Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World Editorial Board Editor in Chief Richard C Martin Professor of Islamic Studies and History of Religions Emory University, Atlanta Associate Editors Saïd Amir Arjomand Professor of Sociology State University of New York, Stony Brook Marcia Hermansen Professor of Theology Loyola University, Chicago Abdulkader Tayob University of Cape Town, South Africa International Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World, Netherlands Assistant Editor Rochelle Davis Teaching Fellow, Introduction to the Humanities Program Stanford University Editorial Consultant John O Voll Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding Georgetown University ii Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World Editor in Chief Richard C Martin Volume A-L Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World Editor in Chief Richard C Martin Volume M-Z, Index Encyclopedia of Islam Richard C Martin, Editor in Chief © 2004 by Macmillan Reference USA Macmillan Reference USA is an imprint of The 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or 800-762-4058 Cover photographs reproduced by permission of Andrea Pistolesi / The Image Bank and Robert Azzi / Aramco World While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, The Gale Group, Inc does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein The Gale Group, Inc accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world / edited by Richard C Martin p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-02-865603-2 (set) — ISBN 0-02-865604-0 (v 1) — ISBN 0-02-865605-9 (v 2) Islam—Encyclopedias I Martin, Richard C BP40.E525 2003 909’.097671—dc21 2003009964 This title is also available as an e-book ISBN 0-02-865912-0 Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information Printed in the United States of America 10 Contents Introduction ix List of entries xiii List of contributors xxiii Synoptic outline of entries xxxi List of maps xxxv ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ISLAM AND THE MUSLIM WORLD Glossary 749 Appendix: Genealogies and Timelines 755 Index 785 v Editorial and Production Staff Kate Millson and Corrina Moss Project Editors Joann Cerrito, Melissa Hill, and Mark Mikula Editorial Support Jonathan Aretakis Copy Chief Nancy Gratton Copy Editor Ann McGlothlin Weller Proofreader Barbara Cohen Indexer Barbara Yarrow Manager, Imaging and Multimedia Content Dean Dauphinais Senior Editor, Imaging and Multimedia Content Lezlie Light Imaging Coordinator Deanna Raso Photo Researcher Shalice Shah-Caldwell Research Associate Cynthia Baldwin and Jennifer Wahi Art Directors Autobookcomp Typesetter vi Editorial and Production Staff Mary Beth Trimper Manager, Composition Evi Seoud Assistant Manager, Composition Rhonda Williams Print Buyer MACMILLAN REFERENCE USA Frank Menchaca Vice President Hélène Potter Director, New Product Development Islam and the Muslim World vii Introduction A growing number of scholars and pundits have declared that the twenty-first century will be the era of Islam Such predictions, whether intended in a positive or negative light, err in failing to appreciate the spread and influence of Islam during the past millennium and a half, especially on the continents of Asia and Africa Nonetheless, events during the first decade of the new millennium have underscored the importance of knowing about Islamic history and understanding the great diversity and richness of Muslim social, cultural, and religious practices Suicide bomber attacks on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., on September 11, 2001, killed over three thousand persons These tragic events and the media coverage of the aftermath as well as of the two wars subsequently fought in the Muslim countries of Afghanistan and Iraq have dramatically shown how little is known in the West about Islam and the Muslim world Islam is, and has been for nearly fifteen centuries, a global religious and political phenomenon Muslim networks of communication, from the annual pilgrimage to Mecca to the vast new power of the World Wide Web, have enabled Muslims to establish postmodern identities in a rapidly changing world, while at the same time preserving and reinvigorating a variety of time-honored traditions and practices The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World is a sourcebook of information about Islam, its past and present, addressed to students and general readers as the twenty-first century begins its first decade The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World presents in two volumes some 504 articles, alphabetically arranged, in incremental lengths generally of 200, 500, 1,000, 3,000, and 5,000 words The work of some 500 scholars appears in these pages, carefully reviewed and edited in a common style for easy access by readers who may presently have limited or no knowledge of Islam It has also been prepared as a teaching and learning resource for teachers and students, from the high school grades through university The alphabetical ordering of articles that follow, in the List of Articles, will enable readers to locate topics of interest quickly A synoptic outline of the contents of the Encyclopedia, found within the frontmatter on pages xxxi–xxxiv, provides readers with an overview by topic and subtopic of the range and kinds of information presented in the main body of the Encyclopedia Approximately 170 photographs, drawings, maps, and charts appear throughout the two volumes A glossary in the back matter of volume two, which lists commonly used Arabic and other Islamic terms, such as shari a, or “Islamic law,” will enable general readers to determine quickly the meaning of essential but perhaps less familiar terms in Islamic studies The Encyclopedia is truly an international work that reflects the diversity of ideas and practices that have characterize the Islamic world throughout its history This diversity is reflected among the editors who organized and compiled this work and the scores of scholars who wrote the articles contained in it The associate editors’ national origins are Canada, Iran, and South Africa; their religious affiliations or backgrounds include Sunni and Shi ite Islam; and their scholarly training has been in sociology, the history of religions, and Islamic studies An even greater ix Arabia, Pre-Islam Alabaster stele, first century C.E from Yemen, depicting camel drivers The preIslamic invention of the north Arabian camel saddle around the beginning of the first millennium allowed for the control and extension of trade by the camel-breeding tribes and their integration into sedentary society The Art Archive/Collection Antonovich/Dagli Orti Architecture The courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, also known as the Great Mosque, built between 706 and 714 by the Umayyad dynasty, who used Byzantine mosaic artists to decorate the architectural structures with images of plants, jewelry, and Qur’anic inscriptions The small structure visible at the lower left is for performing ablutions prior to prayer © Carmen Redondo/Corbis Cartography and Geography The Mediterranean Sea as depicted in an eleventh-century Arabic geographical manuscript (Kitab al-masalik wa almamalik) of al-Istakhri By the thirteenth century, copies of maps proliferated and circulated all over the Islamic world The Art Archive/National Library Cairo/Dagli Orti Bukhara, Khanate and Emirate of The arched entrance to the Miri-Arab Madrasa, built circa 1536, in Bukhara, Uzbekistan This structure is decorated with intricate tile mosaic set in floral and calligraphic designs © Diego Lezama Orezzoli/Corbis Clothing Turkish man and woman wearing traditional attire from the Milas region of Turkey, as shown in this 1801 French print The Turkish mode of dress for both men and women usually involved loose trousers and a shirt topped with various jackets, vests, and long coats: layering was an important element of the aesthetic Collection of Charlotte Jirousek Clothing A Palestinian woman in traditional Arab dress, the thawb, which is based on the tunic, a common garment in the region since the Roman era It is suitable for desert heat as it provides protection from the sun as well as ventilation Cornell Costume and Textile Collection Conflict and Violence A mosque destroyed in the Bosnian war (1992–1995), in the central Bosnian village of Ahmici In January 2000, after sixteen months of testimony from 158 witnesses, U.N judges in the Hague, Netherlands, convicted five Bosnian Croat militiamen for participating in a killing spree in Ahmici which left more than one hundred Muslim men, women, and children dead, and every Muslim home burnt to the ground AP/Wide World Photos Empires: Mongol and Il-Khanid A page from Rashid al-Din's (d 1318, wazir to Ghazan Khan) Compendium of Chronicles manuscript depicts Mongol leader Genghis Khan and his sons Although the Mongols battled Islam in the early years of their rise to power, Mongol conquests ultimately spread Islam throughout Central Asia © Art Resource, NY Empires: Safavid and Qajar A seventeenth-century painting of Shah Tahmasp, a long time leader of the Safavid Empire, receiving the Mogul Emperor Humayun Shah Tahmasp’s court prioritized culture; illuminated manuscripts produced during his reign are of the highest quality known © SEF/Art Resource, NY European Culture and Islam Aristotle depicted with students of physical science in the manuscript The Best Maxims and Most Precious Dictums by al-Mubashshir, who composed it through 1048 and 1049 The manuscript was translated into Spanish in 1250, although al-Mubashshir's name was dropped, and from there into Latin, French, Provencal, and English Until the sixteenth century, Europe was only familiar with the Greek philosophical tradition through the extensive Arabic descriptions, translations, commentaries, and analyses of these works The Art Archive/Topkapi Museum Istanbul/Dagli Orti Falsafa This detail from a fresco by Filipino Lippi (1457–1504) depicts Ibn Sina (980–1037), a Persian mathematician A major figure in Islamic thought, Ibn Sina was heavily influenced by Aristotle, and in turn influenced the Catholic thinker St Thomas Aquinas, who in his own work mentioned Ibn Sina over five hundred times © Scala/Art Resource, NY Ibn Battuta Ibn Battuta (1304–1368/69) of Tangier, Morocco, traveled an estimated eighty thousand miles across three continents It was the longest known overland journey until the steam engine came into existence XNR Productions/Gale EUROPE ATLANTIC OCEAN New Saray Venice Constantinople Erzerum Konya Granada Tangier Mardin Aleppo Tunis Damascus Jerusalem Cairo Fez Marrakesh d Re Aydhab AFRICA Caspian Tabriz Sea Isfahan Baghdad Basra ASIA Bukhara Samarqand Beijing Gazna Shiraz Hangzhou Delhi Hormuz Sylhet Medina Cambay Mecca Sea Timbuktu Aral Sea Astrakhan Arabian Sea Zafar Daulatabad Chittagong Quanzhou Guangzhou Aden Calicut Male Mogadishu Samudra ATLANTIC OCEAN Travels of Ibn Battuta 1325—1354 INDIAN OCEAN Kilwa N 1325—26 1330—32 1345—46 1326—27 1332—33 1346—49 1328—30 1333—45 1349—54 1,000 1,000 2,000 mi 2,000 km AUSTRALIA Marriage A candid photo from the wedding ceremony of a Muslim couple in Karachi, Pakistan © Charles Lenars/Corbis Southeast Asian Culture and Islam Wayang, a traditional shadow play, on a wooden stage in Kota Baharu, Malaysia In Indonesia, shadow play puppeteers, along with other specialists such as healers, spirit mediums, shamans, and midwives, combine ancient local religious customs with Islamic elements © Goh Chai Hin/Corbis Miracles From the Fine flower of histories (Zubdat al-Tawarikh) by Luqman (1583), a depiction of the legend of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, referred to in the Qur'an (18:9–31) as the Companions of the Cave The Qur'an states that the young men, having publicly declared their belief and faith in God, hid from persecution in the cave where God put them and their dog to sleep for 309 years The Art Archive/Turkish and Islamic Art Museum Istanbul/Dagli Orti Mi‘raj A 1583 Turkish painting depicts Muhammad’s vision of Ascension or mi‘raj In most versions of the night journey and ascension narrative, Muhammad is asleep in Mecca, awakened by angels, and borne to Jerusalem by the magical creature Buraq In Jerusalem, Muhammad prays in the Temple with Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, before being accompanied to heaven by the angel Gabriel (Jibril) The Art Archive/Turkish and Islamic Art Museum Istanbul/Harper Collins Publishers South Asia, Islam in A late-eighteenth-century depiction of the Mogul Emperor Shah Jahan (1592–1666) Shah Jahan ruled from 1628 to 1658 and helped push Mogul rule as far east as Burma The Art Archive/Victoria and Albert Museum London/Sally Chappell Pakistan, Islamic Republic of The Badshahi Mosque (1674) in Lahore, Pakistan When the British relinquished control of the Indian subcontinent on August 14, 1947, Pakistan (including what is now Bangladesh) achieved independence as a separate homeland for Muslims apart from India’s Hindu majority © Arvind Garg/Corbis Pilgrimage: Hajj On a rocky hill known as the Mountain of Mercy (Jabal alRahma), near the holy city of Mecca, approximately two million pilgrims gather at the site of Muhammad’s last sermon fourteen centuries ago AP/Wide World Photos Qur’an Qur’an, with sura headings in Naskhi script The Qur’an contains 114 suras or chapters, arranged by length, thus the text as a whole does not have a clear narrative pattern It is also divided into thirty equal parts for reading over the course of a month The Art Archive/Private Collection/Eileen Tweedy Qur’an A man in Chuinguetti, Mauritania, holding an old copy of the Qur’an Muslims believe the Qur’an to be the divine revelations of God, and it is therefore unalterable and untranslatable Muslim prayers require worshippers to recite verses of the Qur’an, such as the Fatiha (the opening sura) as well as other chapters Muslim children learn to recite the short chapters at an early age and are taught their meaning and context from family members and teachers © Nik Wheeler/Corbis Medicine Anatomical drawing of the body showing the heart, arteries, liver, and intestines from the 1390 Tashrih-e badan-e insan (Anatomy of the human body) by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn Ilyas al-Balkhi The Art Archive/British Library Science, Islam and A yellow copper astrolabe from the fourteenth century This medieval instrument was used to measure the height of stars from the horizon The Art Archive/National Museum Damascus Syria/Dagli Orti Shi‘a, Early This Safavid fresco from the seventeenth century depicts Imam Shah Zayd (presumably Zayd b ‘Ali) preaching during the seventh-century schism within Islam © SEF/Art Resource, NY Persian Language and Literature A Persian manuscript dating from 1650 Though the Arabic language is the most prestigious and commonly used language in Islam, by the tenth century the Persian language reemerged, after a period of disuse, as suitable for discussion of science, arts, and philosophy Persian prose literature encompasses a huge number of texts, from serial picaresque adventures to world histories and philosophical and mystical treatises The Art Archive/Museum of Islamic Art Cairo/Dagli Orti Sahara The Taghit oasis of the Sahara Desert This oasis exists to the west of the Grand Erg Occidental, the second largest cluster of sand dunes in Algeria © Jose Fuste Raga/Corbis Travel and Travelers Part of a Catalan map of southern Spain and North Africa depicting king Mansa Musi of Mali and a Saharan merchant, by Abraham Cresques, circa 1375 By the time of the Empire of Mali (circa 1200–1400 C.E.), parts of Mali’s ruling class had adopted Islam, although earlier, local religions persisted as well The Art Archive ... Rashidun Islam and the Muslim World Synoptic Outline of Entries This outline provides a general overview of the conceptual structure of the Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World The outline... the title suggests, on Islam in the modern world, generally dated from the beginning the eighteenth century through the last decade of the twentieth The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. .. Center for Muslim- Christian Understanding Georgetown University ii Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World Editor in Chief Richard C Martin Volume A-L Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World