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In addition, they searched for the elixir of life, a substance that could
cure disease and prolong life = m =, = ea a = fe ÂYP, 7/2 CLAVE = ALTHOTAS —
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When a patch of color is placed on a background that is approximately complementary—say, red on green—both colors appear brighter and more vibrant Figure 1
When a small gray square is placed on a larger white square, the small square appears slightly darker than when the same square of gray is placed on a larger black square (see Figure 1) MA gray square placed on a colored square—bright blue or yellow, for instance—tends to take on the color of the background mf To a viewer, the gray square actually seems to have a blue or yellow tinge li The tinge of color is easier to see if a thin piece of tissue paper is placed over the squares ll For this reason, many flags, pennants, and advertising banners are red and green or bright blue and yellow
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Today all that circuitry and much more can fit into a microprocessor smaller than a postage stamp
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Glossary
filament: a thin piece of metal found inside vacuum tubes and light bulbs Electricity passing through a filament produces heat and light
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However, when the children drew rear views of the adults, the size of the
heads was not nearly so exaggerated
When drawing human figures, children often make the head too large for the rest of the body MA recent study offers some insight into this common dispro- portion in children’s drawings ll As part of the study, researchers asked
children between four and seven years old to make several drawings of adults @ When they drew frontal views of these subjects, the sizes of the heads was markedly enlarged m The researchers suggest that children draw bigger heads when they know that they must leave room for facial details Therefore, the dis- torted head size in children’s drawings is a form of planning ahead and not an indication of a poor sense of scale
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Confirmation that this phenomenon actually occurs is found in the observed fact that increases in world rainfall typically come about a month after major meteor systems are encountered in space
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Each piece of circumstantial evidence, taken singly, may mean little Circumstantial evidence is evidence not drawn from the direct observation of a fact If, for example, there is evidence that a piece of rock embedded ina wrapped chocolate bar is the same kind of rock found in the vicinity of a candy factory, and that rock of this type is found in few other places, then there is cir- cumstantial evidence to suggest that the stone somehow got into the piece of chocolate during manufacture m It suggests that the candy-maker was negli- gent even though there is no eyewitness or direct evidence of any kind @ Despite a popular tendency to look down on the quality of circumstantial evidence, it is of great usefulness if there is enough of it and if it is properly
interpreted ml However, a whole chain of circumstances can be as conclusive
as direct evidence lf
Glossary
eyewitness: a person who actually sees something happen, such as a crime being committed
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This, too, is divided into layers
The model most generally accepted by geophysicists today envisages Earth as composed of three main concentric spheres The deep heart of the planet is essentially a huge ball of molten iron, about 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) in diameter The physical properties of this great ball are mostly unknown The incredible pressure at the core would crush matter into a strange, dense sub- stance unlike any known liquid Surrounding the molten metal core and
reaching almost to the surface is the earth's great inner shell, 2,000 miles (3,200
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For example, Harry Turtledove, one of the top writers in this field, has written several books about a world in which the South won the U.S Civil War and a book about a world in which the Spanish Armada conquered England
Alternative history is generally classified as a type of science fiction, but it also bears some resemblance to historical fiction This type of writing describes an imaginary world that is identical to our own world up to a certain point in history m™ At that point, the two worlds diverge ml Something happens in the imaginary world that never happened in ours, and after that, this world follows a different direction ll Some alternative histories suppose that a certain technology had been introduced earlier into the world’s history than actually happened m What if the computer had been invented in Victorian times? Many readers find these stories interesting because of the way they stimulate the imagination and get people thinking about the phenomenon of cause and effect in history
Glossary
historical fiction: stories that are not true but are based on actual
events from the past
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The number of shows increased rapidly after the first “Big Top” circus tent was introduced in 1826
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Look at the four squares [ml] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to paragraph 1 Butterflies have two pairs of wings and six legs and feed on the nectar of flowers Look at the four squares [ml] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to paragraph 2
At first, it is damp and its wings are curled up
When a mammal is young, it looks much like a smaller form of an adult However, animals that undergo metamorphosis develop quite differently m The young of these animals, which are called larvae, look very little like the mature forms and have a very different way of life ml Take the example of but- terflies and caterpillars, which are the larval form of butterflies Caterpillars, on the other hand, are wingless, have many more than six legs, and feed on leaves To become adults, the larvae must radically change their forms To accomplish this change, a larva must go through the process of metamor- phosis It does this in the second stage of life, called the pupa stage When they are ready to pupate, caterpillars settle in sheltered positions Some spin a cocoon around themselves The caterpillar then sheds its old skin and grows a protective pupal skin ml Inside this skin, the body of the caterpillar gradually transforms itself gl The wing buds, which were under the caterpillar’s skin, grow into wings ml When the change is complete, the pupal skin splits open and the butterfly emerges m Soon it dries out, its wings unfurl, and it flies off Now it is ready to mate and to lay eggs that will develop into larvae
Glossary
cocoon: a silk-like protective covering used by some insects when they change from the pupal form to the adult form
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More recent arrivals no doubt took the same route, crossing on winter ice Look at the four squares [ill] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to paragraph 2
The animals magically enlarge this piece of solid land until it becomes the earth
It is believed that the first migrants to come to the New World were hunters who arrived by way of the only link between the hemispheres, the Siberian- Alaskan land bridge m This strip of land remained above water until about
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skills to make weapons, fur clothing, and shelters against the bitter cold IR It seems safe to assume that they also brought myths and folktales from the Old World @ But which myths and which folktales?
Among myths, the most impressive candidate for Old World origin is the story of the Earth Diver m This is the story of a group of water creatures who take turns diving into the depths of the sea, trying to find a piece of solid land ™ The duck, the turtle, the muskrat, the seal, the crawfish, or some other animal, depending on who is telling the story, finally succeeds, but it has to dive so deep that by the time it returns to the surface, it is half-drowned or dead However, in its claws or in its mouth, the other animals find a bit of mud m Not every Native American tribe has a creation myth, but of those that do, the Earth Diver is one of the most common It is found in all regions of the New World except in the Southwestern United States and the Arctic regions In the Old World, the story is told in many locations in northern Asia, among some aboriginal Australian groups, and in the South Pacific Islands
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Look at the four squares [m] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to paragraph 1 It was an immediate success and spread rapidly, but the original name quickly disappeared Look at the four squares [mM] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to paragraph 2 They were played at Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, between British and American players
m@ Lawn tennis is a comparatively modern modification of the ancient game of court tennis Major Walter C Wingfield thought that something like court ten- nis might be played outdoors on the grass, and in 1873 he introduced his new game under the name Sphairistike at a lawn party in Wales ml Players and spec- tators soon began to call the new game “lawn tennis.” Ml In 1874 a woman named Mary Outerbridge returned to New York with the basic equipment of the game, which she had obtained from a British Army store in Bermuda The first game of lawn tennis in the United States was played on the grounds of the Staten Island Cricket and Baseball Club in 1874
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This process cannot take place without chlorophyjil
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It prevents nourishment from reaching the leaf and, conversely, prevents sugar created in the leaf from reaching the rest of the tree
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants capture the Sun’s energy to con- vert water and carbon dioxide into sugars to fuel their growth m Chlorophyll is so essential to the life of plants that it forms almost instantly in seedlings when they come in contact with sunlight HA green pigment, chlorophyll is responsi- ble for the green coloring of plants m But what turns the leaves of deciduous plants the brilliant reds and oranges and golds of autumn? @
Trees do not manufacture new, colored pigments for fall Orange, red, yellow, and other colored pigments are present in leaves throughout the spring and summer However, they are hidden by the far greater amount of green chlorophyll When the days grow shorter and the temperatures fall; leaves somehow sense the coming of fall ml They form an “abscission layer.” ml This layer is a barrier of tissue at the base of each leaf stalk m Thus, sugar builds up in the leaf, causing the chlorophyll to break down m The orange, red, yellow, and brown pigments now predominate, giving the leaves their vibrant autumn colors
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Then he learned that there were prairie dog yips for specific predators Look at the four squares [ml] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to paragraph 2
When shown the silhouettes of European ferrets and of Australian din- goes, the prairie dogs made sounds unlike those that they made for any familiar predators
Prairie dogs are among the most sociable wild animals of North America At one time, they thrived nearly everywhere on the semi-arid lands of the West Native Americans even used prairie dog colonies as landmarks on the relatively featureless plains Prairie dogs are members of the squirrel family They are probably called “dogs” because they make a “yip” noise when they are alarmed that sounds a little like the bark of a small dog This alarm sound was at one time thought to be a simple warning and expression of fear, meaning something like “Yikes! Watch out!” Biology professor Con Slobodchikoff of Northern
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dog that lives in Arizona for twenty years He has discovered remarkable levels of complexity in prairie dog calls i First, he discovered that the call for aerial predators, such as eagles or hawks, was different from the call for terrestrial predators or intruders, such as coyotes and humans lm For example, there was a distinctive yip for a red-tailed hawk and a different one for a golden eagle Ml There was one for coyotes, one for foxes, one for domestic dogs, and one for human beings li These sounds were all so distinctive that the differences could be heard with the human ear
By recording prairie dog calls as sonograms and then observing the sonograms on a computer, even more subtle distinctions could be discovered m In one experiment, Professor Slobodchikoff learned that prairie dogs had different sounds for people who wore blue shirts, those who wore yellow shirts, and those who wore green shirts Hl Even more amazingly, prairie dogs’ sounds dis- tinguished between a human who was carrying a gun and one who wasn't ll Another experiment showed that prairie dogs could create cries for dangers they had never encountered before
Glossary
sonograms: “pictures” of sound waves that can be seen on a computer or other instrument
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be added to paragraph 1
Motels, in contrast, appealed to motorists, and so they were located along highways, often at the edge of town
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In fact, their cheap rates attracted travelers without much money The first motel (the term comes from a combination of the words motor and
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2 The story of the motel business from the 1920’s to about 1960 is one of uninter- rupted growth Motels became common sights on the U.S highway system that predated the Interstate Highway System m They clustered along transconti- nental highways, such as Routes 40 and 66, and along the north-south routes that ran up and down both the east and west coasts ll The motel business was one of the few industries that was not hurt by the economic depression of the 1930's ll However, in the 1960's, the Interstate Highway System allowed drivers to bypass the smaller roads on which motels were built ml At about the same time, large motel-hotel chains began to cut into the business of the small, family-owned motel
Glossary
Interstate Highway System: a national system of high-speed, long-distance roads connecting major U.S cities
Trang 12COMPLETING SUMMARIES AND CHARTS
The last question in each set will be either a complete-the-summary question or a complete-the-chart question These questions will take you longer than the other questions in the Reading Section These questions require a general understanding of the entire passage, or at least large parts of it They are also worth more points than other questions
The Educational Testing Service refers to these two question types as “reading to learn” questions That's because to answer these questions, you have to find and con- nect information from all parts of the passage, as you would when studying material in a textbook Of course, writing your own summaries and making charts that com- pare and contrast ideas in an academic textbook can be a useful study technique
These questions are shown on a full computer screen, but there is an icon on the screen that lets you return to the passage and then come back to the question whenever you want
(A) Complete-the-Summary Questions
For the complete-the-summary question, you are first given an introductory sen- tence for a summary Next, there are spaces in a box for three sentences next to “bullet points” (small black circles)
Then there is a list of six answer choices You have to decide which three of these six choices are summary sentences—main ideas—for the whole passage You then click on the sentences that you think are correct and drag them to the three spaces in the box The answer choices will appear in the box You do not have to put the three sentences into any specific order in the passage When you finish, you will have “written” a summary of the entire passage
Incorrect answer choices may be true but are not main ideas in the passage They are only details or supporting ideas Choices may also be incorrect because they are not mentioned in the passage Answer choices may also be incorrect because the information is not accurately presented Therefore, this type of ques- tion requires you to distinguish between major ideas and minor ideas, between information that is present in the passage and information that is not, and between accurate and inaccurate information
Summary questions are worth two points You can get partial credit
3 correct choices = 2 points 2 correct choices = 1 point
Fewer than 2 correct choices = 0 points
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Here are some tips for completing summaries:
1 First, look for hints in the first paragraph or two about the overall structure of the passage For example, a sentence in the first part of the passage might say, “There are three main theories about ” If you see this kind of “outline” in the passage, then look for signal words or phrases that will introduce these theories: “The first theory ” “The next theory ” “The third theory ” These will probably cor- respond to the three main points of your summary
2 Unfortunately, there will usually not be an outline of the type mentioned in point 1 Then you will need to study the main idea of each paragraph of the passage and consider the way those main ideas are related Sometimes, perhaps, two main ideas may be found in a single paragraph, but generally the main ideas of the pas- sage will be developed in one or sometimes more than one paragraph Look at the paragraphs and try to get a quick idea of what each paragraph is about Begin by looking at the first sentence or two of each paragraph, because this is the most common position for a topic sentence that presents the paragraph’s main idea Make quick notes about each paragraph on your notepaper Then look at the answer choices If there are more paragraphs than answer choices, look for choices that combine the ideas of more than one paragraph Or you may find that the ideas in some paragraphs are only details and not important enough to be mentioned in a summary
3 Try to eliminate answer choices that are just details in the passage These choices usually have a different “feel” to them They may often be examples of main ideas but not restatements of the major ideas themselves They are about specific things or concepts rather than about general ideas
4 Try to eliminate answer choices that do not appear in the passage These may be about a completely different topic They may also be about a topic related to the topic of the passage but not mentioned in the passage
5 Try to eliminate answer choices that don’t present the information accurately They may repeat words from the passage but present it in a way that changes the meaning They contradict information that is said to be true in the passage
Here is one of the passages from the Reading Preview Test and an example of a complete-the-summary question about that passage
Biological Barriers and Pathways
Virtually all living things have some way of getting from here to there Animals may walk, swim, or fly Plants and their seeds drift on wind or water or are carried by animals Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that, in time, all species might spread to every place on Earth where favorable conditions occur Indeed, there are some cosmopolitan species A good example is the housefly, found
almost everywhere on Earth However, such broad distribution is the rare
exception Just as barbed wire fences prevent cattle from leaving their pasture, biological barriers prevent the dispersal of many species
What constitutes barriers depends on the species and its method of dispersal
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tains, or deserts are effective For example, the American bison spread through- out the open grasslands of North America, but in the southern part of the continent there are deserts, so the bison could not spread there For aquatic crea- tures, strong currents, differences in salinity, or land areas may serve as barriers
Some barriers involve competition with other species A dandelion seed may
be carried by the wind to bare ground, and, if environmental factors are right, it
may germinate There is not much chance, however, that any individual
seedling will survive Most places that are suitable for the growth of dandelions are already occupied by other types of plants that are well adapted to the area The dandelion seedling must compete with these plants for space, water, light, and nutrients Facing such stiff competition, the chances of survival are slim
For animals, some barriers are behavioral The blue spotted salamander lives only on mountain slopes in the southern Appalachian Highlands Although these creatures could survive in the river valleys, they never venture there Birds that fly long distances often remain in very limited areas Kirkland’s warblers are found only in a few places in Michigan in the summer and fly to the Bahamas in winter No physical barriers restrict the warblers to these two locations, yet they never spread beyond these boundaries Brazil’s Amazon River serves as a northern or southern boundary for many species of birds They could freely fly over the river, but they seldom do
There are three types of natural pathways through which organisms can overcome barriers One type is called a corridor A corridor consists of a single type of habitat that passes through various other types of habitat North America’s
Rocky Mountains, which stretch from Alaska to northern Mexico, are an example
Various types of trees, such as the Engelmann spruce, can be found not only at the northern end of the corridor in Alaska but also at higher elevations along the entire length of this corridor
A second type of natural pathway is known as a filter route A filter route consists of a series of habitats that are different from one another but are similar enough to permit organisms to gradually adapt to new conditions as they spread from habitat to habitat The greatest difference between a corridor and a filter route is that a corridor consists of one type of habitat while a filter consists of several similar types
The third type of natural pathway is called a sweepstakes route This is dis- persal caused by the chance combination of favorable conditions Bird watchers are familiar with “accidentals,” which are birds that appear in places far from their native areas Sometimes they may find a habitat with favorable conditions and “colonize” it Gardeners are familiar with “volunteers,” cultivated plants that grow in their gardens although they never planted the seeds for these plants
Besides birds and plants, insects, fish, and mammals also colonize new areas
Sweepstakes routes are unlike either corridors or filter routes in that organisms that travel these routes would not be able to spend their entire lives in the habitats that they pass through
Some organisms cross barriers with the intentional or unintentional help of humans, a process called invasion An example is the New Zealand mud snail, which was accidentally brought to North America when trout from New Zealand were imported to a fish hatchery in the United States It has caused
extensive environmental damage in streams and rivers In the invasive species’
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that keep their numbers down, but in their new habitat, natural checks are
left behind, giving the invaders an advantage over native species Invasive species may spread so quickly that they threaten commercial, agricultural, or
recreational activities
DrrEcTIONs: Below is an introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage Complete the summary by selecting three of the answer choices that express the most important ideas of the passage and writing your choices inside the box Some of the answer choices are incorrect because they express ideas that are not given in the passage or because they express only details from the passage
Biological barriers prevent organisms from spreading to all habitats
where conditions are suitable Answer Choices
A Organisms that spread by means of sweepstakes routes include species of birds called accidentals that appear in places far from their homes
B Biological barriers can be the result of physical features, climate, compe- tition, and behavior
C Organisms can cross barriers by means of three types of natural pathways: corridors, filter routes, and sweepstakes routes
D Behavioral barriers do not prevent the spread of species from place to place as effectively as physical barriers
Humans may accidentally or intentionally bring some species across natural barriers, and these species may have certain advantages over native species American bison spread
throughout the grasslands of North America
There is no complete outline for the whole passage (although there is a partial outline in paragraph 5) If you were to look at the passage paragraph by paragraph and make notes on the topics of those paragraphs, your notes might look like this:
Paragraph 1: Barriers stop spread of species Paragraph 2: Physical barriers
Paragraph 3: Barriers involving competition Paragraph 4: Behavioral barriers
Paragraph 5: Three types of pathways: (1) Corridors Paragraph 6: (2) Filter route
Paragraph 7: (3) Sweepstakes route Paragraph 8: Invasion