David c funder the personality puzzle

THE PERSONALITY PUZZLE SEVENTH EDITION THE PERSONALITY PUZZLE SEVENTH EDITION DAVID C FUNDER University of California, Riverside B W W NORTON & COMPANY New York • London W W Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad By mid–century, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—were firmly established In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W W Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1997 by W W Norton & Company All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Editor: Ken Barton Project Editor: Caitlin Moran Assistant Editor: Scott Sugarman Manuscript Editor: Teresa Wilson Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson Managing Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi Production Manager: Ashley Horna Media Editor: Patrick Shriner Associate Media Editor: Stefani Wallace Assistant Media Editor: George Phipps Marketing Manager: Lauren Winkler Design Director: Rubina Yeh Designer: Anna Reich Photo Editor: Evan Luberger Photo Researcher: Julie Tesser Permissions Manager: Megan Jackson Permissions Clearer: Elizabeth Trammell Composition/Illustrations: Graphic World, Inc Manufacturing: R.R Donnelley Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Funder, David Charles    The personality puzzle / David C Funder, University of California, Riverside.—Seventh Edition        pages cm    Includes bibliographical references and index    ISBN 978-0-393-26514-9 (hardcover)   1.   Personality.   I.  Title    BF698.F84 2016    155.2—dc23        2014048333 W W Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110 wwnorton.com W W Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT 1234567890 For my father ABOUT THE AUTHOR David C Funder is Distinguished Professor of Psychology and former chair of the department at the University of California, Riverside Winner of the 2009 Jack Block Award for Distinguished Research in Personality, he is a former editor of the Journal of Research in Personality, and a past president of the Association for Research in Personality as well as the Society for Personality and Social Psychology He is best known for his research on personality judgment and has also published research on delay of gratification, attribution theory, the longitudinal course of personality development, and the psychological assessment of situations He has taught personality psychology to undergraduates at Harvey Mudd College, Harvard University, and the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, and continues to teach the course every year at the University of California, Riverside Anybody in science, if there are enough anybodies, can find the answer— it’s an Easter-egg hunt That isn’t the idea The idea is: Can you ask the question in such a way as to facilitate the answer? —GERALD EDELMAN Even if, ultimately, everything turns out to be connected to everything else, a research program rooted in that realization might well collapse of its own weight —HOWARD GARDNER The first step is to measure whatever can be easily measured That’s OK as far as it goes The second step is to pretend that whatever cannot be easily measured isn’t very important That’s dangerous The third step is to pretend that whatever cannot easily be measured doesn’t exist That’s suicide —DANIEL YANKELOVICH There once was an entomologist who found a bug he couldn’t classify—so he stepped on it —ERNEST R HILGARD Interpretation is the revenge of the intellect upon art —SUSAN SONTAG CONTENTS IN BRIEF Chapter The Study of the Person  PART I The Science of Personality: Methods and Assessment 18 Chapter Personality Research Methods  20 Chapter Assessment, Effect Size, and Ethics  66 PART II How People Differ: The Trait Approach 110 Chapter Personality Traits, Situations, and Behavior  112 Chapter Personality Judgment  150 Chapter Using Personality Traits to Understand Behavior  178 Chapter Personality Stability, Development, and Change  220 PART III The Mind and the Body: Biological Approaches to Personality 256 Chapter The Anatomy and Physiology of Personality  258 Chapter The Inheritance of Personality: Behavioral Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology 300 PART IV The Hidden World of the Mind: The Psychoanalytic Approach 348 Chapter 10 Basics of Psychoanalysis  350 Chapter 11 Psychoanalysis After Freud: Neo-Freudians, Object Relations, and Current Research 390 PART V Experience and Awareness: Humanistic and Cross-Cultural Psychology 420 Chapter 12 Experience, Existence, and the Meaning of Life: Humanistic and Positive Psychology 422 Chapter 13 Cultural Variation in Experience, Behavior, and Personality  456 PART VI What Personality Does: Learning, Thinking, Feeling, and Knowing 502 Chapter 14 Learning to Be a Person: Behaviorism and Social Learning Theories  504 Chapter 15 Personality Processes: Perception, Thought, Motivation, and Emotion  540 Chapter 16 The Self: What You Know About You  584 Chapter 17 Personality, Mental Health, and Physical Health  614 EPILOGUE 652 ix S-20 Subject Index neurotransmitters, 265, 280, 281, 282–87, 298, 658 Big Five traits and, 294 dopamine, 283–85, 298 as hormones, 287–88 serotonin, 285–87, 298 Newton, Isaac, 54, 55 New Zealand, 315–16 NHST (null-hypothesis significance testing), 91–94, 107 Nicholson, Jack, 278 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 426, 431 niffle, emotional attachment to, 404–5 nirvana, 433 Nisbett, Richard, 119 Nixon, Richard M., 11, 361 nomothetic goals, 562–63, 581 nonactual self, 596 nonself (anatta), 432 noradrenaline, 287 Norem, Julie, 447, 568, 581 norepinephrine (noradrenaline), 282, 287–88, 298 normality-abnormality continuum, personality disorders and, 635–36, 661–62 NPD (narcissistic personality disorder), 621, 622–23 NPI, 188–90 NSC (Neither Social Clock), 233 NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board), 54 nucleus accumbens, 284 null hypothesis, 92, 107 null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST), 91–94, 107 obedience anal stage and, 366, 368 Milgram study of, 128 objective tests, 77–91, 107 commonality scale in, 78–79 definition of, 77 methods for constructing, 80–91, 107 combination of methods, 90–91, 107 empirical method, 86–90, 107 factor analytic method, 83, 83–86, 85, 90, 91, 107 rational method, 80–83, 82, 90, 107 number of questions in, 79–80 subjectivity of, 78–79 validity of, 78–80 objectivity of B data, 43 of L data, 36 object relations theory, 392, 402–6, 417 Klein on, 402–4, 417 Winnicott on, 404–5, 417 objects, 392, 402 observational learning, 528–30, 529, 538 obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 629–30 obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), 621, 628–30 OBT See one big theory (OBT) Occam’s razor, 381, 440 occupation and personality test results, 99 OCD (obsessive-compulsive disorder), 629–30 OCPD (obsessive-compulsive personality disorder), 621, 628–30 Odbert, Henry, 110 Oedipal crisis, 368–69, 393, 409 Oedipus, 368 omnibus inventories in personality assessment, 69 On Aggression (Lorenz), 320 one big theory (OBT), 9–10 One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (Kesey), 278, 278 ontological self, 585 openness, 237 as Big Five trait, 180, 201, 203, 210–11, 213, 217, 294 changes in, 246, 247 construals and, 426 cross-cultural studies of, 481, 485 dopamine and, 285 gender differences in, 481 geographic distribution of, 212, 213 judgments on, 169 life outcomes associated with, 138 life span and, 222, 240 mean scores on, between ages 10 and 60 for men and women, 228, 229 operant conditioning, 514, 514–17, 516, 538 operational definition, 382 opponent processes, 512–13 opportunities and personality judgments, 152–53 opportunity costs, 441–42 optimal experience, 443 optimism, strategies in, 81–82, 82, 568 optimistic humanism, 433–38, 452 evolutionary-based hierarchy of human motives in, 436–37, 437 fully functioning person in, 437 Subject Index hierarchy of needs in, 434, 434–36, 452 psychotherapy in, 437–38 self-actualization in, 433–34 optimistic toughness, 429 optimizing goal, 442 oral character, 364, 372 oral stage, 362, 362–65, 386, 410 compared to Erikson’s stage, 400 id and, 371 ordinal scale, 114, 114 organ inferiority, 396 Origin of the Species (Darwin), 320 orthogonal factors, 201–2 Othello (Shakespeare), 32, 32 ought self, 596 outgroup homogeneity bias, 493, 500 output and intellectual expectancy, 153 overcontrolling personality type, 199, 215–16 oxytocin, 282, 288, 293–94, 298 Ozer, Dan on effects of personality traits on life outcomes, 137, 139–40 social psychology experiments analyzed by, 127, 129 packrat behavior in obsessivecompulsive personality disorder, 629 pain, avoidance of, 509 Pakistan, 469 panic attacks, 269 paradigm, parallel distributed processing (PDP), 408 paranoid personality disorder, 621 parapraxes, 374–77, 387 Park, Nansook, 467, 566 Parkinson’s disease brain stimulation techniques in, 263–64, 264 dopamine in, 284 parmia, 113, 135 paroxetine, 282 parsimony, principle of, 440 participants in research generalizability over, 51–54 ethnic and cultural diversity, 52–53 gender bias and, 51–52 shows vs no-shows, 52 informed consent of, 104 WEIRD, 53 pathological bias, 633–34, 661 Paunonen, Sampo, 214 Pavlov, Ivan, 202, 511, 513, 514, 523 Paxil (paroxetine), 282 PDP (parallel distributed processing), 408 Pearson correlation coefficient, 95 Pearson r, 94 Penfield, Wilder, 263 penis envy, 399 Penner, Louis, 140 perceiver effect, 546 perception, 545, 545–52, 580, 654 defense mechanisms in, 550–51, 551, 580 priming and chronic accessibility in, 545–48, 580 aggression and, 549–50 rejection sensitivity and, 548–49 situations and errors in, 134–35, 136, 137, 147 vigilance in, 552 perceptual defense, 550–51, 551, 580 perfusion imaging, 267 peripheral nervous system, 282, 283 persistence, 279 S-21 persona, 397, 416 personal constructs encoding strategies and, 533 Kelly on, 439–43, 453, 554 reality and, 441–43 sources of, 439–41 personal construct theory, 439–43, 554 personality anatomy of See brain approaches to See approaches to personality assessment of See assessment of personality behaviorism and, 536–37, 539 biochemistry of, 280–94, 298 hormones, 262, 280, 282, 287–94, 298 neurotransmitters, 265, 280, 281, 282–87, 298 biological roots of, 658–59 change in See personality change collectivism and, 470 cross-cultural study of See crosscultural psychology data on See data definition of, 5, 340 development of See personality development disorders of See personality disorders ideal “healthy,” 644–45, 649 judgments of See judgments of personality life outcomes and, 137–40, 138, 139, 147 physical health and, 636–43, 648–49, 662 conscientiousness, 642–43, 648 emotionality, 640–42 S-22 Subject Index prospects for improving health, 643, 644, 649 research on, 636–38 Type A personality, 638–40, 639 stability of See personality stability as a verb, 579, 582 Personality and Assessment (Mischel), 117, 117 personality change, 236–49, 252, 253–54 Change Goals Inventory, 239 desire for, 237, 237–38 as good or bad, 251–52, 254 methods of behaviors and life experiences, 244–47, 246, 247, 248, 253 general interventions, 240, 253 psychotherapy, 238, 253 targeted intervention programs, 240–44, 242, 253 overcoming obstacles to, 247–49, 249 principles of, 250–51, 254 personality development, 221, 227, 228–36, 253, 254 causes of, 232–33 cohort effects and, 230 cross-sectional studies and, 228, 229 goals across the life span and, 236, 253 longitudinal studies and, 230–32 maturity principle of, 231, 253, 254 narrative identity and, 234, 234–35, 253 principles of, 250, 250–51, 254 social clock and, 233, 253 personality disorders, 14, 615–49 See also specific disorders defining, 618–20, 646, 661 diagnosis of, 632–33, 647 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual on, 616–18, 646–47 ego-dystonic, 620 ego-syntonic, 620 labeling of, 634–35, 647, 661–62 major, 620–30, 646–47 antisocial personality disorder, 619, 621, 623–25, 624 avoidant personality disorder, 621, 627–28 borderline personality disorder, 251, 621, 625–27 narcissistic personality disorder, 622–23 obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, 621, 628–30 schizotypal personality disorder, 621–22 mental health and, 634 normality-abnormality continuum and, 635–36, 661–62 organizational approaches to, 630, 632, 632–33, 647 pathologizing, 633–34, 661 prevalence of, 616 stability of, 222 personality judgment See judgments of personality personality processes, 541–82 See also specific processes definition of, 541 emotion See emotion historical roots of research into, 541–42, 580 motivation, 558–69, 581 goals in, 556, 559–66, 581 strategies in, 566–69 perception, 545–52, 546, 551, 580 thinking, 552–58, 556, 580 personality psychology, 3–16 clinical psychology compared to, Funder’s First Law on, 10–12 goals of, 5–12, 16 psychological triad in, Personality Research Form (PRF), 204 personality research methods See research methods personality stability, 221, 222–27, 250, 252–53 causes of, 223–27, 226 evidence for, 222–23 personality tests See tests: in personality assessment personality traits See trait approaches to personality; traits personal projects, 560–61 Personal Reaction Inventory, 183 personal strivings, 26, 561 person-environment transactions, 225–26, 225, 226 person-situation debate, 117–37, 136, 146–47 on absolute vs relative consistency, 130–33, 131, 132, 133, 134 interactionism, 141–42, 147 Mischel on, 117, 118, 119, 120, 142 Murray-Brown exchange on, 145 on perceptions, 134–35, 136, 137, 147 Subject Index on power of the situation, 125–29, 126, 129, 130 on predictability, 118–21, 121, 122, 123–25, 146 values in, 142–44, 144 Peru, 469 pessimism, 81–82, 82, 447, 567–69 PET (positron emission tomography), 260, 266, 297, 311 Peterson, Christopher, 467 phallic character, 370, 372 phallic stage, 362, 368–70, 386 compared to Erikson’s stage, 401 superego in, 371, 387 phenomenal field, 433 phenomenology, 6, 6, 11, 16, 420, 421 awareness in, 424–26, 452 flow experience and, 443–44, 453 implications of, 449–51, 453 mystery of experience in, 450 personal construct theory and, 439–43, 453 self-determination theory and, 444–45, 453 understanding others and, 450–51 phenotypes, 305 phlegmatic personality, 280 phonemics, 464 physical appearance See appearance physical health ideal “healthy personality” and, 644–45, 649 personality and, 636–43, 648–49, 662 conscientiousness, 642–43, 648 emotionality, 640–42 prospects for improving health, 643, 644, 649 research on, 636–38 Type A personality, 638–40, 639 physical responses in emotional experience, 570 physiological measures, B data from, 42 physiology, classical conditioning and, 512–13 Picture Story Exercise (PSE), 76–77 pigeonholing, appreciation of individual differences vs., 14–15, 16 Pinel, Philippe, 616 plasticity, 202, 285, 294t, 299 plasticity principle, 250, 250, 254 plasticity traits, 295 dopamine and, 285 possible biological bases of, 294 pleasure in hedonism, 453, 509 p-level (probability level), 92, 93 politeness, 209 political ideology and happiness and, 578 political orientation, many-trait approach to, 196–98 population value, 92 pornography, 360 positive emotionality, 200, 223, 642 positive outlook of good judges of personality, 164 positive psychology, 420–21, 446–49, 453, 634 positron emission tomography (PET), 260, 266, 297, 311 possible selves, 595–96 posterior cingulate, 276 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) amygdala and, 269 cortisol levels in, 292 S-23 power as universal value, 485 preconscious mind, 374 predictability of behavior in situationist argument, 118–19, 146 predictive validity, 158, 176 preemployment screening, 69, 99, 100 Preference for Consistency Scale, 122 prefrontal leucotomy, 277 prefrontal lobotomy, 277 premsia, 113 preschool students, intervention program for, 240 presidents of the United States achievement needs of, 77, 77 strengths and weaknesses of, 11, 11 PRF (Personality Research Form), 204 primary caregiver, attachment with, 410 primary process thinking, 372–73, 387 priming and chronic accessibility, 545–48, 580 principle of parsimony, 440 private experiences I data and, 34 S data and, 28 procedural knowledge, 569, 603, 606–7 procedural self, 602–7, 611 implicit self and, 587, 604–6, 611 relational self and, 587, 604, 611 projection, 378, 378, 387 projective hypothesis, 71–75, 72 projective tests, 71–77, 74, 106 B-data from, 73–74, 106 Draw-A-Person test, 73 projective hypothesis and, 71–75, 72 S-24 Subject Index Rorschach inkblot test, 71–73, 72, 74, 75–76, 106 Thematic Apperception Test, 73, 74, 75, 76–77, 77, 106 validity of, 24, 73, 74–76, 106 Prozac (fluoxetine), 238, 256, 282, 285, 286, 298, 630 PSE (Picture Story Exercise), 76–77 pseudoconservatism, political, 196, 197 psilocybin, 238 psychic conflict, 356 psychic determinism, 354–55, 355 psychic energy, 356–57, 386 psychoanalysis, 13, 661 psychoanalytic approach, 13, 348–49, 386–88, 654, 659 to anxiety and defense mechanisms, 377–79, 378, 387 controversial issues in, 357–59, 386 critique of, 381–83, 388 of Freud, 351–54 See also Freud, Sigmund key ideas in, 354–57, 386 internal structure of mind, 355–56 mental or psychic energy, 356–57 psychic conflict and compromise, 356 psychic determinism, 354–55 life and death drives in, 359–61, 386 neo-Freudian, 394–406, 415, 416–17 of Adler, 395–96, 416 common themes of, 394–95 of Erikson, 399–402, 400, 417 of Horney, 398–99, 416 of Jung, 397–98 of Klein and Winnicott, 402–6, 417 parapraxes in, 374–77, 387 to personality, 6, 6, 15, 16 personal process theories and, 542 in perspective, 415–16, 417 to psychosexual development See psychosexual development, Freud’s stages of reasons for studying, 383–85, 384, 388 research on, current, 406–15, 417 sexism in, 383 as therapy, 379–81, 387–88 thinking and consciousness in, 372–74, 374, 375, 387 Psychological Corporation, 68 psychological experience (Eigenwelt), 427 psychological health and consciousness, 553–54 psychological maturity, 227 psychological triad, psychology biological reductionism and, 340–41, 345 clinical, cognitive, 14 cross-cultural See cross-cultural psychology cultural, 457 culture and, 498 ego, 395 emphasis on method, 21–23, 62 evolutionary See evolutionary psychology feminine, 398–99, 416 humanistic See humanistic psychology personality See personality psychology psychometrics, 48, 50 psychopathology in antisocial personality disorder, 624 in Dark Triad, 325 psychosexual development, Freud’s stages of, 361–72, 362, 386–87 anal stage, 362, 365–68, 371, 386–87, 400 genital stage, 362, 370–71, 372, 386, 401 movement through, 371–72 oral, 362, 362–65, 371, 386, 400, 410 phallic, 362, 368–70, 371, 386, 387, 401 psychosocial development, 399–402, 400, 417 psychosurgery, lessons of, 276–79, 278, 298 psychotherapy, 238, 253, 437–38 psychoticism Eysenck on, 200 as maladjusted personality trait, 631, 632 punishment, 654 behavioral change and, 660 dangers of, 520–22 definition of, 517 expectancy and, 525 guidelines on, 519–20 in operant conditioning, 517–22, 538 Q-sorting on the computer, 193 LIWC and, 194, 195 quality of data, 45–54 generalizability, 50–54, 63 reliability, 45–49, 47, 63 validity, 49–50, 63 Subject Index quality of information in personality judgments, 172–73 quantity of information in personality judgments, 169–72, 171 racial groups, hiring decisions based on personality tests for, 208 racial prejudice, 196 racism, 102 RAM (Realistic Accuracy Model), 173–75, 174, 176, 598, 601–2, 611 random influences, 48 randomization test, 92 rank-order consistency, 222 rationalism, 508 rationalization, 378, 378, 387 rational method in constructing objective tests, 80–83, 82, 90, 107 rational system, 555–56, 556, 557 ratio scale, 114, 114 reaction formation, 378, 378, 387 reactive person-environment transactions, 225, 226, 315 Reagan, Ronald, 600 Realistic Accuracy Model (RAM), 173–75, 174, 176, 598, 601–2, 611 reality, constructs and, 441–43 really real self, 609–10, 612 reciprocal determinism, 530, 530–31, 538 reciprocity value and political orientation, 198 redemption, 235 reflective determinants, 555 regression in developmental stages, 372, 387 reinforcement, 502–3, 515 Reise, Steven, 286 rejection sensitivity, 548–49 relatedness as intrinsic goal, 445 relational self, 587, 604, 611 relational self-schema, 604 relationships in situations, 140–41 relative standards, 124 relevance of behavior in Realistic Accuracy Model, 173, 174, 174 of L data, 37 reliability of data, 45–49, 47, 63 test length and, 79–80, 79 Renfrow, Peter, 468 replication, 94 repression, 378, 378, 387 repression-sensitization scale, 552 reproduction, evolutionary theory on, 323–31 instinctual behavior in, 335 mating behaviors in, 323–26, 327–28, 328–31, 329 Rep test, 439 reputation as consequence of personality judgments, 152–53 I data on, 32–33 research cross-cultural studies in, 473 See also cross-cultural psychology definition of, 23 effect size and, 94–98, 95, 97, 98, 99, 107, 129, 130 on entity and incremental theories, 565–66 ethical issues in, 101–5 deception, 61, 103, 103–5 purposes of research, 101–2 truthfulness, 102 S-25 gender bias in, 51–52 generalizability of results from, 50–54 on memory, 593 on narrative identity, 235 participants in See participants in research on personality and health, 636–38, 648 into personality processes, historical roots of, 541–42, 580 psychoanalytic, current, 406–15, 417 reliability of, 45–49, 47 scientific education and technical training in, 22–23 significance testing and, 91–94, 107 validity of, 49–50 research design, 19, 54–61, 63 case method in, 54–56, 63 correlational method in, 56–61, 58, 59, 63 experimental method in, 56, 56–61, 57, 59, 63 research methods, 18–19, 21–63 data and See data psychology’s emphasis on, 21–23 for studying the brain, 263–68 brain activity and imaging, 265–68, 266, 268, 269, 270, 297 brain damage, study of, 263, 272–74, 273 brain stimulation, 263–65, 264, 265 usefulness of, 656, 656–57 respect in collectivist vs individualistic societies, 472 S-26 Subject Index political orientation and, 198 subculture of violence and, 461 respondent conditioning, 515 responsibility and free will, 659–60 retirement, 231 rewards, 518–19 behavioral change and, 660 in classroom experiment, 502–3 expectancy and, 525, 538 extroverts and, 204 learned helplessness and, 513 shaping and, in operant conditioning, 515–16 right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), 196 Roberts, Brent, 250 Robins, Richard, 587 Rockefeller, John D., 301 Rodgers Condensed CPI-MMPI Test, 90 Rogers, Carl, 433, 452, 558 on fully functioning person, 437 psychotherapy approach of, 437–38 on reality, 425 on self-actualization, 433–34 Role Construct Repertory Test, 439 role continuity principle, 250, 250–51, 254 Romania, 197 Rorschach, Hermann, 71, 71 Rorschach inkblot test, 71–73, 72, 74, 75–76, 106 Rosenthal, Robert, 153, 155, 156 Rotter, Julian, 506, 524–26, 538, 542 Russia, 479 RWA (right-wing authoritarianism), 196 Ryan, Richard, 445, 453 Sacks, Oliver, 284 sadness, stimuli, responses, and functions of, 573 Sagiv, Lilach, 485 sanguine personality, 280 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 426, 446, 449, 452, 660, 661 on existential anxiety, 428–29 on existentialism, 431 on living in bad faith, 429 on optimistic toughness, 429 on universal human condition, 496 satisficing goal, 442 Saucier, Gerard, 202 Scandinavian immigrants in United States, 479 scatter plot, 57 Schindler, Oskar, 494 Schindler’s List, 494 schizoid personality disorder, 621 schizotypal personality disorder, 621–22 Schneider, Kurt, 618 Schwartz, Shalom, 485 science case method in, 54–56 research in, 23, 63 scientific education, 22–23 scientific paradigms, 441 S data, 24–29, 24, 45, 62, 662 advantages of, 25, 26–27, 62 disadvantages of, 25, 27–29, 62 on family environment, 308 mixed types of, 44–45 overview of, 24–26 personality ratings, 31 from personality tests compared to B data, 40, 70–71, 106 rationally constructed, 80, 82, 82 predictability of behavior and, 118–19 on shyness, 70–71 SDT (self-determination theory), 444–45, 446, 453 secondary process thinking, 372, 387 secure adults, 413 secure attachment style, 413, 417 secure children, 411 security as universal value, 485 selective migration, 468 selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 285–86, 298 self, 14, 585–612, 654 contents and purposes of, 586–87, 610 cross-cultural studies of, 469–72 declarative, 588–602, 610–11 possible self and, 595–96 self-discrepancy theory and, 596 self-efficacy and, 594–95, 611 self-esteem and, 588–89, 610 self-knowledge and, 598– 602, 599, 600 self-reference and memory, 593–94 self-schema and, 590–93, 592, 610 epistemological, 585 false, 405 holistic perception and, 483–84, 499 I and me statements in descriptions of, 585–86, 610 ideal, 596, 611 implicit, 587, 604–6, 611 James on, 585 multiple selves, 607–9, 612 Subject Index nonactual, 596 ontological, 585 ought, 596 possible, 595–96 procedural, 602–7, 611 acquiring and changing procedural knowledge, 606–7 implicit self and, 587, 604–6, 611 relational self and, 587, 604, 611 real, 611 really real, 609–10, 612 relational, 587, 604, 611 selfless, 465 self-actualization, 433–34, 558 self-affirmations, writing, 241, 242 self-compassion, 474 self-concept efficacy expectations and, 527 gender differences in, 594–95 self-control, 227 anal stage and, 366, 368 improving, 241–43 self-determination in individualist and collectivist cultures, 472–73 self-determination theory (SDT), 444–45, 446, 453 self-direction, 485 self-discrepancy theory, 596 self-efficacy, 527, 528, 528, 594–95, 611 self-enhancement, 472, 485, 589 self-esteem, 588–89, 610 cross-cultural studies of, 480–81 evolutionary theory on, 321–22, 322, 344 implicit, study of, 605 personality change and, 244 self-image, 587 self-judgment data See S data self-knowledge accurate, 598–601, 599, 600 declarative, 587 improving, 601–2 knowledge of others vs., 598–601, 599, 600 selfless-self, 465 self-monitoring, 113, 135 single-trait approach to, 182, 183, 184–86, 217 self-reference and memory, 593–94 self-reference effect, 593–94 self-regard in individualist and collectivist cultures, 470–71 self-regulation, 587 self-schema, 590–93, 592, 610 in head injuries, 592 relational, 604 self-transcendence, 485 self-verification, 27 Senate races, 158, 159 Serbia, 480 serotonin, 282, 285–87, 298 genetics associated with, 311, 343 stability traits and, 287, 299 sex hormones estrogen, 288 testosterone, 288–92 sexism, 102, 383 sexual drive, 359 sexual fantasies, 401 sexuality Freud on, 395 genital stage of development and, 369 oxytocin and, 293 testosterone in, 290–91 sexual jealousy, 328–31, 344 sexy son hypothesis, 330, 334 S-27 shame and doubt, autonomy vs., 400 shaping of behavior in operant conditioning, 515–16 Shaver, Philip, 407, 409 Shoda, Yuichi, 534 short-term goals, 559–60 short-term memory (STM), 553, 554, 580 Shweder, Richard, 463 shyness Implicit Association Test and, 70–71 opportunities and, 152–53 perceptual defenses and, 552, 580 self-knowledge on, 71 situations and, 115 significance testing, 91–94, 107 Simon, Paul, 414 Singapore punishment of juvenile misbehavior in, 460–61 tightness and, 467 single-trait approach, 179, 180, 181–82, 184–87, 190–91, 217 to narcissism, 186–87, 188–90, 190–91, 217 to self-monitoring, 182, 183, 184–86, 217 situationism, 118, 125–29, 126, 129, 130, 142–43, 146 situationist argument parts of, 118–19, 125–29, 126, 129, 130, 134, 146 responses to, 136, 146–47 absolute and relative standards, 124–25, 146–47 S-28 Subject Index improving research methods, 120–21, 121, 122, 123–24 unfair literature review, 120, 146 situations behavior as function of, 128–29, 129, 146 business, 141 interactions with, 141–42, 147 relationships in, 140–41 role of personality and, 115, 116 workplace, 140 Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), 69 Skinner, B F., 7, 8, 13, 506–7, 509, 535, 537, 660 animal studies of, 47, 514, 515, 523 on ethical issues in behaviorism, 102 operant conditioning techniques of, 514, 515–16, 516 on thinking and motivation, 522 Skinner box experiments, 47, 515, 516, 523, 524, 530, 660 Skutnik, Lenny, 599, 600, 601 slips as parapraxes, 376–77 snake phobia, 243, 527 Snyder, Mark on expectancy effects, 154, 155, 156 on self-monitoring, 182, 184–85 sociability in collectivist vs individualistic societies, 471 testosterone and, 290 validity of measurements on, 49–50 social clock, 233, 253 social expectancy effects, 154–55 social experience (Mitwelt), 427 social interest, 395 social investment principle, 250, 251, 254 sociality corollary, 440–41 social learning theory, 7, 14, 522–31, 538 of Bandura, 526–31, 528, 529, 530, 538 contributions and limitations of, 535–36 of Rotter, 524–26, 538 social media, 36 social phobias cortisol levels and, 292 serotonin and, 311 social psychology, situational effects in, 127–29 social structure, gender and, 337–38, 338, 339 Society for Personality Assessment, 75 Sociobiology (Wilson), 320 sociosexuality, 168–69, 326, 328, 329, 344 infectious diseases and, 489–90 scale, 327–28 somatic marker hypothesis, 274 Spain, 482 Spearman-Brown formula, 48, 79 specific expectancy, 525–26 speed-dating study, 326, 328, 329 Spielberg, Steven, 494 spinal cord, 262 Spitzer, Eliot, 348, 360 splitting phenomenon in borderline personality disorder, 626, 636 S-R (stimulus-response) conception of personality, 513–41, 537, 539 SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 285–86, 298 stability, 202 of data results, 93–94 dopamine and, 285 of personality, 221, 222–27, 250, 252–53 causes of, 223–27, 226 evidence for, 222–23 in personality disorders, 620 possible biological bases of, 294 serotonin and, 287 traits, 295, 299 stagnation vs generativity, 401 Stalin, Joseph, 623, 623 Standard Oil Trust, 301 Stanford Shyness Survey, 70 Star Trek, 557 state of research participant’s mood, 45 statistics significance testing in, 91–94, 107 on sports page, 97, 99 steroids, anabolic, 289 stimulation as universal value, 485 stimulus-response (S-R) conception of personality, 513–41, 537, 539 STM (short-term memory), 553, 554, 580 Stop and Go system, 596 “Stop” system, 284 STORI data types, 24 Strack, Fritz, 555 Straight Dope, The, 135 strange situations, attachment relationships in, 411 strategies, 566–69, 581 definition of, 558 motivation and, 566–69 Subject Index optimistic and pessimistic, 567–69 traits and, 567 stress during childhood, 225 life experiences and resilient response to, 245, 246 striatum, 279 strivings, 561 Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB), 69, 87, 89 structural equation modeling, 60 subcultures development of, 490 multiculturalism and, 494–96, 500 subjective stimulus values, 533 subjective well-being, 446–47 subjectivity of test items, 78–79 sublimation, 378, 378, 387 substantia nigra, 263 suicidality borderline personality disorder and, 625 self-esteem and, 481 Sullivan, Harry Stack, 394 Sulloway, Frank, 224 superego, 355, 408 in Freud’s topographic model, 375 phallic stage and, 371, 387 superman, Nietzsche on, 431 Survivor, 321, 321, 322 SVIB (Strong Vocational Interest Blank), 69, 87, 89 symbolization, 373, 387 synapses, 280, 281 tabula rasa, 508, 658 Tahiti, 490 Taiwan, 469 Takano, Yohataro, 474, 475 talking as cure in psychotherapy, 352–53, 384, 386 Talmud, 425 Taoism, 447, 448 Target stores, personality testing of job applicants by, 90 TAT (Thematic Apperception Test), 73, 74, 75, 76–77, 77, 106 Taylor, Shelley, 287–88 tDCS (transcranial direct current stimulation), 265, 297 technical training, scientific training compared to, 22–23, 62 television watching as heritable, 310 Tellegen, Auke, 200, 201, 204 temperament perceptions and, 546–47 personality stability and, 223 temperance as virtue, 448, 448 tend-and-befriend response, 288 testing situation, 38 testosterone, 288–92, 298 tests anxiety and performance on, experimental and correlational research on, 56, 56–61, 57, 58, 59 in personality assessment, 19, 68–91 business of, 68–69, 106 ethical issues in purposes of, 98–101 objective See objective tests projective tests, 71–77, 72, 74, 106 See also projective tests reliability of, 79–80, S data vs B data from, 70–71, 106 Thailand, 460 S-29 thalamus, 262 Thanatos, 360, 386 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 73, 74, 75, 76–77, 77 thinking, 552–58, 580 consciousness and, 372–74, 374, 375, 387, 416, 552–55, 580 cross-cultural studies of, 483–84, 499 primary process, 372–73, 387 secondary process, 372, 387 social learning theory and, 522–23 ways of, 555–58, 556 third-variable problem, 59 Thorndike, Edward, 514, 514, 523 thrown-ness in existentialism, 427–28 Tiananmen Square protesters, 143, 144 tight cultures, 466–67 TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation), 265, 265, 297 tobacco industry, 640, 640 Tomlin, Lily, 423 tomographs, 266 topographic model of Freud, 374, 375 topography, 374 tradition as universal value, 485 trait approaches to personality, 5, 6, 15, 16, 110–11, 113–15, 146, 179–218, 535, 615, 654, 655 essential-trait approach, 180, 199–212, 203, 213, 214, 217 many-trait approach, 179–80, 181, 191–98, 192, 193, 195, 217 S-30 Subject Index single-trait approach, 179, 180, 181–82, 184–87, 190–91, 217 typological approach, 180–81, 215–16, 218 traits, 110, 146, 151, 179, 217, 302 Big Five See Big Five traits cross-cultural studies of, 478, 478–83, 480, 499 Dark Triad of, 325 life outcomes associated with, 137–40, 138, 139, 147 mean scores on, between ages 10 and 60 for men and women, 228, 229 personality-trait judgments, 123 strategies and, 567 translating personality-trait items, 482 trait words, proliferation of, 135, 135, 137 transcendence as virtue, 448, 448 transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), 265, 297 transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), 265, 265, 297 transference, 409 attachment theory and, 413, 417 countertransference and, 380 in psychoanalytic therapy, 379–80 transitional objects, 405 transparent self, 167 transporter molecules, 285 Triandis, Harry, 460, 463, 466, 473, 477 on ecology, 488 on ethnocentrism, 492 Truk, 490 trust vs mistrust, 400 truthfulness in research, 102, 103 t-test, 57 Tupinamba culture, 465, 465 Turkheimer, Eric, 310 Twain, Mark, 287 twins studies of, 315 family environment and, 308 heritability coefficient in, 304–5, 305, 342 nature-nurture debate and, 309 types of, 304 Twitter, 36 Type A personality, 638–40, 639, 643, 648 Type I errors, 93 Type II errors, 93 typological approaches to personality, 180–81, 215–16, 218 Umwelt (biological experience), 427 unconditional positive regard, 437, 452 unconscious mind, 654, 659 Freud on, 373, 374, 379 parapraxes and, 374–77 thinking and, 372–73 unconscious thoughts, 554–55 undercontrolling personality type, 199, 216 understanding as universal value, 485 unemployment, 244–45 United States cross-cultural studies of, 490–91 dignity culture in, 476 gender differences in, 481 honor culture in, 476–77, 490 individualism in, 469 as loose culture, 466–67 subcultures in, 494–95 universal human condition, 496–97, 500 universal values, 499 search for, 485 theoretical structure of, 486 utilitarianism, 509, 538 Uttal, William, 279 validity content, 89–90 of objective tests, 78–80 predictive, 158, 176 of projective tests, 24, 73, 74–76, 106 of quality of data, 49–50, 63 values cross-cultural studies of, 485–87, 486, 499 cultures and, 493–94 in person-situation debate, 142–44, 144 Venezuela, 469 verticality and compassion, 473–74, 474 video games, violent, 510–11 view constructive alternativism, 441 vigilance and perceptual defenses, 552, 580 violence cross-cultural misunderstandings and, 461 in movies and video games, 510–11 observational learning of, 529, 529–30 virtues across cultural traditions, 447–48, 449 in positive psychology, 447–49, 448, 453 Subject Index vocational-interest tests, 99 Vonnegut, Kurt, Jr., 10, 429 voting preferences and facial appearance, 159 Wagner, Jane, 423 Walden Two (Skinner), 509 warmth, 209 Watergate scandal, 11, 361, 423 Waters, Alice, 45 Watson, John, 505, 506–7, 508, 513, 535, 537, 539, 658–59 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for adults, 75 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children, 75 WEIRD participants in research, 53, 462 well-adjusted person, 215 Westen, Drew, 392, 399, 415 Whitman, Charles, 270–71, 271, 276 Whole Earth Catalog, 26 Wilson, E O., 320 Winnicott, D W., 394, 402, 404–5, 417 wisdom, 448, 448 women attraction and, 323–25, 337–38, 339 personality revealed in face of, 160–61, 161 Wood, Dustin, 250 Wood, Joanne, 589 Wood, Wendy, 337, 338 Woodward, Bob, 361 Woodworth Personality Data Sheet (WPDS), 80–81, 81, 90 word use and many-trait approach, 193–94, 195, 217 workaholism, 628–29 working models of others and self, 410 working self-concept, 608 workplace S-31 citizenship performance in, 140 job performance in See job performance punishment in, 518 rewards in, 518–19 situational requirements in, 140 World Congress of Neurology, 276 World Health Organization, 494 World War I, 80 World War II, 370, 600–601 WPDS (Woodworth Personality Data Sheet), 80–81, 90 Wundt, Wilhelm, 426, 450, 506 X-rays, 266 X-system, 279 Zajonc, Robert, 280, 570 Zen Buddhism, 432–33 Zimbabwe, gender differences in, 481 ... Second Law, which won’t be officially introduced until Chapter The Plan of This Book The second section comprises four chapters that address how people differ from one another, the central concern... Expectancies  153 The Accuracy of Personality Judgment 156 Criteria for Accuracy  157 First Impressions  158 Moderators of Accuracy  163 The Realistic Accuracy Model  173 Accuracy Matters 175 Wrapping... mental conflict Phenomenological approach Conscious awareness and experience Humanistic psychology Cross-cultural psychology Learning and cognitive approaches Behaviorism Social learning theory Cognitive