Hien nay, hau hd't dan ngheo d ndng thdn Viet Nam deu tham gia vdo san xud't ndng nghiep Tuy ddi sd'ng vdt chat, tmh than ngffdi dan khu vffe ndng thdn da dffpc nang len (logarit thu nhdp tich liiy nam 2014 eao hdn nam 2012 theo VARHS, 2014) the nhffng cdc boat ddng san xud't ndng nghidp d Viet Nam lac hau, chu yd'u la lao dpng gian ddn, san xud't theo kinh nghiem, trdng trot vd chan nudi phu thudc gan nhff hoan toan vao thdi tid't Do vay, de bao dam cupc sd'ng, nhieu hd gia dinh ndng thdn tim dd'n hoat dpng PNN Ngffdi ngheo tim kid'm cd hpi nen kinh te' PNN d ndng thon, khdng chi dd nang eao miic thu nhap md eon de dn dinh thu nhap hd gia dinh theo thdi gian (Haggblade vd cdng sff, 2010) Thu nhap PNN eung Id ngudn quan
trpng cua tdng trffdng kinh te' dia phffdng va do CO the xoa doi giam ngheo d khu vffe ndng thdn (Davis, 2003) Da co khd nhidu nghidn effu tren the' gidi nghidn effu ve nhffng ye'u td' tae ddng ddn da dang hoa nguon thu nhap hay cu the hdn la sff tham gia vao viec lam PNN d nong thdn nhif Babatunde va Qaim (2009) Tuy nhien, nhffng nghien cffu vd tdc dpng cua mot ye'u to'cu thd nhif VXH la khdng nhieu Vi vdy, vide nghidn cihi vl VXH d khu vffe ndng thdn, nhd't la sff tac dpng dd'n tim kid'm viec lam, da dang hda thu nhap ndng thdn, CO thd giup nhan vai trd tich cffc cua loai vd'n giai doan hdi nhdp hidn nay, gop phan giai quyet cac vd'n de kho khan sinh kd cung nhff eai thien dffpc mffc thu nhdp hidn co cua cdc ho gia dinh nong thdn
2 Cd sd ly thuyd't va khung ph3n tich 2.1 Dinh nghia VXH
Cd nhidu dinh nghTa khde ve VXH Theo Bourdieu (1986), "VXH la tdp hdp cac ngudn Iffc hidn hffu bode tiem tdng gdn vdi vide sd hiTu mdt
(2)KINH TE
mang Iffdi ben vffng gom cac mdi quan he quen bid't hoac thffa nhdn lan it nhidu ddOc the chd'boa" James Coleman (1990) eho rang nhffng ddc trffng ddi sd'ng xd hdi nhff: cdc mang Iffdi xa hpi, ede ehuin mffc va sff tin cdy xd hdi se giup eho eac vien cd the hdnh ddng chung vdi mot each co hieu qua nham dat tdi muc tieu chung Dong quan diem vdi Coleman, Putnam (1995) da sff dung cum tff "VXH" gdn vdi nhffng mang Iffdi xd hdi vd nhffng quan he ed di cd lai xd bdi, nhffng quy tac cho phep ca nhan, tap the giai quydt nhffng vd'n de chung cua cdng ddng Cdc tac gia da cd nhieu each tie'p can khde ve Iffdng VXH, phu thudc vdo cac ca'p dp cua VXH nhff ed'p dp ed nhdn, hp gia dinh , hay vi mo hdn la ca'p cdng ddng, qud'c gia Trdn cd sd ndi dung chinh cua bai nghien cffu, tdc gia tap trung Iffdng VXH d ed'p hp gia dinh va Iffdc khao bai nghien cffu cua Grootaert vd cdng sff (2004) va Azam Abdul Razak & cdng sff (2010) deu da dffa ye'u to' Iffdng VXH d ca'p hp gia dinh, la: (I) mang Iffdi xd hdi, (2) Idng tin xa hdi, (3) sff hdp tde vd hdnh ddng tdp the, (4) ngudn thdng tin va lien lac, (5) sff gan ke't xd hdi, (6) sff trao quyen va boat dpng ehinh tri O ddy, ban chd' vd so' lieu, bai nghien cffu chi sff dung yd'u to' chinh de IffSng VXH, ciing ehinh la nhffng yd'u td' hdp thdnh VXH khai niem ve VXH, dd la: Mang iffdi xa bdi va Long tin xd hdi
2.2 Dinh nghia hoat dong kinh doanh PNN vd cdc ye'u to tdc ddng
Dffa theo quan diem cua Davis (2003): "Hoat dpng kinh te' PNN la nhffng boat ddng tao thu nhdp tff vide lam cdng bode tff lam chu (khdng dffde tra cdng) ma khdng thupc ndng nghidp nguyen thuy", tde gia dinh nghia hoat ddng kinh doanh PNN la boat dong PNN la boat dpng tff lam ehu vd khdng dffde U:a cdng Cac yeu td co tdc ddng dd'n kha ndng tham gia vdo hoat ddng kinh doanh PNN cd thd dffde chia thdnh cac ye'u td' eu thd Id nang Iffc ho gia dinh vd ddc diem dia phffdng Cdc yeu td ve ndng life hd gia dinh dffde Ellis, 2000b va Car-ney, 1998 de xua't phan loai thdnh nhom: vdn tff nhidn (tie'p can dd't dai hoac tdi san chung), VXH (mang Iffdi va td chffc), vd'n eon ngffdi (bao gdm ca tinh trang sffc khoe va gido due), vd'n tai chinh va vd'n vat chat (cd sd tang cffng, nha d va thie't hi san xud't) Fafchamps va Shilpi, 2003 tim tha'y co md'i quan he nghich giffa ty trpng thu nhap tff hoat
ddng kinh doanh PNN vdi khoang cdch tff hd de'n vung trung tdm cua dia phffdng
2.3 Khung phdn tich
Thdng qua viec tdng quan cac ly thuyd't vd eac nghidn effu thffc nghiem lien quan, tdc gia tong hdp nhdm cdc cac ye'u to' tac ddng dd'n sff tham gia boat ddng kinh doanh PNN cua hd nhff sau:
Nhom cac ye'u td VXH tde gia Iffa chpn bai yd'u td chinh cung la hai yd'u td' hdp VXH la mang Iffdi xd hdi va long tin xa hoi Mang Iffdi xd hdi bao gdm mang Iffdi chinh thffc la ty Id vien hd tham gia cac td chffc, hidp hdi vd mang Iffdi phi chinh thffc la nhffng ngffdi ma hp co the nhd sff giup dd ve tien bac Ye'u to' long tin xa hpi dffde tdc gid Iffcfng bang long tin dd'i vdi nhffng ngffdi cung xa, cdu hoi bd dff lieu VARHS la "Hau hd't mpi ngffdi xa ve cd ban Id that tha vd ed the tin tffdng dffde"
Nhdm cac ye'u td' dac diem nhdn kh£u hpe vd ngudn life eua hd: ede yd'u to'nay dffde tac gia tdng hdp tff mdt so' bai bao lien quan nhff gidi tinh chu hp, sd'namdihpceua ehu hd, sdnamdi hpe trung binh eua hd, tudi chu hp (Freese, 2010), dan tdc cua hd (De Janvry va Sadoulet, 2001), tdng dien tich dd't ma hd nam giff (Freese, 2010), tong gia tri vdt nudi bien co cua bp (Escobal, 2001), tid'p can tin dung eua hd (Abdulaziz Shebu vd Nura Abubakar, 2015), tdng so'thanh vien trffdng cua hp (Freese, 2010)
Nhdm cdc ye'u td' dac diem dia phffdng ndi hd sinh sd'ng: Cac ye'u to'nay tac gia dffa tren nghien cffu cua Fafchamps vd Shilpi (2003) va lien he thffc te' tai Viet Nam, bao gdm Cd set tang (khoang each tff nhd hp de'n dffdng nhffa), Lang nghe (cd lang nghe tai dia phffdng khdng)
(3)Hinh 1: Khung phan tich Von xa h$i
- Mang iudi xa hpi Mgng iudi chinh thifc Mang Iudi phi chinh thiic - Long tin xa hpi
Long tin vdi nhQng ngifdi cung xa
Q$c diem h9 gia dinh
Gidi tinh chu hp, tudi chu hp, sd nam di hpc ctia chu hd, sd nam di hoc trung binh cua hp, dan tdc cua hd, tong so vien trudng thanh, tdng didn tich dat ma hd sd hQu, tdng gia tn vat nudi hi$n co cua hd, tidp cdn tin dung cua hd
£>$c diem dia phUcHig
- Co lang nghe tai dja phuong - Khoang each tO hd den dUdng nhya
\
y
Tham gia hogt ddng kinh doanh PNN
ci!ia hp gia dinh (tham gia
hoac khdng tham gia)
T^ trgng thu nhap PNN cua hd gia dinh
Md hlnh Logit ed dang: Ln(P(YI=l)/P(Yl=0))
= Po + p|tyle_tbamgia + p2Sotiguoi_giupbo + p3longtma + p4longtinb -i- p5trinbdo_ehuho + Pgtrinhdo.tb + p7gioitinh_cbuho + pgtuoi + pgsonguoitruongthanb + Piydantoc + PJ ilogtongvatnuoi + pplogtongdat + Pi3tindung + p]4langnghe_xa + P]5kc_duong + E Trong dd:
P(Y1=I): xdc sua't hd tham gia boat ddng kinh doanh PNN
P (Y1=0): xac sua't hd khdng tham gia boat dpng kinh doanh PNN
Md hlnh Tobit co dang nhff sau:
Y2 = Po + Pityle_thamgia + P2Songuoi_giupho + p3longtina + P4longtinb + P5trinhdo_cbubo -f Pgtrinbdo_tb + P7gioitinb_cbuho + Pgtuoi -(- Ppsonguoitruongtbanh + piodantoe + p]|logtongvatnuoi + P]2logtongdat
+ P]3tindung + P]4langngbe_xa + Pi5kc_duong + e
Trong do:
Y2: ty trpng thu nhap tff boat ddng kinh doanh PNN (Y2>0)
4 K^'t qua nghidn cifu va thao luan 4.1 Thd'ng ke mo td
Ket qua thdng ke cho thd'y hoat ddng kmh doanh PNN chu yd'u tap trung vdo nganh nghe ehinh Id: budn bdn (chid'm 54,7%), dich vu (chie'm 26,7%), san xud't(chie'm 16,9%) vd ehd'bien (chiem 1,7%)
Hinh 2: Mdt so nhom nganh kinh doanh PNN
Ve dac diem vd'n xa hdi cua mdu nghien cffu, vdi c3 mdu la 3423 hd, ty Id hp co ta't ca vien tham gia va khdng cd thdnh vien nao tham gia la ngang chie'm 12% tong sd hd dffde khao sdt Vdi mang Iffdi xa hpi khdng chinh thffc, dffde hdi rang "Khi can tidn dot xua't, hp CO thd nhd dffde bao nhidu ngffdi giup dd?", trung binh bd co the nhd dffde 4,53 ngffdi giup dd Tuy nhien, sd hd khdng nhd dffde giup dd la 187 hp chie'm 5,46% vd co hp tra Idi cd the nhd sff giup dd tff 40-50 ngffdi Vdi bien long tin, cd 2824 ho ddng y rang hau het mpi ngffdi xa deu that thd va cd the tin tffdng, chie'm 82,5%, 390 ho khdng ddng y dieu va 209 hd khong co y kien hoac khong bie't
(4)KINH TE
nhffng nguyen tae dffde quy dinh eu the dieu le cua to chffc, ma ehu ye'u Id dffa nguyen tac tham gia tff nguyen, tap trung ddn chu va thong nha't hanh dpng Hai td chffc nhan dffde nhieu sff tham gia cua cac hd gia dinh nha't la Hpi Phu nff va Hpi Nong dan vdi ty Id tham gia cua cdc hd gia dinh lan Iffdt la 32,51% vd 24,02% Cac td chffc, hidp hdi tie'p theo cung nhan dffde nhieu sff tham gia eua cae hd gia dinh la Hpi Ngffdi cao tudi, Hpi Cffu chien binh, Dodn Thanh nien va Dang Cong san Viet Nam
Hinh 3: Cac to chi^c, hiep hdi, ho tham gia
Bang chi rang nhffng hp gia dinh cd tham gia boat ddng kinh doanh PNN se cd ede chi so' VXH nhff mang lifdi phi chinh thffc va long tin deu cao hdn nhffng hd khdng tham gia Trong dd mang Iffdi ehinh thffc la ty Id vidn hd tham gia vao ede hidp hdi, td chffe eua nhdm tham gia lai thd'p bdn nhdm edn lai
Bdng VXH va stf tham gia hogt dpng kinh doanh PNN
len bien
tylethamgia songuoi_giupho
longtin
"niam gia {754 hW Gia tn
TB
0,41 5,14 0,84
BOi$oh chuan
0,27 6,19 0,37
Khong tham gia (2669 h « Gia trj
TB
0,43 4,35 0,82
eoi^h chuan
0,30 4,60
0,38
4.2 Kit qud md hinh
Sau thffe hidn kiem tra va khac phuc hien Iffdng da cdng tuye'n vd phffdng sai thay ddi, tac gia tdng hdp ke't qua hdi quy logit vd tobit theo Bang
Trong ca mo hinh, phan mang Iffdi chinh thffc cua VXH, cu the la ty ie vien cua hp tham gia hiep hpi, td chffc cd tdc ddng dm dd'n sff tham gia hoat ddng kinh doanh PNN vd dd'n mffc ty trpng tff thu nhdp boat ddng kinh doanh PNN eua hp Dieu dffde giai thich da phan cac to chffc, hiep hpi d dia phffdng da phan la cdc td chffc chinh tri - xa hpi, khdng phdi Id ede td ehffe chuyen mdn ITnb vffe PNN, ke't qua thd'ng ke md ta cho thd'y da phan cdc hp tham gia vdo Hpi Ndng ddn va Hdi Phu nff Chinh viec tham gia chu yd'u vao ede td chffc ehinh tri - xa hdi lam eho cac hd gia dinh chuyen mdn boa vao ITnh vffe sdn xud't ndng nghidp hdn la boat ddng PNN Ye'u td' long tin dffde tim thay la khdng cd y nghTa de'n viec tham gia cua hp vao kinh doanh PNN ciing nhff tdc dpng dd'n thu nhdp cua hp tff hoat dpng Do I long tin cung la mdt yd'u td dffpc Iffdng tff nhieu yd'u to khac va viec sff dung cau tra ldi mdt each dinh tinh vdi hai Iffa chpn "cd " va "khdng " dd'i vdi long tin cung khd cd thd cd dffde sff tac dpng nhff mong mud'n Yeu to khac cua VXH nhff so'Iffdng ngffdi giuphd ve tien bac khdng ed y nghTa ca md hlnh Bie'n ndy the hien mang Iffdi xa hdi phi chinh thffc cuabp nhieu bay it va co the giai thich sd'Iffdng ban be chi mang tinh chat tinh cam la chu ye'u va khong tac ddng de'n cdng viec lam an cua hp Cae bie'n ddn toe, trinb dd trung binh cua hd, so'thdnh vidn trffdng eua bd, lang nghe co tac dpng tich cffc dd'n vide thue day bp tham gia cung nhff tdng ty trpng thu nhdp tff boat ddng PNN Cac bie'n tudi chu hd, tdng gid tri vdt nudi, tdng dien tich dd't lai lam gidm sff tham gia cung nhff giam mffc ty trpng thu nhdp tff boat ddng PNN
(5)Bang Tdng h d p icet qud hoi quy iogit v a tobit Ten bien tylethamgia songuoi_giupho iongtina longtinb trinhdochuho trinhdojb gioitinh_ctiuho Tuoi songuoitruongthanh Dantoc logtongvatnuoi logtongdat tindung langnghe_xa kcduong
Mo hlnh iogit H$ so beta
-0,346* 0,005 -0,006 -0,359 0,027 0,044* 0,038 -0,018*" 0,257*** 0,678*" -0,067*" -0,138*" -0,031 0,272*" -0,013 So quan sat
Chi Xac suat > Ctii HSS0R2
Tac dfing bien -0,0632 0,0007 -0,0009 -0,0500 0,0041 0,0068 0,0058 -0,0028 0,0395 0,0985 -0,0104 -0,0212 -0,0047 0,0438 -0,0019 3423 328,87 0,0000 0,1050
Mo hlnh tobit H$ so beta
-0,170** 0,003 -0,006 -0,160* 0,007 0,022** 0,012 -0,008*" 0,086*" 0,312*" -0,027"* -0,073*" 0,004 0,119*" -0,004 So quan sat F Xac su^t>F He so R2
Tac ddng bign -0,0223 0,0004 -0,0007 -0,0210 0,0009 0,0029 0,0015 -0,0010 0,0113 0,0410 -0,0036 -0,0096 0,0005 0,0156 -0,0005 3423 21,07 0,0000 0,1246
Ghi chii: *** cd y nghia thdng ki d mde J % **cdynghTa thd'ng ki d mde 5%, *cdy nghia thdng ke d mde 10% van trung binh cua bp, so vien trffdng
eua hd, Idng nghe, tudi chu hp, tdng gia tri vat nudi, tdng dien tich da't cua hp eo tac ddng de'n sff tham gia cung nhff mffc ty trpng thu nhap tao tff hoat ddng kinh doanh PNN Tff ke't qua nghien cffu, tde gia de xua't mot sd ham y ve chinh sach nhff sau:
Theo kd't qua thd'ng ke md td, cac hdi ngdnh nghd kinh doanh & ndng thdn vdn khd it vd tam anh hffdng de'n dcfi sd'ng ngffdi dan khu vffe ndng thdn la chffa cao VI vdy, chinh quyen dia phffdng cdc ed'p can tao didu kien, khuyd'n khich lap vd tham gia cac hiep hpi nganh nghe, hiep hpi doanh nghiep, dd tap trung vao cdc hpi vien
ed quy md sdn xud't vffa va oho, ddng thdi cac chffdng trinh boat ddng cua hiep hdi phai phong phu, da dang, mang lai ldi ieh thie't thffc eho vidn phdt tridn
Viec ndng cao trinh dp hpc va'n eho thdnh vidn hp gia dinh Id mdt cdng vide v6 cung can thie't Dac bidt chu bd cd vai tro quan trong viec tff va'n, hffdng nghiep, tao dieu kidn dd cdc thdnh vien gia dinh hpc tap, nang cao trinh dd ban than Nhd nffdc can da dang hoa cac loai hinh giao due, tao dieu kien dd mpi tang Idp nhdn ddn, mpi Iffa tudi deu CO the di hpc, tie'p can tri thffc Phat trien he thdng giao due thffdng xuyen rdng khap ede qudn, huydn, thi xd, nha't la cac khu vu'c vung sdu viing xa, mien nui, khu vffe ddng bdo cac ddn toe thieu sd' sinh sd'ng, gdp phan tich effc vao viec thffc bien muc tieu cap gido due cac dp tudi, nang cao dan tri Ngoai ra, Nha nffdc ciing can day manh ede hoat dong thdng tin tuyen truyen, khuye'n khich ngffdi dan tff hoc
Viec bao tdn va phat trien ede lang nghe, nganh nghe truyen thd'ng, se giup cho dia phffdng noi rieng va ca nffde noi chung gin giff dffde nhffng net dep truyen thd'ng, net doc ddo ciia san pham tffng viing midn Nha nffdc can cd chinh sach khuyd'n khich, tao didu kien thuan ldi eho cac nghe vd Idng nghe truyen thd'ng phdt trien ben vffng nhff tid'p can vdn tin dung, gidm thieu cac thu tuc, tang cffdng cho vay tin cha'p, giam ldi sud't ; hd trd dao tao thd lanh nghd, truyen nghe, chuyen ddi mat hang san xuat, tff san xua't nhffng san pha'm phuc vu tieu diing nffdc sang nhffng san pham dd xua't khau •
TAI LIEU THAM KHAO:
/ Abdulai A & Delgado, C L (1999) Detenninants ofnonfarm earnings of farm-based husbands and wives in Northern Ghana American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 81(1), 117-130
(6)KINH TE
2 Abdul-Hakim, R Abdul-Razak, N A., <& Ismail, R (2010) Does social capital reduce poverty? A case study of rural households in Terengganu, Malaysia European journal of social sciences, 14(4), 556-566
3 Babatunde, R O., & Qaim M (2010) Off-farm Labor Market Participation in Rural Nigeria- Driving Forces and Household Access In Contributed paper for the 5th IZA/World Bank Conference: Employment and Development, May 03-May 04 2010, Cape Town South Africa
4 Bourdieu, Pierre (1986) The Foims of Capital, in Richardson, John G ed Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, New York: Greenwood
5 Coleman, Jame S (1990) Foundations of social theory Harvard university press
6 Davis, J R (2003) The Rural Non-Farm Economy, Livelihoods, and Their Diversification: Issues and Options Report Chatham Maritime: Natural Resources Institute
7 Ellis, F (2000) Rural livelihoods and diversit)> in developing countries Oxford university press
8 Fafchamps, M and Shilpi, F (2003) The Spatial Division of Labour in Nepal Journal of Development Studies, 39 (6): 23-66
9 Freese, A (2010) An analysis of the rural non farm sector participation and incomes: the case of Burkina Faso George-August University ofGottingen
10 Grootaert, C, D Narayan, V.N Jones, and M Woolock (2004) Measuring Social Capital: An Integrated Questionnaire World Bank Working Paper No 18 Washington, D.C.; WorldBank
11 Haggblade, S., et al (2010) The rural non-farm economy: Prospects for growth and poverty reduction World Development, 38(10): 1429-1441
N g a y nhan bai: 17/4/2019
N g a y phan bi?n danh gia va suTa chifa: 27/4/2019 N g a y chd'p nh^n dang bai: 7/5/2019 Thong tin tdcjid:
ThS N G U Y E N N H ^ T K H A N H U Y E N Trffdng D a i hpc Thu D a u M o t
IMPACTS OF THE SOCIAL CAPITAL
ON THE PARTICIPATION IN NON-FARM BUSINESS ACTIVITIES OF RURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN VIET NAM
• Master NGUYEN NHAT KHANH UYEN Thu Dau Mot University
A B S T R A C T :
This r e s e a r c h is to identify the impact of social capital on the participation in non-farm business activities of rural households in V i e t n a m T h i s r e s e a r c h uses two m o d e l s including Logistic regression model a n d Tobit regression m o d e l T h e research s a m p l e s consists of 3,423 rural households in 12 provinces collected from the V i e t n a m Access to R e s o u r c e s H o u s e h o l d Survey ' s d a t a b a s e T h e regression analysis of two models shovi's that factors of the social capital such as the proportion of household m e m b e r s participating in local organizations and associadons h a v e negative impacts Other factors such as the a v e r a g e of education level of the household, the total n u m b e r of m a t u r e m e m b e r s of the household, a n d the local village h a v e positive impacts on both m o d e l s