Encyclopedia of sex and gender men and women in the worlds cultures

Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender Men and Women in the World’s Cultures Volume I: Topics and Cultures A–K Volume II: Cultures L–Z Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender Men and Women in the World’s Cultures Volume I: Topics and Cultures A–K Volume II: Cultures L–Z Edited by Carol R Ember Human Relations Area Files/Yale University New Haven, Connecticut and Melvin Ember Human Relations Area Files/Yale University New Haven, Connecticut Published in conjunction with the Human Relations Area Files at Yale University Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers New York • Boston • Dordrecht • London • Moscow Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of sex and gender: men and women in the world’s cultures/edited by Carol R Ember and Melvin Ember p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-306-47770-X Sex—Encyclopedias Sex—Cross-cultural studies I Ember, Carol R II Ember, Melvin HQ16.E53 2004 306.7Ј03—dc21 2003050649 ISBN 0-306-47770-X ©2003 Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York 233 Spring Street, New York, N Y 10013 http://www.wkap.nl/ 10 A C.I.P record for this book is available from the Library of Congress All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise,without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Permissions for books published in Europe: permissions@wkap.nl Permissions for books published in the United States of America: permissions@wkap.com Printed in the United States of America Advisory Board FLORENCE E BABB CAROLINE BRETTELL MICHAEL L BURTON CAROLYN POPE EDWARDS DOUGLAS P FRY TERENCE E HAYS JEROME KAGAN MAXINE MARGOLIS MARY MORAN WINIFRED MITCHELL ROBERT L MUNROE ALICE SCHLEGEL SUSAN SEYMOUR THOMAS WEISNER BEATRICE B WHITING MARGERY WOLF University of Iowa Southern Methodist University University of California, Irvine University of Nebraska Åbo Akademi University and University of Arizona Rhode Island College Harvard University University of Florida Colgate University Minnesota State University, Mankato Pitzer College University of Arizona Pitzer College University of California, Los Angeles Harvard University University of Iowa Managing Editors: Matthew White and Kathleen Adams The Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender was prepared under the auspices and with the support of the Human Relations Area Files, Inc (HRAF) at Yale University The foremost international research organization in the field of cultural anthropology, HRAF is a not-for-profit consortium of 19 Sponsoring Member institutions and more than 400 active and inactive Associate Member institutions in nearly 40 countries The mission of HRAF is to provide information that facilitates the worldwide comparative study of human behavior, society, and culture The HRAF Collection of Ethnography, which has been building since 1949, contains nearly one million pages of information, organized by culture and indexed according to more than 700 subject categories, on the cultures of the world An increasing portion of the Collection of Ethnography, which now covers more than 380 cultures, is accessible via the World Wide Web to member institutions The HRAF Collection of Archaeology, the first installment of which appeared in 1999, is also accessible on the web to member institutions HRAF also prepares multivolume reference works with the help of nearly 2,000 scholars around the world, and sponsors Cross-Cultural Research: The Journal of Comparative Social Science v Contributors Iiris Aaltio, Department of Business Administration, Lappeenranta University of Technology, 53851 Lappeenranta, Finland Irén Annus, University of Szeged, Hungary George N Appell, Department of Anthropology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02254, U.S.A Laura W R Appell, Sabah Oral Literature Project, Phillips, ME 04996, U.S.A Marysol Asencio, Puerto Rican and Latino Studies Institute, University of Connecticut-Storrs, Storrs, CT 062692058, U.S.A Christine Avenarius, Department of Anthropology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858-4353, U.S.A Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel Esben Esther Pirelli Benestad, Grimstad MPAT-Institute, 4876 Grimstad, Norway Emilio Paqcha Benites, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A Ilana Berger, Israeli Center for Human Sexuality and Gender Identity, Tel Aviv 64738, Israel Deborah L Best, Department of Psychology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27109, U.S.A Harald Beyer Broch, Department of Social Anthropology, University of Oslo, Blindern, N-0317 Oslo, Norway Gwen J Broude, Department of Psychology, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY 12604, U.S.A Judith K Brown, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309-4495, U.S.A Margaret Buckner, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield, MO 65804-0095, U.S.A Mary M Cameron, Women’s Studies Center, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431-0991, U.S.A Fernando Luiz Cardoso, Universidade Estado de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis/Santa Catarina 88.015-630, Brazil Maria G Cattell, Research Associate, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL 6065-2496, U.S.A Dia Cha, Department of Anthropology and Ethnic Studies, St Cloud State University, St Cloud, MN 56301, U.S.A Janet M Chernela, Florida International University, Miami, FL, U.S.A Richley H Crapo, Department of Sociology, Social Work, and Anthropology, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-0730, U.S.A Susan A Crate, Department of Geography, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, U.S.A William H Crocker, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, 20013, U.S.A Shanshan Du, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, U.S.A Timothy Dunnigan, Department of Anthropology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, U.S.A Carolyn Pope Edwards, Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0308, U.S.A Richard Ekins, Cultural and Media Studies Transgender Archive, School of Media and Performing Arts, University of Ulster at Coleraine, County Londonderry BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland Carol R Ember, Human Relations Area Files at Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, U.S.A Melvin Ember, Human Relations Area Files at Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, U.S.A Pamela I Erickson, Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-2176, U.S.A vii viii Contributors Randi Ettner, New Health Foundation, Evanston, IL 60201, U.S.A Pamela Feldman-Savelsberg, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Carleton College, Northfield, MN 55057, U.S.A William H Fisher, Department of Anthropology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23187-8795, U.S.A Diana Fox, Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Criminal Justice, Bridgewater State College, Bridgewater, MA 02325, U.S.A Mary Jo Tippeconnic Fox, Department of American Indian Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, 85721, Arizona, U.S.A Susan Tax Freeman, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL 60612, U.S.A Rita S Gallin, Department of Sociology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1111, U.S.A Victoria A Goddard, Department of Anthropology, Goldsmiths College, University of London, London SE14 6NW, U.K Joshua S Goldstein, American University, Washington DC, 20016, U.S.A Alma Gottlieb, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, U.S.A Chien-Juh Gu, Department of Sociology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1111, U.S.A Timothy M Hall, University of California, San Diego, CA, U.S.A Katsuki Harima, Family Court Clinic of Tokyo Family Court, 100-13 1-1-2 Kasumigaseki Chiyodaku, Tokyo, Japan Betty J Harris, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, U.S.A Mary Elaine Hegland, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA 95053, U.S.A Lewellyn Hendrix, Department of Sociology, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL 62958, U.S.A Warren M Hern, Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO 80304, U.S.A Gabriele Herzog-Schröder, Research Group Human Ethnology, Max-Planck-Society, Andechs, Germany, and Institute for Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany Jon Holtzman, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Kalamazoo College, Kalamazoo, MI 49008, U.S.A James Howe, Anthropology Program, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139-4307, U.S.A Armine Ishkanian, University of California, Berkeley, California, U.S.A William R Jankowiak, Department of Anthropology and Ethnic Studies, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154, U.S.A Robert Jarvenpa, Department of Anthropology, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, U.S.A Carol Zane Jolles, Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-3100, U.S.A Marianne Ruth Kamp, Department of History, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82070, U.S.A Kaisa Kauppinen, Department of Psychology, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland Alice Beck Kehoe, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211-3436, U.S.A Dave King, Department of Sociology, Social Policy, and Social Work Studies, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZA, England Laura F Klein, Department of Anthropology, Pacific Lutheran University, Tacoma, WA 98447, U.S.A Lisa Knoche, Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0308, U.S.A Kathleen Kuehnast, Institute of European, Russian and Eurasian Studies, George Washington University, Washington DC, 20052, U.S.A Contributors ix Asiye Kumru, Abant Izzet Baysal Universitesi, Fen Edebiyat Fakultesi, Psikoloji Bolumu, Golkoy Kampusu, 14280 Bolu, Turkey Lynn M Kwiatkowski, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688, U.S.A Oneka LaBennett, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, MA 01610, U.S.A Mikael Landén, Section of Psychiatry, Institute of Clinical Neuroscience, Göteborg, SE 431 80 Mölndal, Sweden Lioba Lenhart, Institut für Völkerkunde, Universität Köln, D-50923 Köln, Germany Charles Lindholm, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, U.S.A Lamont Lindstrom, Department of Anthropology, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, U.S.A Bobbi S Low, School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1115, U.S.A Judith Macdonald, Anthropology Programme, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand Jeannette Marie Mageo, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4910, U.S.A Maxine L Margolis, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, U.S.A Richard A Marksbury, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, U.S.A Frank Marlowe, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, MA 02138, U.S.A Nancy McDowell, Department of Anthropology, Beloit College, Beloit, WI 53511, U.S.A Bonnie McElhinny, Department of Anthropology and Institute for Women’s Studies and Gender’s Studies, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3, Canada Winifred Mitchell, Department of Anthropology, Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN 56001, U.S.A Brian Montes, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, U.S.A Mary H Moran, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Colgate University, Hamilton, NY 13346, U.S.A Nuno Nodin, Lisbon, Portugal Barbara S Nowak, Institute of Development Studies, School of People, Environment and Planning, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand Regina Smith Oboler, Ursinus College, Collegeville, PA 19426, U.S.A Robin O’Brian, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Elmira College, Elmira, NY 14901, U.S.A Lyn Parker, Department of Asian Studies, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia Jakob M Pastötter, Magnus Hirschfeld Archive for Sexology at Humboldt University Berlin, D-13189 Berlin, Germany Julia Pauli, Institute of Ethnology, Universität Köln, D-50923 Köln, Germany Sarah D Phillips, Department of Anthropology, University of the South, Sewanee, TN 37383, U.S.A Debra Picchi, Department of Anthropology, Franklin Pierce College, Rindge, NH 03461, U.S.A Ulrike Prinz, Institute for Ethnology and African Studies, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany Volodymyr P’yatokha, Volyn Regional Hospital, Lutsk 43007, Ukraine Aparna Rao, Institut für Völkerkunde, Universität Köln, D-50923 Köln, Germany Kathleen C Riley, Johnson State College, Johnson, VT 05656, U.S.A Paul Roscoe, Department of Anthropology, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, U.S.A 1024 Courtship (cont.) and marriage (cont.) among Uzbeks, 944–945 among Waorani, 953 among West Indian Americans, 964–965 among Yanomami, 973–974 among Yapese, 981–982 among Yupik Eskimos, 994–995 among Yuquí, 1003–1004 among Zapotec, 1013–1014 mock courtship after marriage, 196–197 Cousin marriage, 73–74, 131, 330, 927 Cousins, cross and parallel, 287, 332 Couvade, 6–7 Crafts, 360, 737, 829; see also Economics; Leisure, recreation, and the arts Crapo, R H., 212 Cross-cousins, marrying, 73, 397–398, 495; see also Cousin marriage Cross-dressing, 7, 219, 226, 495; see also Berdache; Sexuality; Transvestism Cross-gendered individuals, see also Transgenderism vs typical men and women, 210 Cross-role-taking behavior, 7, 657; see also Sexuality Cross-sex identification, 193–194 Cross-sex relationships among Abaluyia, 255–256, 758 among Abelam, 263 among Arapesh, 687 among Armenians, 272 among Bakairí, 291 among Bakkarwal, 301 among Balinese, 311–312 among Bamiléké, 322 among Beng, 332 among Blackfoot, 342 among Canela, 354 among Cherokee, 362 among Chipewyan, 378 among Eastern Tukanoans, 398–399 among Glebo, 415 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 423 among Hadza, 431 among Han Chinese, 441 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 450–451 among Hopi, 473 among Hungarians, 483 among Iatmul, 496 among Igbo, 516–517 among Iranians, 528 among Italians, 548–549 among Kayapo, 570 among Kazakhs, 580 among Kuna 589–590 among Kyrgyz, 598 among Lahu, 606 Subject Index Cross-sex relationships (cont.) among Maasai, 615 among Manjako, 624 among Mardu, 633 among Maya, 651 among Mormans, 677–679 among Mundugumor, 695 among Na, 705 among Nahua, 714 among Nandi, 724 among Navajo, 732 among Nepali, 739–740 among northeast Indians, 748 among Puerto Ricans, 767–768 among Rungus Dusun, 777 among Samburu, 796–797 among Samoans, 804–805 among Shipibo, 814 among Spanish, 832 among Swat Pathan, 839 among Swazi, 847 among Taiwanese, 855 among Taiwanese Americans, 865–866 among Tanna, 875 among Tikopia, 891 among Timpaus Banggai, 901 among Tlingit, 909–910 among Trobriands, 920 among Tswana, 928 among Uzbeks, 945 among Waorani, 954 among Yapese, 982–983 among Zapotec, 1014 Crossing gender boundaries, reaction to, 138 Cultural construction of gender among Abaluyia, 248–249 among Abelam, 257 among Arapesh, 680–681 among Armenians, 267 among Aymara, 275–276 among Bakairí, 285 among Bakkarwal, 293 among Balinese, 304 among Bamiléké, 315 among Beng, 323–324 among Blackfoot, 335–336 among Canela, 345–346 among Cherokee, 356–357 among Chinese Americans, 365 among Chipewyan, 372–373 among Czechs, 381 among Eastern Tukanoans, 390 among Germans, 401 among Glebo, 408–409 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 417–418 among Hadza, 426 among Han Chinese, 433–434 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 443–444 Cultural construction of gender (cont.) among Hmong, 454 among Hopi, 466 among Hungarians, 476 among Iatmul, 487–488 among Ifugao, 499–500 among Igbo, 509 among Iranians, 519 among Israelis, 531–533 among Italians, 541–542 among Jamaicans, 552 among Kayapo, 562–563 among Kazakhs, 573 among Kuna, 581 among Kyrgyz, 592–593 among Lahu, 600–601 among Maasai, 609 among Manjako, 617–618 among Mardu, 626 among Marquesans, 636 among Maya, 645–647 among Mehinako, 652–653 among Mexicans, 661–662 among Mormans, 671 among Mundugumor, 688–689 among Na, 697–699 among Nahua, 708–709 among Nandi, 716–717 among Navajo, 726 among Nepali, 734–735 among northeast Indians, 742 among Orang Suku Laut, 751 among Puerto Ricans, 760–761 among Rungus Dusun, 770–771 among Sakha, 780 among Samburu, 790–791 among Samoans, 799 among Shipibo, 808–809 among Shoshone, 818 among Spanish, 825 among Swat Pathan, 833–834 among Swazi, 842–843 among Taiwanese, 848–849 among Taiwanese Americans, 860 among Tanna, 868–869 among Tarahumara, 877–878 among Tikopia, 886–887 among Timpaus Banggai, 894–895 among Tlingit, 904 among Trobriands, 915 among Tswana, 922–923 among Ukrainians, 930–931 among Uzbeks, 940 among Waorani, 948–949 among West Indian Americans, 958 among Yanomami, 968 among Yapese, 976–977 among Yupik Eskimos, 986 Subject Index Cultural construction of gender (cont.) among Yuquí, 999 among Zapotec, 1007–1008 Cultural modifiers of sex differences, 62–63 Cultural variability, 42 Dabaism, 702 Dance, 290, 467, 471, 493, 622, 842–843, 980–981; see also Leisure, recreation, and the arts Date rape on college campuses, 230 Dating, 406, 440; see also Courtship de Vaus, D A., 123 Death, 326; see also Mortuary practices beyond, 171 of spouse, 353; see also Widowhood Death-related customs, 171 Decision making, 99 Defloration, 181 ritual, 167 Deity images, 125 Denmark, 98 Dependency, 39 Dependency theory, 147–148 Depression, 61, 66 Descent groups, male- vs female-oriented, 131–132 differences between matrilineal and patrilineal systems, 132–133 Development, see also Life cycle gendering, 148–149 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) (DSM-IV), 61 Dichotomies and dichotomous pairs, 4, Dictionary of Affect, 59–60 Dimorphism, 4, 9, 45 Divale, W T., 130–131 Diviners, 328 Divorce, 996; see also Husband–wife relationship as transition, 168–169 Dodecanese islands, 417 Domestic violence, 168, 231, 462, 482, 483; see also Husband–wife relationship; Wife-beating sexual politics of, in Papua New Guinea, 240–241 Domesticity, women’s, 140 Dominance-submission, see also Husband– wife relationship; Social status in homosexual relationships, 210–211; see also Homosexual systems Dress, see also Cultural construction of gender of children and infants, 294, 454, 878 sexual modesty and, 189, 249, 294, 519, 936; see also Sexual restraint and modesty Drug use, 85–86, 494, 557, 869, 871, 872; see also Alcohol consumption 1025 “Dual-sex” system, 412–413 Duolocal residence, 128 Earth spirits, 621 Eastern Orthodoxy, 420, 785, 910, 935 Ecology and sex differences, 28 Economic activities, see also Employment; Labor; Work cross-cultural patterning of, based on gender, 91–93 and gender roles, 91, 235 in the household, 91 men and women’s contributions to subsistence, 93 Economic development, history of, 146–148 Economics, gender roles in among Abaluyia, 251–252, 754 among Abelam, 259–260 among Arapesh, 684 among Armenians, 269–270 among Aymara, 278–279 among Bakairí, 288–289 among Bakkarwal, 298–299 among Balinese, 306–307 among Bamiléké, 318 among Beng, 326–327 among Blackfoot, 338 among Canela, 349 among Cherokee, 358 among Chinese Americans, 368 among Chipewyan, 374–375 among Czechs, 384 among Eastern Tukanoans, 394 among Germans, 403–404 among Glebo, 411–412 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 419 among Hadza, 428–429 among Han Chinese, 437 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 446 among Hmong, 456 among Hopi, 469–470 among Hungarians, 479, 483–484 among Iatmul, 490–491 among Ifugao, 502–503 among Igbo, 512 among Iranians, 522 among Israelis, 535 among Italians, 544–545 among Jamaicans, 555 among Kayapo, 566 among Kazakhs, 576 among Kuna, 584–585 among Kyrgyz, 595 among Lahu, 603 among Maasai, 612 among Manjako, 620–621 among Mardu, 629–630 among Marquesans, 639 Economics, gender roles in (cont.) among Maya, 649 among Mehinako, 656 among Mexicans, 664–665 among Mormans, 674 among Mundugumor, 692 among Na, 700–701 among Nahua, 711 among Nandi, 719–720 among Navajo, 730 among Nepali, 736–737 among northeast Indians, 745 among Puerto Ricans, 763 among Rungus Dusun, 772–773 among Sakha, 782, 784 among Samburu, 793 among Samoans, 801 among Shipibo, 811–812 among Shoshone, 819 among Spanish, 828–829 among Swat Pathan, 836–837 among Swazi, 845 among Taiwanese, 850–851 among Taiwanese Americans, 863 among Tanna, 871–872 among Tarahumara, 880–881 among Timpaus Banggai, 898 among Tlingit, 906 among Trobriands, 917 among Tswana, 924–925 among Ukrainians, 933–934 among Uzbeks, 942–943 among Waorani, 951 among West Indian Americans, 961 among Yanomami, 971 among Yapese, 979 among Yupik Eskimos, 988–989 among Yuquí, 1001 among Zapotec, 1010 Economies changing, 94–95 participation in cash and traditional subsistence, 989 Economy-of-effort theory, 92 Education and schooling, 250, 301, 555, 627–628, 888, 923, 926–927, 960–962; see also Socialization Egalitarian gender relations, 143–144 Egypt Bedouin women in, 189 history of homosexuality in, 204 Elderly women, 170–171; see also Middle age and old age Elders, 613, 909 Elliston, D A., Elopement, 310, 900 Ember, Carol R., 92, 129–132 Ember, Melvin, 92, 129–133 1026 Embroidery, 829 Emotion, see also Personality and emotion defined, 57 overlap of personality, psychopathology and, 57 Emotion inventories, 59 Employment, 989; see also Economics and religiosity, 124 Endogamy, 310–311 Engagement, see also Courtship “in the house” vs “outside the house”, 548 Episcopal church, 413 Ethnic conflicts, see also Racial relations sexual aggression in, 230 Ethnographic data, Evolution, 42 Evolved basis for sex differences, 43–44 Exogamy, 131, 132 Expressiveness, as female trait, 11 Extramarital sex norms, 183–184; see also Sexuality correlates, 184 Extramarital sexual behavior, see also Sexuality correlates, 184 frequency, 184 Familism, 541 Family, male and female status within, 992–993 Family celebrations, 459 Farmers, women, 148 Fascism, 545 Fathers, parenting styles and behaviors of, 81–82 Female initiation: see Adolescence; Adulthood, attainment of; Circumcision, female; Puberty Feminism, 559, 852; see also Change in attitudes and sexual aggression, 235–236, 238 Feminist critique of modernization theory, 146–147 Feminist theories of war, 113–114 Ferguson, A E., 148–149 Fertility, 537; see also Infertility Finland, 98 First Marriages, 337, 338 Fishing, 392 Fiske, S T., 65 Food managers, 309 socialization of girls as, 986; see also Socialization Food production, 783, 784; see also Economics, gender roles in Footbinding, 365–367 Foucault, Michel, 205 Subject Index Frayser, S., 135 French language, 152 Freud, Sigmund, 234–235 Friedl, E., 139 Friendliness, 66 Friendships, cross-sex: see Cross-sex relationships FUNAI (National Indian Foundation in Brazil), 284, 285, 289 Functional analysis, 44–45 Funerals and funeral rituals, 326, 622; see also Mortuary practices Gal, S., 157 Gambell, village of, 989 Games, 385, 458, 459; see also Leisure; Play Gametic-sex species, 27–28 Garden work, 394 Gathering achievements, recognition of girls’, 987 Gender constructs, variation in, 4–9; see also Gender variation Gender differences: see Sex differences Gender dimorphism, 4, Gender identity disorder (GID), 220–221; see also Transgenderism diagnostic criteria, 221 Gender roles, see also Sex role ideology; Stereotypes changing economies and changing, 94–95 Gender schema theory, 21 Gender symbols, 986 Gender transformation, 6–8, 138; see also Gender constructs, variation in forms of, 6–7 over course of ordinary life cycle, Gender variation, forms of, Gendering development, 148–149 Gender(s) change in attitudes regarding: see Change in attitudes conceptions of, 626 defined, 3, 216–218 transcendent, 6; see also Gender constructs, variation in two or more, Generalized exchange, 73 Genes, 63; see also Chromosomes Genital mutilation, see also Circumcision female, 810; see also Clitorectomy male, 638, 888 Genitals, female as threat, 397 German language, 152 Ghosts: see Spirits “Glass ceiling,” 102–104, 403 Glick, P., 65 God, 125 Godparents, 664 Goodwin, M H., 150 Grandparents: see Middle age and old age “Great mother-in-law belt,” 168 Greece, ancient homosexuality, 205 Greek Orthodoxy, 420 Gregariousness, 66 “Groom’s service,” 994 Groups: see Social groups Hair, 886–887; see also Cultural construction of gender Haircuts, 294 Harding, S G., 113–114 Hasham, 189 Hatty, S E., 238 Healers, 926; see also Shamans “Hegemonic” masculinity, 544 Herbalism, 340 Herding, 295, 298–299 Hermaphrodites, 7, 217, 726 Heroes, culture, 351 Heterosexuality, defined, Hijras, 159, 227 Hinduism, 737, 742, 743, 746–748 HIV/AIDS, 922, 928 Hofestede, G., 16–17, 99 Holy Woman, 339–340 Homogamy, 73 Homophobia, 558 Homosexual couples, partner violence in, 231 Homosexual men, Homosexual systems female, 208 male, 206–208 age-stratified systems, 206–207 egalitarian systems, 207 gender-stratified systems, 206 Homosexuality, 9, 204 animal, 208–209 cognitive associations of, 210–211 cultural systems of, 206 defined, 8, 204 different cultural forms of, 212–213 diversity of, 206–209 evolution of, 209 explaining, 209 cross-culturally recurrent themes, 210–211 explaining cross-cultural variation, 211–213 as social construction, 205–206 frequency and acceptance of, 211–212 intellectual history of, 204–205 age of discovery, 205 Subject Index Homosexuality (cont.) intellectual history of (cont.) anthropological accounts, 205–207 and the military, 110 and social policy, scientific study of, 213–214 in specific cultures, 353, 386–387, 405–406, 421–422, 439–440, 482, 494–495, 642, 767, 809, 853; see also Sexuality terminology and discourse, 158, 206–208 Homosocial reproduction, 102 Honeymoons, 196 Honor sexual modesty and, 189, 828 and shame, 188, 828 Hormonal sex differences, 29, 63 Hormones, pubertal, 46 Horticultural societies, 139 House-property complex, 720 Households how development changes, 148 matrifocal vs matriarchal, 554 in subsistence economies, 148 Housing, 988; see also Marital residence patterns Hungarian language, 152 Hunters, socialization of boys as, 986; see also Socialization Hunting achievements, recognition of, 986 Hunting rituals, 990–991 Hunting success, rituals and, 991 Husband–wife interaction and aloofness, 192–193, 201 deference customs, 199–200 eating arrangements, 197 leisure activities, 199 measures of, 193–194 sleeping arrangements, 197–198 theoretical controversies, 193 psychodynamic approaches, 193–194 social environment approach, 194 work activities, 198–199 Husband–wife relationship, see also Marital relationship among Abaluyia, 255, 758 among Abelam, 263 among Arapesh, 687 among Armenians, 272 among Bakairí, 291 among Bakkarwal, 301 among Balinese, 311 among Bamiléké, 321 among Beng, 330–332 among Blackfoot, 342 among Canela, 353–354 among Cherokee, 361–362 among Chinese Americans, 370 1027 Husband–wife relationship (cont.) among Chipewyan, 377–378 among Czechs, 387 among Eastern Tukanoans, 398 among Germans, 406–407 among Glebo, 415 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 422–423 among Hadza, 431 among Han Chinese, 441 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 450–451 among Hopi, 473 among Hungarians, 483 among Iatmul, 496 among Ifugao, 505–506 among Igbo, 516 among Iranians, 527–528 among Israelis, 537–538 among Italians, 548 among Jamaicans, 558–559 among Kayapo, 570 among Kazakhs, 580 among Kuna, 589–590 among Kyrgyz, 598 among Lahu, 606 among Maasai, 615 among Manjako, 624 among Mardu, 632–633 among Marquesans, 643 among Maya, 651 among Mehinako, 658–659 among Mexicans, 667–668 among Mormans, 677–678 among Mundugumor, 695 among Na, 705 among Nahua, 714 among Nandi, 723–724 among Nepali, 739 among northeast Indians, 748 among Puerto Ricans, 767–768 among Rungus Dusun, 776–777 among Sakha, 788–789 among Samburu, 796 among Samoans, 804 among Shipibo, 814 among Shoshone, 822 among Spanish, 831–832 among Swat Pathan, 839 among Swazi, 846–847 among Taiwanese, 855 among Taiwanese Americans, 865 among Tanna, 875 among Tarahumara, 884 among Tikopia, 891 among Timpaus Banggai, 901 among Tlingit, 909 among Trobriands, 920 among Tswana, 928 Husband–wife relationship (cont.) among Ukrainians, 937 among Uzbeks, 945 among Waorani, 953–954 among West Indian Americans, 965 among Yanomami, 974 among Yapese, 982 among Yupik Eskimos, 995–996 among Yuquí, 1004 among Zapotec, 1014 Hypothalamus, 29 Iceland, 98 Incest, 231 Incest taboos and regulations, 389, 392, 398 India, 94, 197 history of homosexuality in, 204 Infanticide, female, 143, 164 Infants, ceremonies for, 164 Infertility, 272, 462, 531, 758 Infibulation, 181 Initiation: see Puberty; Rites of passage Institutional discrimination, 103 Instrumentality, as masculine trait, 11 Integrative-expressive, females as, 11 Intellectual competence: see Cognitive competence Intercultural relations, 957–958 Interruptions, gender and, 100 Intersexuality, 3–5 Interstitial nuclei of anterior hypothalamus (INAH), 29 Intimacy: see Husband–wife interaction Intons-Peterson, M J., 20 Islamic Middle East, 187; see also Arab population in Israel Iranians, 518–529 Islamic principles and practices, 5, 187–191, 239, 572, 574, 577, 596, 753, 837, 940, 943–945; see also Islamic Middle East Izraeli, D N., 103 James, William, 117 Jealousy, 47 Jinn, 188 Joking relationships and play, 883 Judaism, 530–531, 533, 536 Kava, 869, 871, 872 Kelet, Kibbutz, 535 Kin altruism, 49 Kinship, see also Social groups age, gender, and, 34–36 family and, 957 Kivas, 467, 468 Kumbaa, 298 1028 Kwidó, Labor, see also Economic activities; Employment; Work division of, 140; see also Economics, gender roles in consequences of relative contribution to, 93 sex segregation of, 50–51 Language (and gender), 389–392 around the world, 151–153 gender and genre in “egalitarian” societies, 151 sexuality and, 158–160 socialization and, 154–156 state formation and, 156–158 theoretical debates in the study of, 150 Leaders, sex differences in communication patterns of, 100 Leadership, see also Managers defined, 97 female, 990 male, 133, 990 power, gender, and, 97, 103–104 in public arenas among Abaluyia, 252–253, 755 among Abelam, 260–261 among Arapesh, 684–685 among Armenians, 270 among Aymara, 279 among Bakairí, 289 among Bakkarwal, 299 among Balinese, 308 among Bamiléké, 318–319 among Beng, 327–328 among Blackfoot, 339 among Canela, 350 among Cherokee, 358–359 among Chinese Americans, 368–369 among Chipewyan, 375 among Czechs, 385 among Eastern Tukanoans, 394–395 among Germans, 404 among Glebo, 412–413 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 420 among Hadza, 429 among Han Chinese, 438 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 447 among Hmong, 457 among Hopi, 470–471 among Hungarians, 480 among Iatmul, 492 among Ifugao, 503 among Igbo, 513 among Iranians, 523 among Israelis, 536 among Italians, 545–546 among Jamaicans, 556 Subject Index Leadership (cont.) in public arenas (cont.) among Kayapo, 566–567 among Kazakhs, 577 among Kuna, 586 among Kyrgyz, 596 among Lahu, 603–604 among Maasai, 613 among Manjako, 621 among Mardu, 630 among Marquesans, 640 among Maya, 649 among Mehinako, 656 among Mexicans, 665–666 among Mormans, 674–675 among Mundugumor, 692 among Na, 701–702 among Nahua, 711–712 among Nandi, 721 among Navajo, 730 among Nepali, 737 among northeast Indians, 746 among Puerto Ricans, 764 among Rungus Dusun, 773 among Sakha, 785 among Samburu, 793–794 among Samoans, 801–802 among Shoshone, 820 among Spanish, 829 among Swat Pathan, 837 among Swazi, 845 among Taiwanese, 852 among Taiwanese Americans, 863–864 among Tanna, 872 among Tarahumara, 881 among Tikopia, 890 among Timpaus Banggai, 898–899 among Tlingit, 907 among Trobriands, 918 among Tswana, 925 among Ukrainians, 935 among Uzbeks, 943 among Waorani, 951–952 among Yanomami, 971–972 among Yapese, 979–980 among Yupik Eskimos, 990 among Yuquí, 1002 among Zapotec, 1011 Leadership behavior, cross-cultural differences in, 99–100 Learning, theories of gender-related, 20–21 Leisure, recreation, and the arts among Abaluyia, 253, 756 among Abelam, 261 among Arapesh, 685 among Armenians, 271 among Aymara, 280 Leisure, recreation, and the arts (cont.) among Bakairí, 289–290 among Bakkarwal, 299 among Balinese, 309 among Bamiléké, 319 among Beng, 328 among Blackfoot, 340–341 among Canela, 351 among Cherokee, 360 among Chipewyan, 376 among Czechs, 385 among Eastern Tukanoans, 396 among Germans, 404 among Glebo, 413–414 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 421 among Hadza, 429–430 among Han Chinese, 438 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 448 among Hmong, 458 among Hopi, 471–472 among Hungarians, 481 among Iatmul, 493–494 among Ifugao, 504 among Igbo, 514 among Iranians, 523–524 among Italians, 547 among Jamaicans, 557 among Kayapo, 567–568 among Kazakhs, 577 among Kuna, 587 among Kyrgyz, 596–597 among Lahu, 604 among Maasai, 613 among Manjako, 622 among Mardu, 631 among Marquesans, 641 among Maya, 649–650 among Mehinako, 658 among Mexicans, 666 among Mormans, 675 among Mundugumor, 693 among Na, 702–703 among Nahua, 712 among Nandi, 721–722 among Navajo, 731 among Nepali, 737–738 among northeast Indians, 746 among Puerto Ricans, 765 among Rungus Dusun, 774 among Sakha, 786 among Samburu, 794 among Samoans, 802–803 among Shipibo, 812 among Shoshone, 820 among Swat Pathan, 837–838 among Swazi, 845 among Taiwanese, 852–853 among Taiwanese Americans, 864 Subject Index Leisure, recreation, and the arts (cont.) among Tanna, 873 among Tarahumara, 882 among Tikopia, 890 among Timpaus Banggai, 899–900 among Tlingit, 908 among Trobriands, 918–919 among Tswana, 926 among Ukrainians, 935–936 among Uzbeks, 943–944 among Waorani, 952 among West Indian Americans, 962–963 among Yanomami, 972 among Yapese, 980–981 among Yupik Eskimos, 991–992 among Yuquí, 1002 among Zapotec, 1012 Les Rites de Passage (Van Gennep), 163 Lesbianism, 208; see also Homosexuality Levi-Strauss, C., 73, 74 Life-course transitions, 163 biological and cultural, 163 before birth, at birth, and in infancy, 163–164 childhood transitions, 164–165 controversies in, 163 Life cycle gender over the among Abaluyia, 249–251 among Abelam, 257–259 among Arapesh, 681–683 among Armenians, 267 among Aymara, 276–277 among Bakairí, 285–287 among Bakkarwal, 293–294 among Balinese, 304–306 among Bamiléké, 316–317 among Beng, 324–326 among Blackfoot, 336–337 among Canela, 346–348 among Cherokee, 357 among Chinese Americans, 365–367 among Chipewyan, 373–374 among Czechs, 381–383 among Eastern Tukanoans, 390–393 among Germans, 401–403 among Glebo, 409–411 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 418 among Hadza, 426–428 among Han Chinese, 434–436 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 444–445 among Hmong, 454–455 among Hopi, 466–468 among Hungarians, 476–478 among Iatmul, 488–489 among Ifugao, 500–501 among Igbo, 509–511 1029 Life cycle (cont.) gender over the (cont.) among Iranians, 519–521 among Israelis, 533–534 among Italians, 542–544 among Jamaicans, 552–554 among Kayapo, 563–565 among Kazakhs, 573–575 among Kuna, 582–583 among Kyrgyz, 593–594 among Lahu, 601–602 among Maasai, 609–611 among Manjako, 618–619 among Mardu, 626–628 among Marquesans, 636–638 among Maya, 647–649 among Mehinako, 653–655 among Mexicans, 662–664 among Mormans, 671–673 among Mundugumor, 689–691 among Nahua, 709–711 among Nandi, 717–719 among Navajo, 726–729 among Nepali, 735–736 among northeast Indians, 742–745 among Orang Suku Laut, 751–754 among Puerto Ricans, 761–762 among Rungus Dusun, 771–772 among Sakha, 780–782 among Samburu, 791–792 among Samoans, 799–800 among Shipibo, 809–810 among Shoshone, 818–819 among Spanish, 825–827 among Swat Pathan, 834–836 among Swazi, 843–844 among Taiwanese, 849–850 among Taiwanese Americans, 860–862 among Tanna, 869–871 among Tarahumara, 878–879 among Tikopia, 887–889 among Timpaus Banggai, 895–897 among Tlingit, 904–905 among Trobriands, 915–917 among Tswana, 923–924 among Ukrainians, 931–932 among Uzbeks, 940–942 among Waorani, 949–950 among West Indian Americans, 958–960 among Yanomami, 968–970 among Yapese, 977–978 among Yupik Eskimos, 986–988 among Yuquí, 999–1001 among Zapotec, 1008–1010 stages of, 293–294, 324, 346–347, 593, 742, 780–781, 923, 949; see also Adolescence; Adulthood; Middle age; Puberty; Socialization Life history, sex differences in, 31 Local exogamy, 132 Love magic, 776 “Love sickness”, 776 Machismo, 761, 762, 765 Magic, 980; see also Religion Mahu, 8, Maidenhood, 166 Malagasy, 153, 154 Male dominance, myth of, 143 Male initiation: see Adolescence; Adulthood, attainment of; Circumcision; Puberty Male supremacist complex, 142–143 “Male women,” 686 Malinowski, B., 919 Management, defined, 97 Management theory, 98 Managers, see also Leadership women as, 103–104, 309 men and, 98–99, 993 paucity of, 102–104 statistics, 97–98 Marianismo/mariolatry, 761–763, 765 Marijuana, 557 Marital rape, 231 Marital relationship, see also Husband–wife relationship importance, 194–196 Marital residence patterns, 128–129 male- vs female-based, 129–131 and vulnerability to abuse, 168 Marital sex, frequency of, 181–182 Market trade and women’s status, 139 Marriage, 7, 71, 167; see also Adulthood, attainment of; Polygyny creation of in-laws, 168 defining, 73–75 of divorced and widowed people, 450, 579; see also Divorce; Widowhood forms of, 75 kinship and female status in, 994–995 newlywed customs, 196–197 and other aspects of male–female interaction, 201 transition/transformation at, 168 types of, 846 arranged vs free-choice, 71–72, 995; see also Courtship, and marriage virginity and, 180–181 women “stolen” into: see Bride “captures”/kidnappings Marriage patterns and war, 114–115 “Marrying enemies” theory, 141 Masculinity, politics of, 239–240 Masculinity (MAS) scale, 16–17 Mask dancing, 290 1030 Mate choice (criteria), 47, 51, 71–72, 436 field of eligible spouses, 72–74 sex differences in, 52, 66 sexual selection and, 60 traits sought by both sexes, 51–53 Mate guarding, 47 Mate value, 51 Mathematical abilities, sex differences in, 30 Mato Grosso, 283 Matrifocal vs matriarchal households, 554 Matrilineal descent, 131–135, 141, 142; see also Social groups, gender-related Matrilocal (postmarital) residence, 128–134, 141–142; see also Social groups, gender-related McAllister, I., 123 Mead, Margaret, 5–6, 682–687 Meals, 197 Medicine men, 340 Menarche, 50, 166, 296; see also Menstruation; Puberty observances at, 165 Meneley, Anne, 190 Menopause, 170, 320, 431; see also Middle age and old age and reproductive life plan, 170 Menstruation and menstrual customs, 165–166, 359, 377, 448, 744; see also Menarche; Puberty Mental illness, see also Psychopathology cultural stereotypes about, 924 Mentorship and homosexuality, 206–208 Mesopotamia, history of homosexuality in, 204 Messianic movements, 351 Methodological issues: see Personality and emotion, sex differences in; Research methodologies Mexicano language, 152 Middle age and old age, 170–171 among Abaluyia, 251, 753–754 among Abelam, 259 among Arapesh, 683 among Armenians, 269 among Aymara, 277 among Bakairí, 287 among Bakkarwal, 297–298 among Balinese, 305–306 among Bamiléké, 317 among Beng, 325–326 among Blackfoot, 337 among Canela, 348 among Cherokee, 357 among Chipewyan, 374 among Czechs, 383 among Eastern Tukanoans, 392–393 among Germans, 403 Subject Index Middle age and old age (cont.) among Glebo, 410–411 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 418 among Hadza, 427–428 among Han Chinese, 435–436 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 445 among Hmong, 455 among Hopi, 468 among Hungarians, 477–478 among Iatmul, 489 among Ifugao, 501 among Igbo, 511 among Iranians, 521 among Israelis, 534 among Italians, 543–544 among Jamaicans, 554 among Kayapo, 565 among Kazakhs, 575 among Kuna, 583 among Kyrgyz, 594 among Lahu, 602 among Maasai, 610–611 among Manjako, 619 among Mardu, 628 among Marquesans, 638 among Maya, 648–649 among Mehinako, 655 among Mexicans, 663–664 among Mormans, 672–673 among Mundugumor, 691 among Na, 699 among Nahua, 710 among Nandi, 719 among Nepali, 736 among northeast Indians, 744–745 among Rungus Dusun, 772 among Sakha, 782 among Samburu, 792 among Samoans, 800 among Shipibo, 810 among Spanish, 827 among Swat Pathan, 835–836 among Swazi, 844–845 among Taiwanese, 850 among Taiwanese Americans, 861–862 among Tanna, 871 among Tarahumara, 879 among Tikopia, 889 among Timpaus Banggai, 896–897 among Tlingit, 905 among Trobriands, 916–917 among Tswana, 924 among Ukrainians, 932 among Uzbeks, 941–942 among Waorani, 950 among West Indian Americans, 960 among Yanomami, 970 Middle age and old age (cont.) among Yapese, 978 among Yupik Eskimos, 987–988 among Yuquí, 1000–1001 among Zapotec, 1009–1010 Middle East: see Islamic Middle East Military, homosexuality and the, 110 Military conquest and rape, 109–110, 230 Military service, 532, 534; see also War women in, 532, 534 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) MF scale of, 58 Missionaries, Christian, 797, 799–804, 806–808, 812, 813, 845, 910, 912–914, 925–926 Modernization: see Change in attitudes Modernization theory, 147 liberal feminist critique of, 146–147 rise of, 146 Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), 30–31 Moralistic fallacy, 213 Mortuary practices, 290; see also Funerals Mother, boys’ identification with, 193 Motherhood balancing act of, 169 birth and, 169 pre-parenthood, 169 Multilingualism, gender and, 151–153 Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL-R), 59 Murdock, G P., 74, 75 Murray, S O., 212 Myths and mythology, 493, 656–658, 820; see also Religion Naraspur, 94 Nationalism and love of country, 239 Natural selection, 28 Naturalistic fallacy, 213 Nature-nurture controversy, sex differences and, 63 nature-based explanations, 63 nature plus nurture, 64 nurture-based explanations, 63–64 Neglect (of infants), fatal, 164 NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R), 58 Neolocal residence, 128, 129 New Zealand, transgender reform and jurisprudence in, 225 Nordic countries, 98 Norway, 98 transsexuality and transgender, 226–227 Nurses, military, 111 Nurturance, 39, 447 parental, 80 studying, 84 Subject Index Occidentalism, 159 Occult beliefs, 120 Occupations: see Economics; Employment Ochs, E., 154 Old age, 170–171; see also Middle age and old age Olga, Queen, 224 Oman, town women in, 190 Organizational culture, 100, 103 Organizations gender power in, 101–102 women’s associations, 169–170 Orientalism, 159 Pacific islanders, sexual aggression among, 240–241 Paneleiros, 206 Pantheism, 471, 503–504; see also Religion; Witches Papua New Guinea Abelam, 257–264 Iatmul, 487–497 Mountain Arapesh, 680–687 Mundugumor, 688–696 sexual politics of rape and domestic violence, 240–241 Parent–child communication, 80 Parent–child conflict during adolescence, 49 Parent–child play youths’ age, gender and, 80–81 Parent–child relationships in Canada, 155–156 Husband–wife bond and, 195 Parental and other caretaker roles, 78–80, 87 among Abaluyia, 252, 754 among Abelam, 260 among Arapesh, 684 among Armenians, 270 among Aymara, 279 among Bakairí, 289 among Bakkarwal, 299 among Balinese, 307–308 among Bamiléké, 318 among Beng, 327 among Blackfoot, 338–339 among Canela, 350 among Cherokee, 358 among Chinese Americans, 368 among Chipewyan, 375 among Czechs, 384 among Eastern Tukanoans, 394 among Germans, 404 among Glebo, 412 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 419–420 among Hadza, 429 among Han Chinese, 437–438 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 447 1031 Parental and other caretaker roles (cont.) among Hmong, 456–457 among Hopi, 470 among Hungarians, 479–480 among Iatmul, 491–492 among Ifugao, 503 among Igbo, 512–513 among Iranians, 522 among Israelis, 535–536 among Italians, 545 among Jamaicans, 555–556 among Kayapo, 566 among Kazakhs, 576–577 among Kuna, 585–586 among Kyrgyz, 595–596 among Lahu, 603 among Maasai, 612–613 among Manjako, 621 among Mardu, 630 among Marquesans, 639–640 among Mehinako, 656 among Mexicans, 665 among Mormans, 674 among Mundugumor, 692 among Na, 701 among Nahua, 711 among Nandi, 720–721 among Nepali, 737 among northeast Indians, 745–746 among Puerto Ricans, 763–764 among Rungus Dusun, 773 among Sakha, 784–785 among Samburu, 793 among Samoans, 801 among Shipibo, 812 among Shoshone, 819 among Spanish, 829 among Swat Pathan, 837 among Swazi, 844–845 among Taiwanese, 851 among Taiwanese Americans, 863 among Tanna, 872 among Tarahumara, 881 among Tikopia, 889 among Tlingit, 907 among Trobriands, 917–918 among Tswana, 925 among Ukrainians, 934–935 among Uzbeks, 943 among Waorani, 951 among West Indian Americans, 961–962 among Yanomami, 971 among Yapese, 979 among Yupik Eskimos, 989–990 among Yuquí, 1001–1002 among Zapotec, 1010–1011 Parental investment, biosocial models of, 82–83 Parental projection, and religiosity, 123–124 Parental roles, 78, 87; see also Parental and other caretaker roles fathers and mothers’ interactions with offspring, 78–79 youths’ age and gender and, 79–80 Parenting nurturant, supportive, affectionate, loving, and warm, 84–86 other- vs child-centered, 155 paternal and maternal, and outcomes in sons and daughters, 86–87 warmth and nurturance, 84 Parenting styles and behaviors, antecedents and consequences of the case of fathers, 81–82 cross-cultural evidence, 82 sociocultural models, 81 Parents preference for boys vs girls: see Socialization work and subsistence activities, 83 Parsons, T., 146 Paternity certainty, 82–83 Pathics, 206, 207, 209–213 Patriarchal power in organizations, 101–102 Patrifocal family structure and ideology, 741 Patrilineal descent, 131–133, 135, 141, 142, 986, 988; see also Social groups, gender-related Patrilineal inheritance, 310 Patrilocal (postmarital) residence, 128–133, 142; see also Social groups, genderrelated Peace, women and, 112 Pedophilia, see also Child sexual abuse homosexual, 838 Penis, supercision of, 638, 888 Penis bleeding, 262 Pentecostalism, 556–557 Perception, sex differences in, 30 Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ), 12 Personality, see also specific topics defined, 57 Personality and emotion overlap of psychopathology and, 57 secondary effects of, 65 sex differences in, 12–15, 58–60; see also Behavioral sex differences; Personality differences by gender cultural and regional comparisons, 61–63 issues in the study of, 64–65 1032 Personality and emotion (cont.) sex differences in (cont.) magnitude of, 64 regional and historical differences within U.S., 62 and religiosity, 120–122 sample size, 65 that are relatively stable across cultures, 62, 66–67 theories predicting, 65 variability of scores, 64 Personality assessment instruments, differences in specialized, 58–59 Personality differences by gender, see also Personality and emotion, sex differences in among Abaluyia, 251 among Abelam, 259 among Arapesh, 683 among Armenians, 269 among Aymara, 277–278 among Bakairí, 287 among Bakkarwal, 298 among Balinese, 306 among Bamiléké, 317 among Beng, 326 among Blackfoot, 337 among Canela, 348 among Chipewyan, 374 among Czechs, 383 among Eastern Tukanoans, 393 among Germans, 403 among Glebo, 411 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 418–419 among Hadza, 428 among Han Chinese, 436 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 445 among Hopi, 468–469 among Hungarians, 478 among Iatmul, 490 among Ifugao, 501–502 among Igbo, 511 among Iranians, 521 among Israelis, 534–535 among Italians, 544 among Jamaicans, 554 among Kayapo, 565 among Kuna, 583 among Kyrgyz, 594 among Lahu, 602 among Maasai, 611 among Manjako, 619 among Mardu, 628–629 among Marquesans, 638 among Mehinako, 655 among Mexicans, 664 among Mormans, 673 among Mundugumor, 691 Subject Index Personality differences by gender (cont.) among Na, 699 among Nahua, 710 among Nandi, 719 among Navajo, 729 among Nepali, 736 among northeast Indians, 745 among Puerto Ricans, 762–763 among Rungus Dusun, 772 among Sakha, 782 among Samburu, 792 among Samoans, 800 among Shipibo, 810–811 among Spanish, 827–828 among Swat Pathan, 836 among Swazi, 845 among Taiwanese, 850 among Taiwanese Americans, 862 among Tanna, 871 among Tarahumara, 879–880 among Tikopia, 889 among Timpaus Banggai, 897 among Tlingit, 905–906 among Trobriands, 917 among Tswana, 924 among Ukrainians, 932–933 among Uzbeks, 942 among Waorani, 950 among West Indian Americans, 960 among Yanomami, 970 among Yuquí, 1001 among Zapotec, 1010 Personality disorders, 61 Personality scales, sex differences in as seen in test norms, 58 Physical appearance: see Cultural construction of gender; Dress Physical sex differences, gross, 28–29 Physiological research strategies, 43 Physiological sex differences, 29 Piercing ritual, 655 Plato, 216 Play, see also Games; Leisure children’s, 36–37, 268, 294–295, 410, 467, 489; see also Socialization parent–child, 80–81 Polarities, 4, Politeness, gender and, 153–154 Political economy, defined, 151 Politics: see Leadership Pollution-avoidance complex, 141 Polyandry, 76, 643, 974 Polygyny, 46, 75–76, 147, 198; see also Courtship, and marriage; specific cultures Mormon, 670–679 Population pressure and women’s status, 143 Pornography, 231–232 Portugal, transsexuality and transgender in, 222–223 Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 109 Posture, 249 Pottery, 94 Powell, G N., 98, 99, 103 Power, see also Managers defined, 97 marital relationship and, 200 sexual aggression and, 235 types of, 101 Power distance, 99 Prayer, 943; see also Religion daily, 118 Pregnancy, 359, 813; see also Childbirth; Sexuality ignorance of connection between intercourse and, 919 Premarital sex, 320; see also Sexuality frequency, 180 Premarital sex norms, 178–179 correlates of, 179–180 Priests, femininity in, 122 Production, female status and, 139 Profile of Mood States (POMS), 59 Property ownership, 989; see also specific cultures Prosocial behavior, 39–40 Prostitution, 387, 620–621 Psychopathology, see also Mental illness sex differences in, 61, 121 that are relatively stable across cultures, 66–67 Puberty, 45–46; see also Adolescence; Circumcision among Abaluyia, 250–251 among Abelam, 257–258 among Bakkarwal, 295–296 among Balinese, 304–305 among Bamiléké, 316 among Canela, 347–348 among Eastern Tukanoans, 391–392 among Glebo, 410 among Hadza, 427 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 444–445 among Igbo, 510 among Kuna, 582–583 among Lahu, 601–602 among Marquesans, 638 among Mundugumor, 690 among Navajo, 728–729 among Nepali, 735 among northeast Indians, 743–744 among Orang Suku Laut, 753 among Sakha, 782 among Shipibo, 809–810 Subject Index Puberty (cont.) among Swazi, 844 among Tikopia, 888 among Trobriands, 916 among Uzbeks, 941 among Yuquí, 1000 in boys, 46 in girls, 46 individual and cultural differences, 47–48 sex differentiation in, 45 Puberty rites, 48–50 Quebec, 152 Racial relations, 957–958; see also Ethnic conflicts Racial segregation, Radcliffe-Brown, A R., 73, 74 Rape (and other sexual aggression), 230, 482, 657, 973; see also Violence causes and consequences of, 234 anthropology, 236 psychology, 234–235 sociobiology, 234 sociology and feminism, 235–236 methodological controversy, 236 backlash against feminists, 238 law and definitions of rape, 236–237 sampling techniques and methodological limitations, 237–238 (military) conquest and, 109–110, 230 nature and extent of, 230–233, 237–238 date and acquaintance rape on college campuses, 230 intimate partner rape, 231 perpetrators and victims, 232–233 in religious and ethnic conflicts, 109–110, 230 threat of sexual violence, 230 in Oceania, 240–241 reluctance to report, 237–238 sexual politics of, 300 in Papua New Guinea, 240–241 as universal phenomena or cultural variable, 233 egalitarian societies, 233 nonegalitarian societies, 233–234 Rastafarianism, 556 Recreation: see Leisure, recreation, and the arts Relationships, cross-sex: see Cross-sex relationships Relatives, relationships among cross-sex: see Cross-sex relationships Relativistic fallacy, 213 1033 Religion, 117, 118; see also specific topics among Timpaus Banggai, 894 definitions, 117 gender and among Abaluyia, 253, 755–756 among Abelam, 261 among Arapesh, 685 among Armenians, 271 among Aymara, 279–280 among Bakairí, 289–290 among Bakkarwal, 299 among Balinese, 308–309 among Bamiléké, 319 among Beng, 328 among Blackfoot, 339–340 among Canela, 350–351 among Cherokee, 359–360 among Chipewyan, 375–376 among Czechs, 385 among Eastern Tukanoans, 395–396 among Germans, 404 among Glebo, 413 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 420–421 among Hadza, 429 among Han Chinese, 438 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 447–448 among Hmong, 457–458 among Hopi, 471 among Hungarians, 481 among Iatmul, 492–493 among Ifugao, 503–504 among Igbo, 513–514 among Iranians, 523 among Israelis, 536 among Italians, 546–547 among Jamaicans, 556–557 among Kayapo, 567 among Kazakhs, 577 among Kuna, 586 among Kyrgyz, 596 among Lahu, 604 among Maasai, 613 among Manjako, 621–622 among Mardu, 630–631 among Marquesans, 640–641 among Maya, 649 among Mehinako, 656–658 among Mexicans, 666 among Mormans, 675 among Mundugumor, 692–693 among Na, 702 among Nahua, 712 among Nandi, 721 among Navajo, 730–731 among Nepali, 737 among northeast Indians, 746 among Puerto Ricans, 764–765 Religion (cont.) gender and (cont.) among Rungus Dusun, 773–774 among Sakha, 785–786 among Samburu, 794 among Samoans, 802 among Shipibo, 807, 812 among Shoshone, 820 among Spanish, 829–830 among Swat Pathan, 837 among Swazi, 845 among Taiwanese, 852 among Taiwanese Americans, 864 among Tanna, 872–873 among Tarahumara, 881–882 among Tikopia, 890 among Timpaus Banggai, 899 among Tlingit, 907–908 among Trobriands, 918 among Tswana, 925–926 among Ukrainians, 935 among Uzbeks, 943 among Waorani, 952 among West Indian Americans, 962 among Yanomami, 972 among Yapese, 980 among Yupik Eskimos, 990–991 among Yuquí, 1002 among Zapotec, 1011–1012 Religiosity, 117–118 measures of overall, 119 women’s greater, 119, 125 explanations for, 119–125 Religious affiliation and gender stereotypes, 15 Religious beliefs, 119, 120 Religious conflicts, sexual aggression in, 230 Religious denominations, membership in different, 119 Religious experience, 119 Religious rituals, 567 attendance, 119 high-involvement, 118 Reproductive behavior, see also Sexuality among Shipibo, 812–813 explaining sex differences in, 46–47 Reproductive value, 50 Research methodologies functional analysis, 44–45 for implicating socialization factors, 44 interpretation of data, 43–44 testing for an evolved basis, 43–44 Research strategies, developmental, 43 Researchers, sexism among, 65 Resource management activities, 783, 784 Resources, control over distribution of critical, 139 Respect, 255 1034 Rites of passage, 134, 163, 164; see also Adulthood, attainment of; Puberty Ritter, M L., 134 Rituals, 163; see also specific rituals baki, 506 childhood, 627 of gender transgression/rebellion, hunting, 990–991 and hunting success, 991 whaling, 991 Rohner, R., 81 Rome homosexuality in, 205 transgender in, 216 Rondonia, 283 Royalty, 318 Russell, D E H., 230–232, 237–238 Russian Orthodoxy, 785, 910 Sanday, P R., 139 Saudi Arabia, elite urban women in, 189 Scars, 489 Searles, P., 237 Segregation of sexes: see Social groups, gender-related Self-concepts, masculinity/femininity of, 15–17 Self-esteem, parents and, 86 Sen, G., 147 Service, E R., 129 Sewing achievements, recognition of girls’, 987 Sex definitions, 3, 57, 216–217 frequency of, in marriage, 181–182 as producer of sexuality, Sex antagonism, organization of work and, 140–141 Sex differences, see also specific topics and sexual aggression, 235 theories of, 42–43 universality, 43 Sex education, 382 Sex reassignment, 221–228 longitudinal/cohort studies and what we don’t know, 227–228 Sex role identification, scales designed to measure, 58 Sex role ideology, 17–19 Sex role studies cross-cultural, 18–19 with small numbers of cultural groups, 18–19 in United States, 17–18 Sex roles: see Homosexual systems; Stereotypes Sex Stereotype Measure II (SSM II), 19 Subject Index Sex taboos, 182–183, 328, 414; see also Exogamy; Sexuality Sexism among researchers, 65 Sexual abuse: see Child sexual abuse Sexual activity seen as dangerous, 178 Sexual attitudes and practices, see also Change in attitudes; specific topics attitudes toward sex correlates of, 178 range of variation, 178 controversies and trends in the evidence, 177–178 overall patterning of, 185 theoretical paradigms, 177 Sexual attractiveness: see Attractiveness Sexual harassment, 232, 386 Sexual joking, 883 Sexual reproduction, 27 evolution of, 27 Sexual restraint and modesty, 187–188, 191, 828; see also under Dress ethnographic examples, 189–190, 280, 386, 449, 853, 936 in Islamic cultures, 187–189; see also Islamic principles and practices theoretical approaches, 188–189 Great vs Little Tradition approach, 188 personhood and self, 188–189 structuralist approach, 188 Sexual secretions, seen as dangerous, 178 Sexual selection: see under Mate choice Sexual unions, visiting (sese), 697, 703–705 Sexuality among Abaluyia, 254, 756–757 among Abelam, 262 among Arapesh, 685–686 among Armenians, 271–272 among Aymara, 280–281 among Bakairí, 291 among Bakkarwal, 300 among Balinese, 310 among Bamiléké, 320–321 among Beng, 329 among Blackfoot, 341–342 among Canela, 352–353 among Cherokee, 360–361 among Chinese Americans, 369 among Chipewyan, 376–377 among Czechs, 386–387 among Eastern Tukanoans, 396–397 among Germans, 405–406 among Glebo, 414 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 421–422 among Hadza, 430 among Han Chinese, 439–440 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 449 among Hopi, 472 Sexuality (cont.) among Hungarians, 482 among Iatmul, 494–495 among Ifugao, 505 among Igbo, 515 among Iranians, 524–526 among Israelis, 536–537 among Italians, 547–548 among Jamaicans, 558 among Kayapo, 569 among Kazakhs, 578 among Kuna, 588–589 among Kyrgyz, 597 among Lahu, 605 among Maasai, 613–614 among Manjako, 623 among Mardu, 632 among Marquesans, 642 among Maya, 650 among Mehinako, 658 among Mexicans, 666–667 among Mormans, 676 among Mundugumor, 694 among Na, 703–704 among Nahua, 713 among Nandi, 722 among Navajo, 731–732 among Nepali, 738 among northeast Indians, 747 among Puerto Ricans, 766–767 among Rungus Dusun, 774–775 among Sakha, 786 among Samburu, 795 among Samoans, 803 among Shipibo, 812–814 among Shoshone, 821 among Spanish, 830–831 among Swat Pathan, 838 among Swazi, 845–846 among Taiwanese, 853 among Taiwanese Americans, 864–865 among Tanna, 873–874 among Tarahumara, 883 among Tikopia, 890 among Timpaus Banggai, 900 among Tlingit, 908–909 among Trobriands, 919–920 among Tswana, 927 among Ukrainians, 936 among Uzbeks, 944 among Waorani, 953 among West Indian Americans, 964 among Yanomami, 973 among Yupik Eskimos, 993 among Yuquí, 1003 among Zapotec, 1012–1013 defined, 3, 218 Subject Index Sexuality (cont.) prohibition of women from expressing, 124 relationship between sex, gender, and, and sexual behavior, victimization of women as a result of predatory male, 124 Shamans, 6, 206, 347, 351, 395–396, 448, 567, 596, 785, 786, 820, 952, 972 Shame, honor and, 188, 828 Shaming children, 268 Sibling relationships, 451; see also Cross-sex relationships “Sissy,” 138 Sister–wife distinction, 142 Small, M F., 234 Sociability, 251 Social groups, gender-related, 128 among Abaluyia, 251–252, 754 among Abelam, 259 among Arapesh, 683–684 among Armenians, 269 among Aymara, 278 among Bakairí, 287–288 among Bakkarwal, 298 among Balinese, 306 among Bamiléké, 317–318 among Beng, 326 among Blackfoot, 337–338 among Canela, 348–349 among Cherokee, 357–358 among Chinese Americans, 367–368 among Chipewyan, 374 among Czechs, 383–384 among Eastern Tukanoans, 393–394 among Germans, 403 among Glebo, 411 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 419 among Hadza, 428 among Han Chinese, 436–437 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 445–446 among Hmong, 455–456 among Hopi, 469 among Hungarians, 478–479 among Iatmul, 490 among Ifugao, 502 among Igbo, 511–512 among Iranians, 521–522 among Italians, 544 among Jamaicans, 554–555 among Kayapo, 565–566 among Kazakhs, 575–576 among Kuna, 583–584 among Kyrgyz, 594–595 among Lahu, 602–603 among Maasai, 611–612 among Manjako, 620 1035 Social groups, gender-related (cont.) among Mardu, 629 among Marquesans, 638–639 among Mehinako, 655–656 among Mexicans, 664 among Mormans, 673–674 among Mundugumor, 691–692 among Na, 700 among Nahua, 710–711 among Nandi, 719 among Navajo, 729 among Nepali, 736 among northeast Indians, 745 among Rungus Dusun, 772 among Sakha, 782 among Samburu, 792–793 among Samoans, 800–801 among Shipibo, 811 among Shoshone, 819 among Spanish, 828 among Swat Pathan, 836 among Swazi, 845 among Taiwanese, 850 among Taiwanese Americans, 862–863 among Tanna, 871 among Tarahumara, 880 among Tikopia, 889 among Timpaus Banggai, 897–898 among Tlingit, 906 among Trobriands, 917 among Tswana, 924 among Ukrainians, 933 among Uzbeks, 942 among Waorani, 950–951 among West Indian Americans, 960–961 among Yanomami, 970–971 among Yapese, 978–979 among Yupik Eskimos, 988 among Zapotec, 1010 consequences of, 134–135 separate unisex associations and power, 135 Social learning theories, 21, 235–236 Social role theory, 19 Social status of women and men, 137–138, 142–143 among Abaluyia, 253–254, 756 among Abelam, 261–262 among Arapesh, 685 among Armenians, 271 among Aymara, 280 among Bakairí, 290 among Bakkarwal, 299–300 among Balinese, 309–310 among Bamiléké, 319–320 among Beng, 328–329 among Blackfoot, 341 Social status of women and men (cont.) among Canela, 351–352 among Cherokee, 360 among Chinese Americans, 369 among Chipewyan, 376 among Czechs, 386 among Eastern Tukanoans, 396 among Germans, 405 among Glebo, 414 among Greeks of Kalymnos, 421 among Hadza, 430 among Han Chinese, 438–439 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 448 among Hmong, 458–459 among Hopi, 472 among Hungarians, 481–482 among Iatmul, 494 among Ifugao, 504 among Igbo, 514–515 among Iranians, 524 among Israelis, 536 among Italians, 547 among Jamaicans, 557–558 among Kayapo, 568–569 among Kazakhs, 577–578 among Kuna, 587–588 among Kyrgyz, 597 among Lahu, 604–605 among Maasai, 613 among Manjako, 622 among Mardu, 631–632 among Marquesans, 641–642 among Maya, 650 among Mehinako, 658 among Mexicans, 666 among Mormans, 675–676 among Mundugumor, 693 among Na, 703 among Nahua, 712 among Nandi, 722 among Navajo, 731 among Nepali, 738 among northeast Indians, 746–747 among Puerto Ricans, 766 among Rungus Dusun, 774 among Sakha, 786 among Samburu, 794–795 among Samoans, 803 among Shipibo, 812 among Shoshone, 820–821 among Spanish, 830 among Swat Pathan, 838 among Swazi, 845 among Taiwanese, 853 among Taiwanese Americans, 864 among Tanna, 873 among Tarahumara, 882–883 1036 Social status of women and men (cont.) among Tikopia, 890 among Timpaus Banggai, 900 among Tlingit, 908 among Trobriands, 919 among Tswana, 926–927 among Ukrainians, 936 among Uzbeks, 944 among Waorani, 952–953 among West Indian Americans, 963–964 among Yanomami, 972–973 among Yapese, 981 among Yupik Eskimos, 992–993 among Yuquí, 1002–1003 among Zapotec, 1012 descent, residence, and, 141–142 factors affecting, 140 ideology, religion, and, 143–144 indicators to measure, 139 production, control, and public vs private worlds, 138–140 and violence against women, 240–241 work and, 95–96 Socialization, 31, 34–40, 42 of boys and girls among Abaluyia, 250 among Abelam, 258 among Arapesh, 681–682 among Armenians, 267–268 among Aymara, 276 among Bakairí, 285–286 among Bakkarwal, 294–295 among Balinese, 304 among Bamiléké, 316 among Beng, 324–325 among Blackfoot, 336–337 among Canela, 347 among Cherokee, 357 among Chinese Americans, 366–367 among Chipewyan, 373 among Czechs, 381–382 among Eastern Tukanoans, 390–391 among Germans, 402 among Glebo, 410 among Hadza, 426–427 among Han Chinese, 435 among Hma’ Btsisi’, 444 among Hmong, 454–455 among Hopi, 466–467 among Hungarians, 476 among Iatmul, 488–489 among Ifugao, 500–501 among Igbo, 510 among Iranians, 520 among Israelis, 533 among Italians, 542–543 among Jamaicans, 552–553 Subject Index Socialization (cont.) of boys and girls (cont.) among Kayapo, 563–564 among Kazakhs, 573–574 among Kuna, 582 among Kyrgyz, 593–594 among Lahu, 601–602 among Maasai, 609–610 among Manjako, 618 among Mardu, 627–628 among Marquesans, 637 among Maya, 647 among Mehinako, 654 among Mexicans, 662–663 among Mormans, 671–672 among Mundugumor, 689–690 among Na, 698–699 among Nahua, 709–710 among Nandi, 717 among Navajo, 728 among Nepali, 735 among northeast Indians, 742–743 among Orang Suku Laut, 752–753 among Puerto Ricans, 761–762 among Rungus Dusun, 771 among Sakha, 781 among Samburu, 791 among Samoans, 799 among Shipibo, 809–810 among Shoshone, 818–819 among Spanish, 826–827 among Swat Pathan, 834–835 among Swazi, 844 among Taiwanese, 849 among Taiwanese Americans, 860–861 among Tanna, 869–870 among Tarahumara, 878–879 among Tikopia, 888 among Timpaus Banggai, 895–896 among Tlingit, 904 among Trobriands, 916 among Tswana, 923 among Ukrainians, 931–932 among Uzbeks, 941 among Waorani, 949 among West Indian Americans, 958–959 among Yanomami, 969 among Yapese, 977 among Yupik Eskimos, 986–987 among Yuquí, 999 among Zapotec, 1008–1009 differences in, 123 settings, 37–38 women’s superior, 123 Society Islands, 8, South Africa, 7–8, 199 Soviet Union Armenians and, 266, 267 Hungarians and, 475 Kazakhs and, 572 Kyrgyz and, 592–598 Sakha and, 779–780, 782, 785, 786, 788 Ukrainians and, 930–937 Uzbeks and, 939, 940, 942–945 in World War II, 112 Spanish language, 152–153 Spatial ability, sex differences in, 30 Spinsters, 305 Spirit girls, 802 Spirit mediums, 317, 395, 773 Spirits, 621, 656–657, 685, 692–693, 756, 785, 786, 972, 980; see also Religion Spiritual healers, 926; see also Shamans Spiritual leadership, 990 Sports games: see Games Spouse, selecting: see Mate choice Stabane, State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI-2), 59 State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), 59 Status: see Social status Stereotype differentiation, male–female, 15 Stereotypes, gender, see also Self-concepts defined, 11 development of, 19 cross-cultural findings, 19–20 sex-trait stereotype development in U.S., 19 nature of, 11 parental influences on, 79 research on, 11–12; see also Sex role studies cross-cultural, 12–15 cross-cultural studies, 16–17 masculinity/femininity studies in U.S., 16 Stratified reproduction, 156 Subsistence, female status and, 138–139 Subsistence economies, households in, 148 Substance abuse, 85–86; see also Alcoholism; Drug use Sudanese women, rural, 190 Sun Dances, 339–340 Supercision of penis, 638, 888 Supernatural knowledge and power, 375–376, 395; see also Shamans Sweden, 20, 98 transsexuality and transgender, 221 Taboos, 328; see also Sexual restraint and modesty; specific topics Task assignment, and socialization, 37 Task segregation, 140 “Third” gender/sex, 7–9, 216, 1007, 1008 Subject Index Tiger, L., 234 Tokenism, 102 Tolaa, 298 “Tomboy,” 138 Tongzhi, 159 Tooth-filing, 305, 445, 771, 895 Tourism, 491, 706, 844 Transgender population, cultural diversity of, 221–227 Transgenderism, see also Cross-gendered individuals defining, 218–220 demography, 218–219 estimating the prevalence of, 219–220 etiology, 220 intellectual history, 216–218 medical aspects, 220 psychological aspects, 220–221 Transsexualism, see also Cross-gendered individuals; Transgenderism defining, 218–219 Transvestism, 414; see also Cross-dressing Transvestites, 207–208, 226; see also Berdache Tribal adoption of children, 989–990 Trisexuality, defined, Two-spirit people, 4, 5, 818; see also Berdache Ukrainian Orthodox Church, 935 Umbilical cord, burial of, 728 Unilineal descent, 131–132, 134–135 Unilocal societies, 131–132, 134–135 Unisex associations, 133–134 United Kingdom, transsexuality and transgender in, 222 Uxorilocal residence: see Matrilocal (postmarital) residence Vagina dentate (vaginal teeth) motif, 820 Valentine, J., 158–159 1037 Verbal abilities, sex differences in, 30–31 Verbal genres, 151 Violence, see also specific topics engendering, 238–239 masculinities, culture, and, 238–240 and the other, 239 against women, 482 Virginity, 167, 180–181, 329; see also Defloration; Sexuality Virilocal residence: see Patrilocal (postmarital) residence Visual perception, sex differences in, 30 Wallace, A F C., 117 War cross-cultural consistency of gender roles in, 107 historical states, 107–108 preindustrial societies, 108 present-day society, 107 cross-cultural relationship of marriage and, 114–115 defined, 107 explanations for gender roles in, 113 biological and evolutionary, 113 women’s status, 113–114 feminist theories of, 113–114 gender and, 115 attention to, in anthropology, 107 diversity of, 108 War combat, women’s performance in, 112 guerilla armies, 112 individual warriors through history, 113 present-day state militaries, 113 simple societies, 112 War roles, men’s, 108–110 boyhood and coming of age, 109 inducing men to kill, 108–109 War support roles, feminine, 110; see also Military, women in laborers, 111 War support roles, feminine (cont.) mothers, 110–111 nurses, 111 support troops, 111 war boosters, 110 War Women, 361 Warfare internal and external, 130, 142 and rape, 109–110, 230 and women’s status, 142–143 Wartime sexuality, 109 Weaning, 164 Weaving, 95 Weddings: see Courtship, and marriage Wen-wu, 434 Widowhood, 170, 305, 330, 353, 366, 579; see also Middle age and old age Wife-beating, 168, 280; see also Husband–wife relationship Wife-sharing, institutionalized, 183–184 Wife swapping, 450 Wikan, Unni, 190 Williams, J E., 12–16, 18–20 Witches and witchcraft, 328, 360, 413, 414, 471, 493, 693, 926 Women as more deprived, 124 subservience/subordination to husband, 200 “Women in development” perspective, 148 Women’s associations: see Social groups, gender-related Work, see also Economic activities; Employment; Labor and social status, 95–96 Work-related values, 16–17 Xanith, Yan daudu, 159–160 Yemen, 190 Yemeni town women, 190 .. .Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender Men and Women in the World’s Cultures Volume I: Topics and Cultures A–K Volume II: Cultures L–Z Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender Men and Women in the World’s Cultures. .. Data Encyclopedia of sex and gender: men and women in the world’s cultures/ edited by Carol R Ember and Melvin Ember p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-306-47770-X Sex? ??Encyclopedias... about women We have deliberately included the words ? ?men? ?? and ? ?women? ?? in our subtitle to convey that this reference work deals with the roles and status of women and men in many cultures and with