The gale encyclopedia of arts and humanities through the ErasII

A RT S & H U M A N I T I E S T h r o u g h t h e Era s A RT S & H U M A N I T I E S \ T h r o u g h t h e Era s Ancient Greece and Rome 1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E James Allan Evans, Editor Arts and Humanities Through The Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) James Allan Evans Project Editor Rebecca Parks Indexing Services Barbara Koch Composition and Electronic Prepress Evi Seoud Editorial Danielle Behr, Andrew Claps, Pamela A Dear, Jason Everett, Dwayne Hayes, Rachel J Kain, Ralph G Zerbonia Imaging and Multimedia Randy Bassett, Mary K Grimes, Lezlie Light, Michael Logusz, Christine O’Bryan, Kelly A Quin Manufacturing Wendy Blurton Editorial Support Services Mark Springer Rights and Acquisitions Margaret Chamberlain, Shalice Shah-Caldwell Data Capture Elizabeth Pilette Product Design Michelle DiMercurio © 2005 Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson Corporation This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information Thomson and Star Logo are trademarks and Gale is a registered trademark used herein under license For more information, contact Thomson Gale 27500 Drake Rd Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Or you can visit our Internet site at http://www.gale.com ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage retrieval systems—without the written permission of the publisher For permission to use material from this product, submit your request via the Web at http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions, or you may download our Permissions Request form and submit your request by fax or mail to: Permissions Department Thomson Gale 27500 Drake Rd Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Permissions Hotline: 248-699-8006 or 800-877-4253, ext 8006 Fax: 248-699-8074 or 800-762-4058 Cover photographs by permission of Corbis (seated statue of Pharaoh Djoser) and AP/Wide World Photos (“The Creation of Adam and Eve” detail by Orvieto) Since this page cannot legibly accommodate all copyright notices, the acknowledgements constitute an extension of the copyright notice While every effort has been made to secure permission to reprint material and to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Thomson Gale neither guarantees the accuracy of the data contained herein nor assumes responsibility for errors, omissions, or discrepancies Thomson Gale accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Arts and humanities through the eras p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-7876-5695-X (set hardcover : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-5696-8 (Renaissance Europe : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-5697-6 (Age of Baroque : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-5698-4 (Ancient Egypt : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-5699-2 (Ancient Greece : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-5700-X (Medieval Europe : alk paper) Arts—History Civilization—History NX440.A787 2004 700’.9—dc22 2004010243 This title is also available as an e-book ISBN 0-7876-9384-7 (set) Contact your Thomson Gale sales representative for ordering information Printed in the United States of America 10 \ CONTENTS A B O U T T H E B O O K ix C O N T R I B U T O R S xi E R A O V E R V I E W xiii CHRONOLOGY OF W O R L D E V E N T S xv CHAPTER 1: ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN I MPORTANT E VENTS O VERVIEW T OPICS IN A RCHITECTURE AND D ESIGN Surviving Sources Minoan and Mycenaean Architecture Greek Architecture 12 Etruscan Architecture 24 Roman Architecture 25 The Late Antique 38 Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture 39 S IGNIFICANT P E O P L E Hadrian Pausanias Plutarch Suetonius Vitruvius O VERVIEW 46 T OPICS IN D ANCE Dance in Prehistoric Greece War Dances Women’s Choruses The Dithyramb Folk Dances Dance in the Theater Dionysian Dance Professional Dancers Dance in Rome 48 52 57 57 60 63 66 69 70 S IGNIFICANT P E O P L E Arion Bathyllus and Pylades Memphius Theodora 75 76 76 77 D OCUMENTARY S OURCES 78 CHAPTER 3: FASHION I MPORTANT E VENTS 80 O VERVIEW 82 40 40 41 41 41 D OCUMENTARY S OURCES 42 CHAPTER 2: DANCE I MPORTANT E VENTS 44 T OPICS IN F ASHION Fashion in the Minoan Period 84 Garments in Classical Greece 86 The Toga 92 The Textiles of the Greek and Roman World 98 Dressing to Impress in Greece and Rome 102 The Dress of Roman Women 106 The Apparel of the Soldier 109 v Contents S IGNIFICANT P E O P L E Alcibiades 113 Constantius II 114 Diogenes 115 Pindar Claudius Ptolemy Pythagoras Sappho 229 230 230 231 D OCUMENTARY S OURCES 115 D OCUMENTARY S OURCES 231 CHAPTER 4: LITERATURE CHAPTER 6: PHILOSOPHY I MPORTANT E VENTS 118 I MPORTANT E VENTS 234 O VERVIEW 120 O VERVIEW 237 T OPICS IN L ITERATURE The Age of Homeric Epic The Boeotian School of Epic The Age of Lyric Poetry Poets for Hire Herodotus, the Father of History Thucydides History after Thucydides Greek Comedy Greek Tragedy The Art of Public Speaking in Greece Greek Literature after Alexander the Great Roman Theater Latin Poetry Before the Augustan Age Latin Prose Writers Before the Augustan Age The Golden Age of Latin Literature Under Augustus Latin Literature of the Silver Age Greek Literature of the Imperial Age T OPICS IN P HILOSOPHY Beginnings of Greek Philosophy Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Parmenides Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and the Atomists The Atomic Theory The Sophists Socrates Plato Aristotle The Stoics Other Philosophies in the Hellenistic World Epicurus Neoplatonism S IGNIFICANT P E O P L E Aeschylus Cato Thucydides Vergil 122 126 128 131 133 136 137 138 144 154 155 157 160 162 164 169 172 175 175 176 177 S IGNIFICANT P E O P L E Aristotle Epictetus Epicurus Plato Plotinus Thales Zeno of Citium 240 240 242 245 247 248 250 254 260 264 266 269 272 273 275 275 276 277 278 279 D OCUMENTARY S OURCES 280 CHAPTER 7: RELIGION D OCUMENTARY S OURCES 178 I MPORTANT E VENTS 282 CHAPTER 5: MUSIC O VERVIEW 285 I MPORTANT E VENTS 182 T OPICS IN R E L I G I O N The Religion of Minoan Crete during the Bronze Age The Early Greeks on Mainland Greece The Dark Ages The Gods of Olympus Other Gods Beyond the Twelve The Underworld and its Inhabitants Heroes and Demigods Heracles, the Super-Hero Discovering the Will of the Gods: Oracles and Divination O VERVIEW 187 T OPICS IN M USIC Musical Instruments Music in Greek Life Music Education Music in Roman Life Women in Ancient Music Music Theory 189 198 210 212 216 219 S IGNIFICANT P E O P L E Aristoxenus 228 vi 287 291 292 294 307 309 312 314 316 Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) Contents Worshipping the Gods: Sacrifices and Temples The Religion of Early Rome The Religion of the Roman Republic The Worship of the Roman Gods Immigrant Religions: the Arrival of New Cults from the East The Rise of Christianity S IGNIFICANT P E O P L E Constantine Homer Numa Pompilius St Paul Socrates 320 323 325 328 331 335 338 339 340 340 342 D OCUMENTARY S OURCES 342 CHAPTER 8: THEATER I MPORTANT E VENTS 346 O VERVIEW 349 T OPICS IN T HEATER Origins of Greek Theater Festivals and Theaters Types of Greek Drama The Beginning of Roman Theater Roman Theaters, Playwrights, and Actors Other Types of Roman Theater 367 372 S IGNIFICANT P E O P L E Aristophanes Euripides Livius Andronicus Lycoris Menander Gnaeus Naevius Nero Titus Maccius Plautus Quintus Roscius Gallus Seneca the Younger 351 352 357 366 375 376 377 377 378 379 379 380 381 381 Sophocles 382 Terence 382 D OCUMENTARY S OURCES 383 CHAPTER 9: VISUAL ARTS I MPORTANT E VENTS 386 O VERVIEW 390 T OPICS IN V ISUAL A RTS Pottery in the Bronze Age The Early Pottery of Greece The Dominance of Athens Hellenistic and Roman Pottery Sculpture in Archaic Greece Sculpture of the Classical Period The Hellenistic Period Roman Sculpture Greek Painting Roman Painting Portraits Mosaics 392 394 397 402 404 410 420 425 429 435 439 444 S IGNIFICANT P E O P L E Apelles Exekias Lysippus Phidias Polygnotus Praxiteles Zeuxis 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 D OCUMENTARY S OURCES 455 G L O S S A R Y 457 F U R T H E R R E F E R E N C E S 475 M E D I A A N D O N L I N E S O U R C E S 483 A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S 487 I N D E X 489 Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) vii \ ABOUT THE BOOK SEEING HISTORY FROM A DIFFERENT ANGLE An education in history involves more than facts concerning the rise and fall of kings, the conquest of lands, and the major battles fought between nations While these events are pivotal to the study of any time period, the cultural aspects are of equal value in understanding the development of societies Various forms of literature, the philosophical ideas developed, and even the type of clothes worn in a particular era provide important clues about the values of a society, and when these arts and humanities are studied in conjunction with political and historical events a more complete picture of that society is revealed This inter-disciplinary approach to studying history is at the heart of the Arts and Humanities Through the Eras project Patterned in its organization after the successful American Decades, American Eras, and World Eras products, this reference work aims to expose the reader to an in-depth perspective on a particular era in history through the study of nine different arts and humanities topics: • Architecture and Design • Dance • Fashion • Literature • Music • Philosophy • Religion • Theater • Visual Arts Although treated in separate chapters, the connections between these topics are highlighted both in the text and through the use of “See Also” references to give the reader a broad perspective on the culture of the time period Readers can learn about the impact of religion on literature; explore the close relationships between dance, music, and theater; and see parallel movements in architecture and visual arts The development of each of these fields is discussed within the context of important historical events so that the reader can see history from a different angle This angle is unique to this reference work Most history books about a particular time period only give a passing glance to the arts and humanities in an effort to give the broadest historical treatment possible Those reference books that cover the arts and humanities tend to cover only one of them, generally across multiple time periods, making it difficult to draw connections between disciplines and limiting the perspective of the discipline’s impact on a specific era In Arts and Humanities Through the Eras each of the nine disciplines is given substantial treatment in individual chapters, and the focus on one era ensures that the analysis will be thorough AUDIENCE AND ORGANIZATION Arts and Humanities Through the Eras is designed to meet the needs of both the beginning and the advanced history student The material is written by subject experts and covers a vast array of concepts and masterworks, yet these concepts are built “from the ground up” so that a reader with little or no background in history can follow them Technical terms and other definitions appear both in the ix About the Book text and in the glossary, and the background of historical events is also provided The organization of the volume facilitates learning at all levels by presenting information in a variety of ways Each chapter is organized according to the following structure: • Chronology covering the important events in that discipline during that era • Brief overview of the development of that discipline at the time • Topics that highlight the movements, schools of thought, and masterworks that characterize the discipline during that era • Biographies of significant people in that discipline • Documentary sources contemporary to the time period This structure facilitates comparative analysis, both between disciplines and also between volumes of Arts and Humanities Through the Eras, each of which covers a different era In addition, readers can access additional research opportunities by looking at the “Further References” and “Media and Online Sources” that appear at the back of the volume While every effort was made to include only those online sources that are connected to institutions such as museums and universities, the web- x sites are subject to change and may become obsolete in the future PRIMARY DOCUMENTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS In an effort to provide the most in-depth perspective possible, Arts and Humanities Through the Eras also includes numerous primary documents from the time period, offering a first-hand account of the culture from the people who lived in it Letters, poems, essays, epitaphs, and songs are just some of the multitude of document types included in this volume, all of which illuminate some aspect of the discipline being discussed The text is further enhanced by 150 illustrations, maps, and line drawings that bring a visual dimension to the learning experience CONTACT INFORMATION The editors welcome your comments and suggestions for enhancing and improving Arts and Humanities Through the Eras Please mail comments or suggestions to: The Editor Arts and Humanities Through the Eras Thomson Gale 27500 Drake Rd Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Phone: (800) 347-4253 Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) \ CONTRIBUTORS College from 1994–1998 At Arizona State, she is the founder and co-director of the undergraduate certificate program in classical studies, and she teaches courses in ancient Greek and Latin language and on classical mythology, culture, and literature She is a recipient of a Whiting Fellowship and an award from the Women’s Classical Caucus of the American Philological Association Professor George’s research interests range from Greek and Roman drama and Homer to Xenophon and gender studies in antiquity Her publications include the forthcoming book Prostitutes in Plautus; articles on Plautus and Aeschylus; and chapters on ancient Greece and Rome in Mythologies of the World (New York, 2001) James Allan Evans, Editor, received the Ph.D in classics from Yale University in 1957 with a specialty in Greek and Roman social and economic history He was a Thomas Day Seymour fellow at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, Greece, in 1954–1955, and taught at Wilfrid Laurier University, the University of Texas at Austin, and McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, where he was a professor of ancient history In 1972 he accepted a professorship at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, and taught there until his retirement as professor emeritus in 1996 Since retiring he has been a visiting professor of history at the University of Washington, Seattle, a visiting special lecturer at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, Canada, and a Whitehead Visiting Professor at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens He is the author of A Social and Economic History of an Egyptian Temple in Greco-Roman Egypt (Yale Classical Studies, 17, 1961), Procopius (Twayne, 1972), Herodotus (Twayne, 1982), Herodotus, Explorer of the Past: Three Essays (Princeton, 1991), The Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Imperial Power (Routledge, 1996), and The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian (University of Texas Press, 2002) He was also editor of the series Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History (AMS Press) from 1977 to 1996 In 1992 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada He is presently writing a book on the intrigues and the power play of the Byzantine court in the period of Justinian John T Kirby, Advisor, is professor of classics at Purdue University, where he has chaired the programs in classical studies and in comparative literature His books include The Rhetoric of Cicero’s Pro Cluentio (J C Gieben 1990), The Comparative Reader (Chancery Press, 1998), Secret of the Muses Retold (University of Chicago Press, 2000), Classical Greek Civilization (Gale Group, 2001), and The Roman Republic and Empire (Gale Group, 2001) His websites include the popular CORAX site (www.corax.us), a hypersite that offers a comprehensive online classics curriculum His awards and honors include a Morehead Scholarship, an NEH Fellowship, and teaching awards at the departmental, university, state, regional, and national levels Lisa Rengo George received the Ph.D in classics from Bryn Mawr College in 1997, and has been an assistant professor of classics in the Department of Languages and Literatures at Arizona State University since 1999 She was a visiting assistant professor of classics at Skidmore William H Peck was educated at Ohio State University and Wayne State University For many years he was the curator of ancient art at the Detroit Institute of Arts where he was responsible for Greek, Roman, and Etruscan art as well as the art of Egypt and the Ancient xi Contributors Near East He has taught art history at the Cranbrook Academy of Art, the University of Michigan, and Wayne State University He is currently teaching at the College for Creative Studies in Detroit His books include Drawings from Ancient Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1978), The Detroit Institute of Arts: A Brief History (Detroit Institute of Arts), and Splendors of Ancient Egypt (Detroit Institute of Arts) He has published scholarly and popular articles on Greek and Roman sculpture as well as Egyptian art and archaeology He has many years of archaeological experience resulting in a direct familiarity with ancient architectural techniques His travels in Europe, North Africa, and the Near East have given him the opportunity to study firsthand the major monuments of architectural history He has been responsible for a number of exhibitions at the Detroit Institute of Arts and has also lectured on art and archaeology throughout the United States and Canada xii Nancy Sultan received the Ph.D in comparative literature from Harvard University in 1991 She joined the faculty at Illinois Wesleyan in 1993, where she is professor and director of Greek and Roman studies, and chair of the Department of Modern and Classical Languages and Literatures Her scholarly interests are in the areas of Hellenic cultural studies, oral poetics, ethnomusicology, and gender studies Relevant publications include a book, Exile and the Poetics of Loss in Greek Tradition (Rowman and Littlefield, 1999), and several articles on Greek musical traditions: “Private Speech, Public Pain: The Power of Women’s Laments in Greek Poetry & Tragedy,” in Rediscovering the Muses: Women’s Musical Traditions, ed K Marshall (Northeastern, 1992), “Women in ‘Akritic’ Song: The Hero’s ‘Other’ Voice,” in The Journal of Modern Greek Studies (1991), and “New Light on the Function of ‘Borrowed Notes’ in Ancient Greek Music: A Look at Islamic Parallels,” in the Journal of Musicology (1988) Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) Glossary Spina: A low wall dividing a circus or hippodrome lengthwise, so that the chariots could race down one side of the racecourse, turn and then race up the other side Styx: One of nine rivers in the Underworld If the gods took an oath by the River Styx, they feared to break it, for the punishment was terrible Stadium: The Greek stadion was 600 Greek feet (184.9 meters or 606.7 feet) This was exactly the length of the single-course foot race in the Olympic Games and thus this was the length of the Olympic stadium or race course In the Roman period, stadiums acquired stone seats for spectators, though never at Olympia Symposium: An all-male drinking party in Greece where participants sang songs, recited poems and were entertained by musicians and dancers Stasimon: A “standing song.” Any ode sung by the chorus of a Greek drama after the parodos Syracuse: A Greek colony founded by Corinth on the east coast of Sicily in 734 B.C.E With its magnificent harbor, Syracuse became the strongest and most prosperous Greek city in Sicily and a center of Greek culture Steatite: A soft stone made of compacted talc (magnesium silicate), sometimes called soapstone In Minoan Crete it was used for carving vessels, such as the “Harvester Vase.” Stele: (plural: stelai) A vertical slab of stone with an inscription and often decorated, the normal use of which was as a grave marker Stereobate: The lower two steps of the three-stepped foundation of a stone temple Stirrup Jar: A vessel, normally globular in shape, with a small double handle like a stirrup and a thin spout, common in the Late Bronze Age Stoa: A long, rectangular colonnaded building of one or two stories found in marketplaces or sanctuaries In Late Antiquity, the term may designate any building with a colonnade The term, “The Stoa” was sometimes used to designate the Stoic School of Philosophy because the founder of the Stoic School, Zeno of Citium, lacking the wherewithal to lease a hall for his lectures, gave them in the Stoa Poikilé (Painted Stoa) in the Athenian agora (marketplace) Stoa of Attalus: A stoa erected on the edge of the Athenian agora (marketplace) by King Attalus II of Pergamum (159–138 B.C.E.) It was reconstructed in 1953–1956 on its original foundations by the American School of Classical Studies in Athens and is now used as a museum Stoa Poikilé: The “Painted Stoa.” A stoa on the north side of the Athenian agora erected about 460 B.C.E., which housed paintings by leading artists of the fifth century B.C.E., including Polygnotus and Micon Stola: Long, female garment worn by Roman married women, reaching from the neck to the ankles Stucco: Plaster used for coating walls Stylobate: The uppermost step of the three-stepped platform that formed the foundation of a temple The columns stood on the stylobate 472 Syncretism: Identification of one god with another, as of Apollo and the Sun-god, Helios Syrinx: Panpipes A group of hollow reeds or pipes bound together and tuned by cutting the pipes to the proper length to produce a fully graduated musical scale The syrinx was a favorite instrument of shepherds Syssitia: The dining clubs in Sparta where Spartiates who were club members ate their meals together Tablinum: A room in a Roman house opening on to the rear of the atrium Tanagra: The chief town of eastern Boeotia with a territory extending to the sea It is best known for the so-called “Tanagra figurines,” lively little Hellenistic terracotta figures of women and groups from daily life that are found in the graves at Tanagra Tartarus: The region of the Underworld where the souls of evil persons were subjected to terrible punishment Telamon: A male figure, used in place of a column, like a caryatid Temenos: A hallowed segment of land with defined boundaries which was consecrated to a god, where a temple and a altar for sacrifice might be built, though a temenos could exist with no structure on it Tepidarium: The warm room of a Roman bath-house where warm water was available for bathing Terpsichore: The Muse who presides over dancing Terracotta: Hard, brown-red earthenware, usually without a glaze, used for pots, statuettes, and ornamental facings on buildings Terra sigillata: Red-glazed table ware made in molds which imitates metal-ware with embossed decoration It was the common table ware of the Roman Empire Also known as “Samian Ware” and “Arretine Ware.” Tesserae: Small pieces of colored marble or glass used for making mosaics Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) Glossary Tetrarchy: The type of imperial government introduced by the emperor Diocletian (284–305 C.E.) where he took a junior emperor, also called an Augustus, and in addition, each Augustus took a junior colleague called a Caesar Tetrastyle: With four columns at the front, or at the front and back Thalamos: Women’s quarters of a Greek house Theogony: The origin of the gods, or the genealogy of the gods, that is, an account of their ancestry Theophany: A manifestation of a god to man by actually appearing on earth Thermae: Warm springs or warm baths In Rome and other cities of the empire, great public buildings known as “Thermae” were constructed which not only served as public baths but also were cultural centers Thesmophoria: A women’s festival celebrated everywhere in Greece in the autumn, intended to promote the fertility of the grain which had just been sown Tholos: A circular building, or a Mycenaean “beehive” tomb, circular in plan, roofed with a false vault Thymele: A place for sacrifice In the Athenian theater, it was an altar-shaped platform in the middle of the orchestra where the leader of the chorus stood Tibia: In Rome, originally a pipe made of bone with three or four finger-holes; later a double-pipe reed instrument like the Greek aulos with two pipes made of silver, boxwood or ivory It was a national ritual instrument of the Romans and its playing was intended to drown out any malevolent noises during the Roman sacrificial rites which were rigidly prescribed Tibiae pares: The Latin name for a double aulos with pipes of equal length that were evidently played in unison Pipes of unequal length were evidently tuned to play in harmony This was the instrument that provided the music for the plays of Plautus and Terence Tibicines: Tibia players, whose professional organization was one of the oldest in Rome Tiebeam: A piece of timber tying together rafters in a roof, or securing masonry in a wall Tiryns: Site of a Mycenaean citadel close by modern Navplion in Greece, dating to 1400–1200 B.C.E Legend makes Heracles ruler of Tiryns Toga: The Roman national dress: an outer garment consisting of a single piece of cloth with one rounded edge which was wrapped around the body Toga candida: A white toga, made whiter by being rubbed with chalk, which was worn by a candidate for office Toga praetexta: A toga ornamented with a purple stripe, worn by free-born children, and by Roman magistrates Toga pulla: A dark-grey toga worn by mourners Toga pura: An unornamented toga worn by a youth who had laid aside his “toga praetexta” at a coming-of-age ceremony Torsion: In figural art, the turning or twisting of the human body Trabeated: A term in architecture for a post-and-beam building—one that depends on horizontal beams and vertical posts Tragedy: A poetic drama about the vicissitudes of a mythical hero, with an unhappy ending Tragic Trilogy: A set of three tragedies by a tragic poet that was presented on a single day of a dramatic festival such as the City Dionysia in Athens The plots of the tragedies need not deal with the same theme Triclinium: The dining room in a Roman house In later Roman houses, it becomes the chief reception room Triglyph: A slab with three grooves carved in it In the frieze of a Doric temple, a triglyph was placed over each column and another between the columns The slab between the triglyphs was called a “metope.” Trireme: The standard warship of the late Archaic and Classical periods of Greece It was a galley with a ram at the bow, which was rowed by about 170 rowers arrayed in three banks of oars on each side Triumphal Arch: A monumental archway built usually to commemorate a victory Trompe-l’oeil: A French term for painting so true to life that it seems to be real Examples of trompe-l’oeil painting have been found in Second Style wall painting from Pompeii, where the landscape painting gives the impression that the room opens on to a garden Tuba: A Roman straight war-trumpet, as distinguished from the cornu which was curved Besides its military use, it was also used in religious festivals, public games, and funerals Tufa: A porous limestone It underlies Rome and was ideal for tunneling catacombs Tunica: A tunic worn by the Romans as an undergarment Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) 473 Glossary Tyche: Chance, or luck Sometimes “Tyche” is used almost with the meaning of “Providence.” papyri discovered there when it was excavated in 1752 It is the model for the Getty Museum in San Francisco Tympanum: The triangular space formed by the gable at each end of the temple Also called a “pediment.” Volute: A spiral carving on the face and back of an Ionic capital Verde antico: A green marble Voussoir: A wedge-shaped stone which forms part of an arch The voussoir at the top of the arch is the keystone Vergina: Ancient Aegae, the capital of Macedon before it was moved to Pella in 399 B.C.E Aegae remained the place where the kings of Macedon were buried, and in 1977 a Greek archeologist discovered there a tomb which he identified as that of Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great Villa: A country-house, or a farm in the Roman Empire Villa maritima: A seaside villa Xoanon: Primitive, aniconic statue made of wood, usually an ancient cult statue in a temple Villa of the Papyri: A suburban villa outside Herculaneum which was overwhelmed by the eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 C.E It took its name from a cache of carbonized 474 Wanax: A title meaning “lord,” held by the dynasts who ruled from the palaces of the Mycenaean period The first letter of the name, a digamma with the sound “w” became obsolete in classical Greek where the word was spelled anax, and the term was applied only to gods, or, in Homer’s Iliad, to Agamemnon, high king of Mycenae Zakros: Site of a Minoan palace on the eastern shore of Crete, destroyed violently about 1500 B.C.E Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) \ F U RT H E R R E F E R E N C E S G ENERAL Ancient Greek Authors Ed Ward Briggs (Detroit: Gale, 1997) John Kenyon Davies, Democracy and Classical Greece (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993) Glanville Downey, The Later Roman Empire (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969) Graeme Barker and Tom Rasmussen, The Etruscans (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, 1988) J Elsner, Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998) William Biers, The Archaeology of Greece: An Introduction (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996) Michael Grant, The Classical Greeks (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989) Henry C Boren, Roman Society (Lexington, Mass.: D C Heath, 1992) —, Greeks and Romans: A Social History (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1992) Jacob Burckhart, The Greeks and Greek Civilization Trans Sheila Stern (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1998) —, The Rise of the Greeks (New York: Scribners, 1987) A R Burn, The Pelican History of Greece (Harmondsworth, England: Pelican, 1982) Averil Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, AD 284–430 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993) John Camp and Elizabeth Fisher, The World of the Ancient Greeks (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002) Jérome Carcopino, Daily Life in Ancient Rome Trans E O Lorimer (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1941) —, The Routledge Atlas of Classical History (London: Routledge, 1994) Hugh Lloyd-Jones, The Justice of Zeus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983) Oswyn Murray, Early Greece (Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993) The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World Ed John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991) Thomas H Carpenter, Art and Myth in Ancient Greece (London and New York: Thames and Hudson, 1991) The Oxford History of the Roman World Ed John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) Michael Crawford, The Roman Republic (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992) G M Sargeaunt, Classical Studies (London: Chatto and Windus, 1929) 475 Further References C G Starr, Civilization and the Caesars: The Intellectual Revolution in the Roman Empire (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1954) F W Walbank, The Hellenistic World (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993) Colin Wells, The Roman Empire (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992) A RCHITECTURE AND D ESIGN A Boëthius and J B Ward-Perkins, Etruscan and Roman Architecture (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1970) John M Camp, The Archaeology of Athens (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001) J J Coulton, Ancient Greek Architects at Work (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982) William Bell Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece: An Account of Its Historic Development (London: Batsford, 1975) Paola Ceccorelli, “Dancing the Pyrrhiché in Athens,” in Music and the Muses: The Culture of ‘Mousiké’ in the Classical Athenian City Ed Penelope Murray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004): 91–118 Maurice Emmanuel, The Antique Greek Dance, After Sculptured and Painted Figures (London: John Lane, 1916) Elaine Fantham, “Mime: The Missing Link in Roman Literary History,” Classical World 82 (1989): 153–163 Ruby Ginner, Gateway to the Dance (London: Newmann Neame, 1960) Mary Anderson Johnstone, The Dance in Etruria (Florence, Italy: L S Olscki, 1956) E J Jory, “The Pantomime Assistant,” in Ancient History in a Modern University Vol Ed T W Hillard, R Kearsley, C E V Nixon, and A M Noble (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B Eerdmans, 1998): 217–221 Lillian B Lawler, The Dance in Ancient Greece (London: A C Black, 1964) R J Hopper, The Acropolis (New York: Macmillan, 1971) —, The Dance in the Ancient Greek Theater (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1964) Arnold W Lawrence and R A Tomlinson, Greek Architecture (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996) Steven Lonsdale, Animals and the Origins of Dance (London: Thames and Hudson, 1981) William L MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire I: An Introduction (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982) —, Dance and Ritual Play in Greek Religion (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993) —, The Architecture of the Roman Empire II: An Urban Appraisal (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986) Annette Lust, From the Greek Mimes to Marcel Marceau and Beyond: Mimes, Actors, Pierrots and Clowns: A Chronicle of the Many Visages of Mime in the Theatre (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2000) Roland Martin, Greek Architecture: Architecture of Crete, Greece and the Greek World (New York: Electa/Rizzoli, 1988) Frank Sear, Roman Architecture (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989) H A Thompson, The Athenian Agora: A Guide (Athens: American School of Classical Studies, 1976) John Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Athens (London: Thames and Hudson, 1971) J B Ward-Perkins, Roman Architecture (New York: Abrams, 1977) D ANCE E Kerr Borthwick, “Trojan Leap and Pyrrhic Dance,” in Journal of Hellenic Studies 87 (1967): 18–23 476 F G Naerebout, Attractive Performances: Ancient Greek Dance, Three Preliminary Studies (Amsterdam: J C Gieben, 1997) Theodore Petrides, Greek Dance (Athens: Lycabettus Press, 1980) The Quest for Theseus Ed Anne G Ward (New York: Praeger, 1970) C Sachs, World History of the Dance (New York: W W Norton, 1963) T B L Webster, The Greek Chorus (London: Methuen, 1970) Victoria Wohl, “Dirty Dancing in Xenophon’s Symposium,” in Music and the Muses: The Culture of ‘Mousiké’ in the Classical Athenian City Ed Penelope Murray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004): 337–364 Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) Further References F ASHION Ethel B Abrahams, Greek Dress; A Study of the Costumes Worn in Ancient Greece, From Pre-Hellenic Times to the Hellenistic Age (London: John Murray, 1908) J Anderson Black, Madge Garland, and Frances Kenneth, A History of Fashion (London: Orbis, 1980) Larissa Bonfante, Etruscan Dress (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1975) Iris Brooke, Costume in Greek Classic Drama (London: Methuen, 1962) Thomas Hope, Costumes of the Greeks and Romans (New York: Dover Publications, 1962) Mary G Houston, Ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Costumes and Decoration (London: A C Black, 1931; reprint, New York: Dover, 2003) Carl Kaehler, A History of Costume (London: G G Harrap, 1928) Bernice R Jones, “Revealing Minoan Fashions,” Archaelogy, 53/3—May–June (2000): 36–41 Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones and S Blundell, eds., Women’s Dress in the Ancient Greek World (London: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2002) Albrecht Dihle, A History of Greek Literature, From Homer to the Hellenistic Period Trans Clare Krojzl (London: Routledge, 1994) —, Greek and Latin Literature of the Roman Empire, From Augustus to Justinian Trans Manfred Malzohn (London: Routledge, 1994) P E Easterling and B M W Knox, eds., The Cambridge History of Classical Literature Vol I, Greek Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981) Moses Hadas, A History of Latin Literature (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1952) Gilbert Highet, Poets in a Landscape (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1957) E J Kenney, ed., The Cambridge History of Classical Literature Vol II, Latin Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982) Richmond Lattimore, The Poetry of Greek Tragedy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003) Albin Lesky, A History of Greek Literature Trans James Willis and Cornelis de Heer (London: Methuen, 1966) Peter Levi, A History of Greek Literature (New York: Viking Penguin, 1985) T J Luce, The Greek Historians (London: Routledge, 1997) Roman Military Equipment: The Accoutrements of War Proceedings of the Third Roman Military Equipment Research Seminar Ed Sinclair Bell and Glenys Davies (Oxford: Archaeopress, 1987) Arnaldo Momigliano, The Development of Greek Biography (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993) C Vout, “The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress,” Greece and Rome 43 (1996): 204–220 Barry B Powell, Writing and the Origins of Greek Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002) Adele Coulin Weibel, Two Thousand Years of Textiles: The Figured Textiles of Europe and the Near East (New York: Pantheon, 1952) Gregory Nagy, Greek Mythology and Poetics (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992) Michael C J Putnam, Virgil’s Aeneid: Interpetation and Influence (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1995) Elizabeth Rawson, Intellectual Life in the Late Roman Republic (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985) L ITERATURE Piero Boitani, The Shadow of Ulysses: Figures of a Myth Trans Anita Weston (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994) Susanna Morton Braund, Latin Literature (London: Routledge, 2002) Gian Biagio Conte, Latin Literature: A History Trans Joseph Solodow Rev Don Fowler and Glen Most (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994) H J Rose, A Handbook of Greek Literature from Homer to Lucian (London: Methuen, 1951) —, A Handbook of Latin Literature from Earliest Times to the Death of St Augustine (London: Methuen, 1954) Ruth Scodel, Theater and Society in the Classical World (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1993) Michael von Albrecht, A History of Roman Literature from Livius Andronicus to Boethius, with Special Regard for Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) 477 Further References Its Influence on World Literature (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1997) Ancient Greek Society and Beliefs (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1970) David Wiles, The Masks of Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991) Ancient Women Philosophers: 600 B.C.–500 A.D Ed Mary Ellen Waithe (Dordrecht, Netherlands: M Nijhoff, 1987) John J Winkler and Froma Zeitlin, Nothing to Do with Dionysos: Athenian Drama in its Social Context (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996) Atoms, Pneuma and Tranquillity: Epicurean and Stoic Themes in European Thought Ed Margaret J Osler (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991) T P Wiseman, Roman Drama and Roman History (Exeter, England: University of Exeter Press) Jonathan Barnes, Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) —, Early Greek Philosophy (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 2001) M USIC Warren D Anderson, Ethos and Education in Greek Music: The Evidence of Poetry and Philosophy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966) —, Music and Musicians in Ancient Greece (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994) Giovanni Comotti, Music in Greek and Roman Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969) Greek Musical Writings Ed Andrew Barker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984) W A Johnson, “Musical Evenings in the Early Empire,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 120 (2000): 37–85 John G Landels, Music in Ancient Greece and Rome (London: Routledge, 1998) Thomas J Mathiesen, Apollo’s Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1999) Solon Michaelides, The Music of Ancient Greece: An Encyclopedia (London: Faber, 1978) Johannes Quasten, Music and Worship in Pagan and Christian Antiquity Trans Boniface Ramsey (Washington, D.C.: National Association of Pastoral Musicians, 1983) Martin L West, Ancient Greek Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) —, Logic and the Imperial Stoa (New York: Brill, 1997) The Blackwell Guide to Ancient Philosophy Ed Chrisopher Shields (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2003) The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy Ed A A Long (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Philosophy Ed David Sedley (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) Janet Coleman, A History of Political Thought from Ancient Greece to Early Christianity (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000) Will Durant, The Story of Philosophy 2nd ed (Garden City, N.Y.: Garden City Publishing Co., 1943) Essays in the Philosophy of Socrates Ed Hugh H Benson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) From Myth to Reason? Studies in the Development of Greek Thought Ed Richard Buxton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) From the Beginning to Plato Ed C C W Taylor (London: Routledge, 1997) B A G Fuller, History of Greek Philosophy vols (New York: Henry Holt, 1923–1931) R P Winnington-Ingram, Mode in Ancient Greek Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1936) The Greeks and the Environment Ed Laura Westra and Thomas M Robinson (Lanham Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1997) P HILOSOPHY G S Kirk, J E Raven, and M Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) Arthur W H Adkins, From the Many to the One: A Study of Personality and Views of Human Nature in the Context of A A Long, Hellenistic Philosophers: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics (New York: Scribners, 1974) 478 Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) Further References Luis E Navia, The Presocratic Philosophers: An Annotated Bibliography (New York: Garland, 1993) —, Oxford Readings in Greek Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) H D Rankin, Sophists, Socratics, and Cynics (Totowa, N.J.: Barnes and Noble, 1983) —, The Religions of the Roman Empire (London: Thames and Hudson; Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1970) Margaret Reesor, The Nature of Man in Early Stoic Philosophy (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1989) Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1960) The Stoic and Epicurean Philosophers: The Complete Extant Writings of Epicurus, Epictetus, Lucretius and Marcus Aurelius Ed Whitney J Oates (New York: Modern Library, 1940) Gregory Vlastos, Plato’s Universe (Seattle, Wash.: University of Washington, 1975) —, Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991) Robin Waterfield, The First Philosophers: The Presocratics and the Sophists (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) R ELIGION Clifford Ando, ed., Roman Religion (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2003) Mary Beard and John North, eds., Pagan Priests: Religion and Power in the Ancient World (London: Duckworth, 1990) Mary Beard, John North, Simon Price, Religions of Rome (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) G W Bowersock, Hellenism in Late Antiquity (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990) Jan N Bremmer, Greek Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994; reprint, 1999) Norman O Brown, Hermes the Thief: The Evolution of a Myth (Great Barrington, Md.: Lindisfarne Press, 1990) Arthur B Cook, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (New York: Biblo and Tannen, 1964) Etruscan Life and Afterlife; A Handbook of Etruscan Studies Ed Larissa Bonfante (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986) Denis Feeney, Literature and Religion at Rome: Culture, Contexts and Beliefs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) Robert Garland, The Greek Way of Death 2nd ed (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2002) Michael Grant, Jesus: An Historian’s Review of the Gospels (New York: Scribner, 1977) —, Roman Myths (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1973) —, Saint Peter: A Biography (New York: Scribner, 1995) Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity (Harmondsworth, England: Peregrine Books, 1978) Karl Kerényi, Hermes, Guide of Souls: The Mythologies of the Masculine Source of Life Trans Murray Stein (Dallas, Tex.: Spring Publications, 1986) —, Zeus and Hera; Archetypal Image of Father, Husband, and Wife Trans Christopher Holme (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975) D C Kurtz and John Boardman, Greek Burial Customs (London: Thames and Hudson, 1971) Margaret Littleton, The Romans: Their Gods and Their Beliefs (London: Orbis, 1984) Martin Nilsson, A History of Greek Religion Trans F J Fielden (New York: Norton, 1964) Walter Burkert, Homo Necans; The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth Trans Peter Bing (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983) —, Cults, Myths, Oracles, and Politics in Ancient Greece (Lund, Sweden: P Aströms Förlag, 1986) —, Greek Religion, Archaic and Classical Trans Paul Raffan (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985) —, Greek Folk-Religion (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978) Richard Buxton, ed., Among the Gods: An Archaeological Exploration of Ancient Greek Religion (London and New York: Routledge, 1989) —, Greek Piety Trans H J Rose (London: Oxford University Press, 1948) —, Greek and Roman Religion: A Sourcebook (Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Press, 1980) Arthur Darby Nock, Conversion: The Old and the New in Religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo (London: Oxford University Press, 1933) Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) 479 Further References J A North, Roman Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) Kenneth McLeish, A Guide to Greek Theatre and Drama (London: Methuen, 2003) Eric Orlin, Temples, Religion, and Politics in the Roman Republic (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1997) Rush Rehm, Greek Tragic Theatre (London: Routledge, 1992) H W Parke, Greek Oracles (London: Hutchinson, 1967) —, Radical Theatre: Greek Tragedy and the Modern World (London: Duckworth, 2002) —, Sibyls and Sibylline Prophecy in Classical Antiquity Ed B C McGing (London: Routledge, 1988) Niall W Slater, Plautus in Performance: The Theatre of the Mind (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic, 2000) Simon Price, Religions of the Ancient Greeks (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) J Michael Walton, Greek Theatre Practice (London: Methuen Drama, 1991) W H D Rouse, Gods, Heroes and Men in Ancient Greece (New York: New American Library, 1957) —, Living Greek Theatre: A Handbook of Classical Performance and Modern Production (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1987) —, Greek Votive Offerings; An Essay in the History of Greek Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1902) T B L Webster, Greek Theatre Production (London: Methuen, 1974) Joanne Stroud and Gail Thomas, eds., The Olympians: Ancient Deities as Archetypes (New York: Continuum, 1996) David Wiles, Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000) J C Toynbee, Death and Burial in the Roman World (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1971) Jennifer Wise, Dionysus Writes: The Invention of the Theatre in Ancient Greece (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998) Louise Bruit Zaidman and Pauline Schmitt Pantel, Religion in the Greek City Trans Paul Cartledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992) V ISUAL A RTS Bernard Andreae, The Art of Rome (New York: Abrams, 1977) T HEATER Peter Arnott, An Introduction to the Greek Theatre (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1967) —, The Ancient Greek and Roman Theatre (New York: Random House, 1971) —, Public and Performance in the Greek Theatre (London: Routledge, 1991) Clifford Ashby, Classical Greek Theatre: New Views of an Old Subject (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999) H C Baldry, The Greek Tragic Theatre (London: Chatto and Windus, 1981) Crossing the Stage: The Production, Performance, and Reception of Ancient Theatre Ed John Porter, Eric Csapo, C W Marshall, and Robert C Ketterer Vol 10 of Syllecta Classica (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999) Charles Garton, Personal Aspects of the Roman Theatre (Toronto: Hakkert, 1972) Richard Green and Eric Handley, Image of the Greek Theater (Austin, Tex.: University of Texas Press, 1995) 480 John Penrose Barron, Greek Sculpture (London: Studio Vista, 1965) John Boardman, Greek Art 4th ed (London: Thames and Hudson, 1996) Richard Brilliant, The Arts of the Ancient Greeks (New York: McGraw Hill, 1973) Jean Charbonneaux, Roland Martin, and Franỗois Villard, Archaic Greek Art (New York: Braziller, 1971) —, Classical Greek Art (New York: Braziller, 1972) —, Hellenistic Art (New York: Braziller, 1973) Mark D Fullerton, Greek Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000) A Handbook of Roman Art: A Comprehensive Survey of All the Arts of the Roman World Ed Martin Henig (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987) George M A Hanfmann, Roman Art: A Modern Survey of the Art of Imperial Rome (Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic Society, 1964) Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) Further References Niels Hannestad, Roman Art and Imperial Policy (Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 1986) Gisela M A Richter, A Handbook of Greek Art (New York: Capo Press, 1987) Ernst Kjellberg and Gösta Säflund, Greek and Roman Art, 3000 B.C to A.D 550 (London: Faber and Faber, 1968) Martin Robertson, A History of Greek Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975) Walter S Lowrie, Art in the Early Church (New York: Norton, 1969) —, A Shorter History of Greek Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981) Nigel J Spivey, Greek Art (London: Phaidon, 1997) Paul MacKendrick, The Greek Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Greek Lands 2nd ed (New York: Norton, 1981) James Stevenson, The Catacombs: Rediscovered Monuments of Early Christianity (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978) —, The Mute Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Italy 2nd ed (New York: Norton, 1983) Donald Strong, Roman Art 2nd ed (London: Penguin Books, 1990) John Griffiths Pedley, Greek Art and Archaeology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1993) Mario Torelli, “The Frescoes of the Great Hall of the Villa at Boscoreale: Iconography and Politics,” in Myth, History and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in Honor of T P Wiseman Ed David Braund and Christopher Gill (Exeter, England: University of Exeter Press, 2003): 217–256 J J Pollitt, Art and Experience in Classical Greece (London: Cambridge University Press, 1993) Nancy H Ramage and Andrew Ramage, Roman Art: Romulus to Constantine (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1996) Susan Walker, Roman Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991) Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) 481 \ MEDIA AND ONLINE SOURCES G ENERAL The Ancient City of Athens (http://www.indiana.edu/ ~kglowack/athens/)—The Ancient City of Athens contains links for the most important sites and monuments, essays, an Internet tour of the city, teaching and learning resources for students and teachers, and related links Take a “virtual” visit to Athens and see the setting of history, culture, and literature come alive Atrium (http://web.idirect.com/~atrium/)—Atrium includes “This Day in History,” which provides the Roman date and important events that occurred on any given day; “The Ancient World on Television,” a list of television programs about antiquity on the History Channel, The Learning Channel, PBS, and network series; Archaeology’s Top 100, and many other resources Diotima (http://www.stoa.org/diotima/)—Diotima, a storehouse of resources for the study of women and gender in the ancient world, fulfills many functions It contains bibliographies from ancient gender and family courses from institutions across the country as well as bibliographies and research guides to dozens of topics related to the study of men and women, a refereed journal section with essays published by leading scholars, a database for biblical studies, and a catalog of imagery Perseus Digital Library (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/)— The Perseus Digital Library provided by Tufts University is a primary source for a wide range of materials, including ancient texts and illustrations of objects and monuments There are a number of classical sites included with extensive illustrations of the ruins and monuments Providence College’s page on Roman Art and Architecture (http://www.providence.edu/dwc/romaarch.htm)—This website is a critical list of other websites on Roman architecture with information on their content and comments on their quality and characteristics Vroma (http://www.vroma.org/)—Vroma, a virtual community for teaching and learning Classics, includes games, photos, and interactive media The website allows users to become a Roman character and interact with other characters in a virtual Rome circa 150 C.E Women’s Life in Greece and Rome (http://www.stoa.org/ diotima/anthology/wlgr/)—This is the on-line searchable version of Women’s Life in Greece and Rome A Source Book in Translation, edited and translated by Mary R Lefkowitz and Maureen B Fant, 2nd ed (Baltimore, Md.: 1992) This is a useful compilation of primary sources for the study of women in Ancient Gree and Rome A RCHITECTURE AND V ISUAL A RTS The American School at Rome (http://www.aarome.org/ programs/classical.htm)—This site is useful for the study of Roman art, history, and archaeology The American School of Classical Studies at Athens (http:// www.ascsa.edu.gr/)—This website is a principal resource for research on the art, history, and archaeology of Greece and the Greek world from pre-Hellenic times to the present Connected to it is the website of the Athenian Agora Excavations (http://www.agathe.gr/) that offers an opportunity to visit an excavation in 483 Media and Online Sources progress, the work that has been done, as well as the reconstrucion of the stoa carried out by the American School in Athens Classical Architecture at Loggia (http://www.loggia.com/ designarts/architecture/classical.html)—This website is a particularly useful site for illustrations of Greek and Roman architecture Often several views of a building and its situation in a context are included The Getty Museum Collections (http://www.getty.edu/art/ collections/bio/a595-1.html)— This website from the Getty Museum in Los Angeles presents a biography of the Marsyas Painter, the last of the great Athenian vase painters working in the red-figure style There is also an image of a work attributed to the Marsyas Painter The University of Colorado at Colorado Springs page on Greek Art and Architecture (http://harpy.uccs.edu/greek/ greek.html)—The University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, sponsors this website on Greek architecture and art with many good links to other sites F ASHION Illustrated History of the Roman Empire (http://www.romanempire.net/society/soc-dress.html)—The site contains pictures of Roman dress and brief descriptions, including short sections on footwear, hairstyles, and beards have been transmitted by ancient theoreticians (of the Pythagorean school, most of them cited by Ptolemaios) Instruments and speed are chosen by the author The exact sound depends on the hard- and software used Music from Ancient Rome, Vol Wind Instruments Walter/ Ravenstein, Natalia van Maioli, Luce Maioli, et al (Amiata #1396, 1996)—This CD includes performances of primarily cultic music from Imperial Rome, based on the research of Synaulia and Walter Maioli, performed on reconstructions of ancient pipes, trumpets, and other aerophones Includes notes Music from Ancient Rome, Vol 2: String Instruments Performed by Synaulia (Amiata #1002, 2002)—This CD includes performances of primarily cultic music from Imperial Rome, based on the research of Synaulia and Walter Maioli, performed on reconstructions of ancient lyres Includes notes Music of Ancient Greece Christodoulos Halaris and instrumental ensemble, vocal soloists (Orata, 1994)—This CD includes Pindar’s First Pythionic Hymn, a chorus from Euripedes’ Orestes, a chant to Apollo, and a hymn to the Holy Trinity (based on ancient Greek musical theory) Includes 80 pp booklet Metropolitan Museum of Art (http://www.metmuseum.org/ collections/department.asp?dep=13)—This is a web page sponsored by the Metropolitan Museum in New York It offers pictures of Greek vases and sculpture to illustrate various types of dress Music of the Ancient Greeks De Organographia—Gayle Neuman, Philip Neuman, William Gavin (Pandourion Records, PRCD 1001, 1997)—This CD features ancient Greek music from 500 B.C to 300 A.D performed on voice and copies of ancient Greek instruments including kithara, lyra, aulos, syrinx, seistron, tympanon, pandoura, trichordon, photinx, salpinx, kymbala, and others Full listing of instrumentation and photos of ancient Greek instruments included Roman Clothing I and II (http://www.vroma.org/ ~bmcmanus/clothing.html)—This site is recommended for its section on fashionable Roman hairstyles and jewelry There are numerous connections to sites with illustrations Musique de la Grèce antique Gregorio Paniagua and Atrium Musicae de Madrid (Harmonia Mundia, 1979)—This CD recreates the music for 22 of the extant fragments of ancient Greek music, performed on modern replicas of ancient instruments Includes detailed liner notes M USIC Musiques de l’Antiquité Grecque Annie Bélis and the Kérylos ensemble (K617, 1996)—This CD includes performances of fifteen fragments of ancient Greek music, including four Mesomedes’ songs and the Christian Hymn of Oxyrhynchus Ancient Greek and Roman Music, Selected Bibliography (http://titan.iwu.edu/∼classics/music.html)— This website contains several citations for further research on Ancient Greek and Roman music Ancient Greek Music at the Austrian Academy of Sciences (http://www.oeaw.ac.at/kal/agm/)—This site contains all published fragments of Ancient Greek music which contain more than a few scattered notes All of them are recorded under the use of tunings whose exact ratios 484 Oxyrhynchus Online (http://www.csad.ox.ac.uk/POxy/)— This online publication of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri from the excavations at Oxyrhynchus, Egypt, contains fragments of ancient Greek and Roman literature, music theory, and notated music Sappho de Mytilene Angelique Ionatos and Nena Venetsanou (Paris: Tempo, A6168, 1991)—This CD includes poems Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) Media and Online Sources of Sappho sung in ancient and modern Greek by two female vocalists The music is composed by Ionatos, and sounds very Greek (using both ancient and modern instruments) Modern Greek versions are by Nobel laureate Odysseus Elytis $18.98 available from Ladyslipper The Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum (TML) (http://www music.indiana.edu/tml/start.html)—The Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum (TML) is an evolving database of the entire corpus of Latin music theory written during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance The University of Michigan Papyrus Collection (http://www lib.umich.edu/pap/)—This collection contains over 10,000 fragments The website provides on-line public access to one of the largest collections of papyri in the world and, through the APIS search engine, to other papyrological resources Musical documents are included in the collection Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) 485 \ A C K N OW L E D G M E N T S The editors wish to thank the copyright holders of the excerpted material included in this volume and the permissions managers of many book and magazine publishing companies for assisting us in securing reproduction rights Following is a list of the copyright holders who have granted us permission to reproduce material in this volume of Arts and Humanities Through the Eras Every effort has been made to trace copyrights, but if omissions have been made, please let us know COPYRIGHTED EXCERPTS IN ARTS AND HUMANITIES THROUGH THE ERAS: ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME WERE REPRODUCED FROM THE FOLLOWING BOOKS: Anonymous From “PGM I 247–62,” in The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation, Including the Demotic Spells Edited by Hans Dieter Betz The University of Chicago Press, 1986 © 1986 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved Reproduced by permission.—Apuleius, Lucius From The Golden Ass Translated by E J Kennedy Penguin Books, 1950 Translation copyright © 1998 E J Kennedy Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd.—Aristophanes From “Peace,” in The Context of Ancient Drama Edited by Eric Csapo and William J Slater The University of Michigan Press, 1994 Copyright © by the University of Michigan, 1994 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission.— Aristophanes From The Wasps The Poet and the Women the Frogs Translated by David Barrett Penguin Books, 1964 Copyright © David Barrett, 1964 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Aristotle From Classical Literary Criticism Trans- lated with an Introduction by T S Dorsch Penguin Classics, 1965 Copyright © 1965 T S Dorsch Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Aristotle From Metamorphosis, Books I–IX Translated by Hugh Tredennick Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1996 Copyright © 1996 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of the publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library.—Aristotle From Poetics Edited and translated by Stephen Halliwell Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1995 Copyright © 1995 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College All rights reserved The Loeb Classical Library (R) is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College Reproduced by permission of the publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library.—Aristotle From The Politics Translated by T A Sinclair, revised by Trevor J Saunders Penguin Books, 1981 Translation © 1962 the Estate of T A Sinclair Revised translation copyright © Trevor J Saunders, 1981 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.— Athanassakis, Apostolos N From The Homeric Hymns Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976 Copyright © 1976 by The Johns Hopkins University Press All rights reserved Reproduced by permission.—Euripides From “Helen,” in Greek Musical Writing Vol I: The Musician and his Art Edited by Andrew Barker Cambridge University Press, 1984 © Cambridge University Press, 1984 Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge University Press.—Euripides From Ten Plays by Euripides Translated by Moses Hadas and John McLean Bantam Books, 1985 Copyright 1936 by The Dial Press, Inc Copyright 487 Acknowledgments 1950 by The Liberal Arts Press, Inc Reproduced by permission of the Estate of Moses Hadas.—Herodotus From The Histories Translated by Aubrey de Selincourt Penguin Books, 1972 Translation copyright © by Aubrey De Selincourt, 1954 Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Homer From The Odyssey Translated by Robert Fagles Penguin Books, 1996 Copyright © Robert Fagles, 1996 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, a division of Penguin Putnam Inc.—Horace From Odes Translated by James Michie The Modern Library, 2002 Translation, notes and glossary copyright © 1963 by James Michie Reproduced by permission of the translator.—Livy From Rome and Italy: Books VI–X of the History of Rome from Its Foundation Translated by Betty Radice Penguin Books, 1982 Copyright © Betty Radice, 1982 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Livy From The Early History of Rome: Books I–V of The History of Rome from Its Foundation Translated by Aubrey De Selincourt Penguin Books, 1971 Copyright © 1960 Aubrey de Selincourt Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Lucian From “On Dancing,” in The Context and Ancient Drama Edited by Eric Csapo and William J Slater The University of Michigan Press, 1994 Copyright © by the University of Michigan 1994 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission.—Lucian From Satirical Sketches Translated by Paul Turner Penguin Books, 1961 Copyright © Paul Turner, 1961 Reproduced by permission of London Management.—Lucretius From “Matter and Space,” in On the Nature of the Universe Translated by R E Latham Revised with Introduction by John Goodwin Penguin Classics, 1951 Translation copyright © 1951 by R E Latham Introduction and notes © 1994 John Goodwin All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Macrobius From The Saturnalia Translated by Percival Vaughan Davies Columbia University Press, 1969 Copyright © 1969 Columbia Press All rights reserved Republished with permission of the Columbia University Press, 61 W 62nd St., New York, NY 10023.—Ovid From Fasti Translated by A J Boyle and R D Woodward Penguin Classics, 2000 Translation copyright © A J Boyle and R D Woodward, 2000 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Ovid From The Love Poems Translated by A D Melville Oxford University Press, 1990 Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press.—Pausanias From The Art of Greece, 1400–31 B.C., Sources and Documents Edited by J J Pollitt Prentice–Hall, Inc., 1965 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press.— Plato From Republic Translated by G M A Grube 488 Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 1992 Copyright © 1992 by Hackett Publishing Company, Inc All rights reserved Reproduced by permission.—Plato From The Last Days of Socrates Translated by Hugh Tredennick Penguin Classics, 1969 Copyright © Hugh Tredennick, 1954, 1959, 1969 Copyright © Harold Tarrant All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Plato From The Laws Translated by Trevor J Saunders Penguin, Books, 1988 Copyright © Trevor J Saunders, 1970 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Platonius From “On the Differences of the Comedies,” in The Context of Ancient Drama Edited by Eric Csapo and William J Slater The University of Michigan Press, 1994 Reproduced by permission.—Pliny From “Myron of Eleutherai,” and “Natural History,” in The Art of Greece, 1400–31 B.C Sources and Documents Edited by J J Pollitt Prentice–Hall, Inc., 1965 © 1965 by Prentice– Hall, Inc All rights reserved Both reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press.—Pliny From The Letters of the Younger Pliny Translated by Betty Radice Penguin Books, 1969 Copyright © Betty Radice, 1963, 1969 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Plutarch From Plutarch’s Lives Translated by Bernadotte Perrin Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1967 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of the publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library.—Plutarch From The Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives by Plutarch Penguin Books, 1960 Copyright © Ian Scott–Kilvert, 1960 All rights reserved Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Pollitt, J J From The Art of Rome c 753 B.C – 337 A.D.: Sources and Documents Prentice–Hall, Inc., 1966 © 1966 by Prentice–Hall, Inc All rights reserved Used by permission of Cambridge University Press.—Sappho of Lesbos From Greek Lyrics Translated by Richmond Lattimore University of Chicago Press, 1960 Copyright 1949, 1955, and 1960 by Richmond Lattimore Renewed 1988 by Steven Lattimore All rights reserved Reproduced by permission.—Semonides of Amorgos From Greek Lyrics Translated by Richmond Lattimore University of Chicago Press, 1960 Copyright 1949, 1955, and 1960 by Richmond Lattimore Renewed 1988 by Steven Lattimore All rights reserved Reproduced by permission.—Sophocles From The Theban Plays Translated by E F Watling Penguin Classics, 1947 Copyright © 1947 E F Watling Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.—Thucydides From “An introduction,” in History of the Peloponnesian War Translated by Rex Warner Penguin Books, 1954 Translation © Rex Warner, 1954 Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Greece and Rome (1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) ... Rhodes; the Ionians in control of Attica, the island of Euboea and the western central coastline of Asia Minor including the offshore island; and the Aeolians in control of Lesbos and a portion of the. .. by the Etruscans The singular innovations of the Romans were the more general use of the arch and the development of the vault and the dome These forms were made possible by the employment of. .. well-defined There was the Bronze Age: the era of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete and the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland Then, for reasons modern historians not understand, there