The routledge encyclopedia of resesearch methods in applied linguistics a mehdi riazi, routledge, 2016 scan

The Routledge Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics The Routledge Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics provides accessible and concise explanations of key concepts and terms related to research methods in applied linguistics Encompassing the three research paradigms of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods, this volume is an essential reference for any student or researcher working in this area This volume provides: • A–Z coverage of 570 key methodological terms • detailed analysis of each entry that includes an explanation of the head word, a visual illustration, cross-references, and further references for readers • an index of core concepts for quick reference Comprehensively covering research method terminology used across all strands of applied linguistics, this encyclopedia is a must-have reference for the applied linguistics community A Mehdi Riazi is associate professor in the Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University His areas of interest include research methodology, second-language writing, language learning strategies, and test validation Editorial Advisory Board: Keith Richards, Warwick University, UK Steven Ross, University of Maryland, US “This book is an invaluable resource for applied linguistics researchers, beginning and experienced alike The book, further, is an extraordinary achievement for a single author, revealing Riazi’s strong command and understanding of issues relating to applied linguistics research I will most certainly be recommending it to my students.” Brian Paltridge, University of Sydney, Australia “The Routledge Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics is an important resource for researchers in this field of study It provides an up-to-date and comprehensive reference guide to core constructs and covers key concepts in quantitative, qualitative and mixedmethod approaches This volume will serve as a useful tool for both novice and experienced researchers in applied linguistics and related subject areas.” Jane Jackson, The Chinese University of Hong Kong The Routledge Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods research A Mehdi Riazi First published 2016 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2016 A Mehdi Riazi The right of A Mehdi Riazi to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Riazi, A Mehdi, author   The Routledge Encyclopedia of research methods in applied linguistics : quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods research / A Mehdi Riazi   pages cm   Includes bibliographical references and index   1.  Language and languages––Study and teaching––Research––Methodology–– Encyclopedias.  2.  Second language acquisition––Research––Methodology––Encyclopedias 3.  Applied linguistics––Research––Methodology––Encyclopedias.  I.  Title   P53.755.R79 2016  418.007––dc23  2015025105 ISBN: 978-0-415-81627-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-65676-2 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC To my wife, Mahvash, who has been a sincere companion for me all through my life! To my sons, Ali, Amin, and Hamed, and to all my teachers and students, past, present, and future This page intentionally left blank Contents List of figures List of tables Preface Acknowledgements List of abbreviations The encyclopedia Further reading Index viii x xi xiii xiv 1–354 355 379 vii Figures A.1 A.2 B.1 C.1 C.2 C.3 C.4 D.1 D.2 D.3 E.1 E.2 E.3 E.4 E.5 F.1 H.1 I.1 I.2 I.3 I.4 K.1 L.1 L.2 L.3 L.4 M.1 M.2 M.3 M.4 M.5 N.1 N.2 viii A-B-A time-series design Action research Bar chart Conceptualisation stage in the research process Concurrent triangulation mixed-methods design Confidence interval Confirmatory research Role of data in research Deductive approach to research Development purpose in mixed-methods research Embedded (nested) mixed-methods research design Role of evidence in making claims Expansion purpose in mixed-methods research Explanatory sequential mixed-methods design Exploratory sequential mixed-methods designs Fully integrated mixed-methods designs Histogram with normal curve An inductive approach to research Inferential stage in the research process Using inferential statistics to draw inferences about the target population Initiation purpose in mixed-methods research Different types of kurtic distributions Levels of measurement Line of best fit in linear regression Line graph Key questions when planning literature review Meta-inference in mixed-methods research Methodological stage in the research process Sequential mixed-methods design with development purpose Monostrand conversion mixed design Multilevel mixed data analysis An example of a negatively skewed distribution Normal distribution 18 45 47 48 50 79 84 92 102 110 112 115 116 125 133 140 144 145 147 168 171 174 175 176 185 187 191 197 198 211 216 Figures O.1 P.1 P.2 P.3 P.4 P.5 P.6 P.7 P.8 Q.1 R.1 S.1 S.2 S.3 S.4 S.5 T.1 W.1 The process of operationalisation Parallel mixed-methods designs Partial correlation An example of a path analysis diagram An example of a pie chart Population in quantitative research An example of a positively skewed distribution Graphical representation of a posttest-only design Graphical representation of a pre(non)-experimental design Stages in qualitative data analysis A graphical representation of a repeated measurement An example of a scatterplot Schematic diagram of the scientific method An example of a semantic differential scale Another example of a semantic differential scale An example of pattern of responses in a semantic differential scale Thematic analysis The role of warrant in an argument 221 227 232 234 238 241 242 244 247 256 272 287 288 290 290 290 319 349 ix Further Reading McNaughton, M. J (2009) Closing the picture: Analysing interaction in video recordings International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8(4), 27–48 Menard, S (2002) Applied logistic regression analysis (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Menard, S (2008) Panel analysis with logistic regression In S Menard (Ed.), Handbook of longitudinal research: Design, measurement, and analysis (pp. 505–522) San Francisco, CA: Academic Press Mertens, D M (2003) Mixed methods and the politics of human research: The transformativeemancipatory perspective In A Tashakkori & C Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioural research (pp. 135–166) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Mertens, D M (2007) Transformative paradigm: Mixed methods and social justice Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1, 212–225 Mertler, C A (2009) Action research: Teachers as resesarchers in the classroom (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Messick, S (March 1989) Meaning and values in test validation: The science and ethics of assessment Educational Researcher, 5–11 Messick, S (1992) Validity of test interpretation and use In M. C Alkin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research (6th ed., pp. 1487–1495) New York: Macmillan Meyer, C (2002) English corpus linguistics: An introduction Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Michell, J (2003) The quantitative imperative: Positivism, naive realism, and the place of qualitative methods in psychology Theory & Psychology, 13, 5–31 Miles, M B., & Huberman, M (1994) Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook for new methods (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Miles, M B Huberman, A M., & Saldana, J (2014) Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Mooney, C Z., & Duval, R D (1993). Bootstrapping: A nonparametric approach to statistical inference Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Moore, D. S (2007) The basic practice of statistics (4th ed.) New York: W H Freeman Moorman, R H., & Podsakoff, P M (1992) A meta-analytic review and empirical test of the potential confounding effects of social desirability response sets in organizational behaviour research Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 65, 131–149 Moran, D., & Mooney, T (2002).The phenomenology reader New York: Routledge Morgan, D (2007) Paradigms lost and paradigms regained: Methodological implications of combining qualitative and quantitative methods Journal of Mixed-methods Research, 1, 48–76 Morgan, D (2008) Paradigms lost and paradigms regained In V L Plano Clark & J W Creswell (Eds.), The mixed-methods reader (pp. 29–65) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Moriceau, J L (2005) Faceless figures: Is a socially responsible decision possible? In Y Pesqueux & M Bonnafous-Boucher (Eds.), Stakeholder theory: A European perspective (pp. 89–103) Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan Morse, J M (1991) Approaches to qualitative-quantitative methodological triangulation Nursing Research, 40, 120–123 Morse, J M (1995) The significance of saturation Qualitative Research, 5, 147–149 Morse, J M (2008) Approaches to qualitative-quantitative methodological triangulation In V L Plano Clark & J W Creswell (Eds), The mixed methods reader (pp. 151–158) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Morse, J. M (2010) “Cherry picking”: Writing from thin data Qualitative Health Research, 20(1), 3 Mostyn, B (1985) The content analysis of qualitative research data: A dynamic approach In M Brenner, J Brown, & D Canter (Eds.), The research interview: Uses and approaches (pp. 115–145) London: Academic Press Mounce, H. O (1997) The two pragmatisms: From Peirce to Rorty New York: Routledge Mueller, D J (1986) Measuring social attitudes: A handbook for researchers and practitioners New York: Teachers College Press Nash, R (2005) Explanation and quantification in education research: The arguments of critical and scientific realism British Educational Research Journal, 31, 185–204 Nespor, J 2000 Anonymity and place in qualitative inquiry Qualitative Inquiry, 6(4), 546–569 Neuman, W L (2011) Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (7th ed.) Boston, MA: Pearson Newell, R W (1986). Objectivity, empiricism and truth London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Nola, R., & Sanky, H (2007) Theories of scientific method Montréal, Québec, Canada: McGill-Queens University Press 370 Further Reading Norris, J M., & Ortega, L (2006) Synthesizing research on language learning and teaching Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company Norris, J M., & Ortega, L (2007) The future of research synthesis in applied linguistics: Beyond art or science TESOL Quarterly, 41(4), 805–815 Norris, S (2004) Analysing multimodal interaction: A methodological framework London: Routledge Nunan, D (1992) Research methods in language learning Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ochs, E (1979) Transcription as theory In E Ochs & B. B Schiefflin (Eds.), Developmental pragmatics (pp 43–72) New York: Academic Press Ochs, E (1990). Indexicality and socialization In J Stigler, G Herdt, & R Shweder (Eds.), Cultural psychology: Essays on comparative human development (pp. 287–308) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press O’Hear, A (Ed.) (1996). Verstehen and humane understanding Supplement to Philosophy, Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement 41 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Olejnik, S., & Algina, J (2000) Measures of effect size for comparative studies: Applications, interpretations, and limitations Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 241–286 Onwuegbuzie, A J (2003) Effect size in qualitative research: A prolegomenon Quality and Quantity, 37(4), 393–409 Onwuegbuzie, A J., & Johnson, R B (2004) Mixed method and mixed model research In B Johnson & L Christensen (Eds.), Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches (pp. 408–431) Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon Onwuegbuzie, A J., & Johnson, R B (2006) The validity issue in mixed research Research in the Schools, 13, 48–63 Onwuegbuzie, A J., & Johnson, R B (2008) The validity issue in mixed research In V L Plano Clark & J W Creswell (Eds.), The mixed methods reader (pp. 273–298) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Onwuegbuzie, A J., & Leech, N L (2004) Enhancing the interpretation of “significant” findings: The role of mixed methods research The Qualitative Report, 9, 770–792 Onwuegbuzie, A J., & Teddlie, C (2003) A framework for analyzing data in mixed methods research In A Tashakkori & C Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioural research (pp. 351–384) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage O’Reilly (2012) Ethnographic returning, qualitative longitudinal research and the reflexive analysis of social practice. The Sociological Review, 60, 518–536 Oretga, L., & Iberri-Shea, G (2005) Longitudinal research in second language acquisition: Recent trends and future directions Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 26–45 Osburn, H G (2000) Coefficient alpha and related internal consistency reliability coefficients Psychological Methods, 5, 343–355 Osgood, C E., Suci, G J., & Tannenbaum, P (1957) The measurement of meaning Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press Osgood, C E., & Tzeng, O (Eds.) (1990) Language, meaning, and culture: The selected papers of C E Osgood Westport, CT: Praeger Ostrower, F. (1998) Nonparticipant observation as an introduction to qualitative research Teaching Sociology, 26(1), 57–61 Outhwaite, W (1987) New philosophies of social science: Realism, hermeneutics and critical theory Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Pallant, J (2007) SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS for Windows (3rd ed.) Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press Paltridge, B., & Phakiti, A (2010) Continuum companion to research methods in applied linguistics London: Continuum International Publishing Group Pardy, S A., Fabrigar, L R., & Visser, P S (2005) Multitrait multimethod analyses In B S Everitt, & D C Howell (Eds.), Encyclopedia of statistics in the behavioral sciences (pp. 1343–1347) Chi­ chester, UK: Wiley Patton, M. Q (2002) Qualitative research and evaluation methods Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Paulhus, D. L (1984) Two-component models of socially desirable responding Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 598–609 Payne, G (2003) Size doesn’t matter International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 6(2), 141–57 Pedhazur, E J (2006) Multiple regression in behavioural research: Explanation and prediction Belmont, CA: Wadsworth 371 Further Reading Pedhazur, E J., & Schmelkin, L P (1991). Measurement, design, and analysis: An integrated approach. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Pelton, R P (2010) Action research for teacher candidates: Using classroom data to enhance instruction Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Peshkin, A (1988) In search of subjectivity – one’s own Educational Researcher, 17(7), 17–21 Phillips, D C (1987) Philosophy, science and social inquiry: Contemporary methodological controversies in social science and related fields of research Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press Phillips, D C., & Burbules, N C (2000). Postpositivism and educational research Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Pike, K. L (1993) Talk, thought, and thing: The emic road toward conscious knowledge Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics Pink, S (2007) Doing visual ethnography: Images, media, and representation in research (2nd ed.) London: Sage Pinkard, T (1996) Hegel’s phenomenology: The sociality of reason Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Plano Clark, V L., & Creswell, J W (2008) The mixed methods reader Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Plath, D W (1990) Fieldnotes, filed notes, and the conferring of note In R Sanjek (Ed.), Fieldnotes: The makings of anthropology (pp. 371–384) Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press Plowright, D (2011) Integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in research London: Sage Plummer, K (Ed.) (1991) Symbolic interactionism (2 vols.) Brookfield, VT: E Elgar Plummer, K (1996) Symbolic interactionism in the twentieth century: The rise of empirical social theory In B S Turner (Ed.), The Blackwell companion to social theory Oxford, UK: Blackwell Polkinghorne, D E (2007) Validity issues in narrative research Qualitative Inquiry, 13(4), 471–486 Pollner, M (1991).  Left of ethnomethodology: The rise and decline of radical reflexivity American Sociological Review, 56, 370–80 Pollner, M., & Emerson, R M (2001) Ethnomethodology and ethnography In P Atkinson, A Coffey, S Delamont, J Lofland, & L Lofland (Eds.), Handbook of ethnography (pp 118–135) London: Sage Ponterotto, J G (2006) Brief note on the origins, evolution, and meaning of the qualitative research concept “thick description” The Qualitative Report, 11(3), 538–549 Retrieved October 14, 2015, from: http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR11–3/ponterotto.pdf Popper, K R (1968) Conjectures and refutations New York, NY: Harper Torchbooks Popper, K R (1972) Conjectures and refutations London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Popper, K R (1992) Logic of scientific discovery London: Routledge Popping, R (2000) Computer assisted text analysis London: Sage Porte, G K (2002) Appraising research in second language learning: A practical approach to critical analysis of quantitative research Amsterdam: John Benjamins Porte, G., & Richards, K (2012) Replication in applied linguistics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Poulson, L., & Avramidis, E (2004) Primary school teachers’ theoretical beliefs about literacy: An exploratory study In L Poulson & M Wallace (Eds.), Learning to read critically in teaching and learning (pp. 173–199) London: SAGE Powney, J., & Watts, M (Eds.) (1987) Interviewing in educational research London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Procter, M (1993) Analysing other researchers’ data In N Gilbert (Ed.), Researching social life (pp. 255–269) London: Sage Pyle, D (1999) Data preparation for data mining San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann QSR International Pty Ltd (2011) NVivo qualitative data analysis software (Version 9) Doncaster, Vic, Australia: QSR International Pty Ltd http://www.qsrinternational.com Rapley, T (2014) Sampling strategies in qualitative research In U Flick (Ed.), The Sage handbook of qualitative data analysis (pp. 49–64) London: Sage Rasinger, S M (2013) Quantitative research in Linguistics: An introduction (2nd ed.) London: Continuum International Publishing Group Raskin, J. D (2002) Constructivism in psychology: Personal construct psychology, radical constructivism, and social constructionism American Communication Journal, 5, 1–24 Redmann, D H., Stitt-Gohdes, W L., & Lambrecht, J J (2000) The critical incident technique: A tool for qualitative research Delta Phi Epsilon Journal, 42(3), 132–153 372 Further Reading Reichardt, C S., & Rallis, S F (1994) Qualitative and quantitative inquiries are not incompatible: A call for a new partnership In C S Reichardt & S F Rallis (Eds.), The qualitative-quantitative debate: New perspectives (pp. 85–91) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Reynolds, D., Creemers, B., Stringfield, S., Teddlie, C.,  & Schaffer, E (2002) World class schools: International perspectives on school effectiveness London: Routledge/Falmer Rhoads, J C (2001a) Researching authoritarian personality with Q methodology Part I: Revisiting traditional analysis Operant Subjectivity, 24, 68–85 Rhoads, J. C (2001b) Researching authoritarian personality with Q methodology Part II: An intensive analysis Operant Subjectivity, 24, 86–103 Riazi, A M., & Candlin, C N (2014) Mixed-methods research in language teaching and learning: Opportunities, issues and challenges Language Teaching, 47, 135–173 Richards, K (2003) Qualitative inquiry in TESOL London: Palgrave Macmillan Richards, K (2009). Trends in qualitative research in language teaching since 2000. Language Teaching, 42(2), 147–180 Richards, K (2011) Case study In E Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (vol II) (pp. 207–222) London: Routledge Richards, K., Ross, S., & Seedhouse, P (2012) Research methods for applied language studies: An advanced resource book for students New York: Routledge Ridenour, C. S., & Newman, I (2008) Mixed methods research: Exploring the interactive continuum Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press Ritchie, J., & Lewis, J (2003) Qualitative research practice London: Sage Roberts, C W (Ed.) 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Retrieved May 24, 2013, from: http:// www2.sas.com/proceedings/sugi31/200–31.pdf Swales, J M (1990) Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Swales, J M (1998) Textography: Toward a contextualization of written academic discourse Research on Language and Social Interaction, 31(1), 109–121 Swales, J. M., & Luebs, M (1995) Towards textography In B L Gunnarson & I Backlund (Eds.), Writing in academic contexts Unit for advanced studies in modern Swedish (FUMS) (pp. 12–29) Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala University Tabachnick, B G., & Fidell, L S (2007) Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.) Boston, MA: Pearson Education Tacq, J.J.A (1997) Multivariate analysis techniques in social science research: From problem to analysis London: Sage Talmy, S (2010) Qualitative interviews in applied linguistics: From research instrument to social practice Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 30, 128–148 Tang, N (2002) Interviewer and interviewee relationships between women Sociology, 36(3), 703–21 Tashakkori, A, & Teddlie, C (1998) Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches Applied Social Research Methods Series (vol. 46) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Tashakkori, A, & Teddlie, C (Eds.) (2003) Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioural research Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C (2006, April) Validity issues in mixed methods research: Calling for an integrative framework Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA 375 Further Reading Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C (2008) Introduction to mixed methods and mixed model studies in the social and behavioural sciences In V L Plano Clark & J W Creswell (Eds.), The mixed methods reader (pp. 7–27) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C (2010) Sage handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioural research Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Taylor, G. R (Ed.) (2005) Integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in research Lanham, MD: University Press of America Taylor, S J., & Bogdan, R (1998) Introduction to qualitative research methods: A guidebook and resource (3rd ed.) New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Teddlie, C., Creemers, B., Kyriakides, L., Muijs, D., & Yu, F (2006) The international system for teacher observation and feedback: Evolution of an international study of teacher effectiveness constructs Educational Research and Evaluation, 12, 561–582 Teddlie, C. & Stringfield, S (1993) Schools make a difference: Lessons learned from a 10-year study of school effects New York, NY: Teachers College Press Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A (2003) Major issues and controversies in the use of mixed methods in the social and behavioural sciences In A Tashakkoir & C Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioural research (pp. 3–50) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A (2006) A general typology of research designs featuring in mixed methods Research in the Schools, 13(1), 12–28 Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A (2009) Foundations of mixed method research Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Teddlie, C., & Yu, F (2007) Mixed methods sampling: A typology with examples Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 77–100 Teddlie, C., & Yu, F (2008) Different sampling techniques for mixed methods studies In V L Plano Clark & J W Creswell (Eds.), The mixed methods reader (pp. 197–228) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Thomas, G (2011) A typology for the case study in social science following a review of definition, discourse, and structure Qualitative Inquiry, 17(6), 511–521 Thomas, M (2009) Review article: Ethical issues in the study of second language acquisition: Resources for researchers Second Language Research, 25(4), 493–511 Thompson, B (1994) The concept of statistical significance testing. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 4(5) Retrieved January 29, 2015, from: http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=4&n=5 Thompson, B (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Thompson, B., & Levitov, J E (1985) Using microcomputers to score and evaluate test items. Collegiate Microcomputer, 3, 163–168 Thomson Reuters Retrieved October 14, 2015, from: http://thomsonreuters.com/social-sciencescitation-index/ Thorndike, R M., Cunningham, G K., Thorndike, R L., & Hagen, E P (1991) Measurement and evaluation in psychology and education (5th ed.). New York: MacMillan Thurstone, L L (1928) Attitudes can be measured American Journal of Sociology, 33, 529–554 Tobin, G A., & Begley, C M (2004) Methodological rigour within a qualitative framework Journal of Advanced Nursing, 48(8), 388–396 Toulmin, S (2001) Return to reason Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Toulmin, S (2003) The uses of argument Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press Trochim, W.M.K., & Donnelly, J P (2008) The research methods knowledge base Mason, OH: Cengage Learning Truzzi, M (1974). Verstehen: Subjective understanding in the social sciences Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Tufford, L., & Newman, P (2010) Bracketing in qualitative research Qualitative Social Work, 11(1), 80–96 UK Linguistic Ethnography Forum (2004) UK Linguistic Ethnography: A Discussion Paper Retrieved November 11, 2014 from: http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fss/organisations/lingethn/documents/discussion_ paper_jan_05.pdf Van de Vijver, F.J.R., & Poortinga, Y H (2005) Conceptual and methodological issues in adapting tests In R K Hambleton, P F Meranda, & C D Spielberger (Eds.), Adapting educational and psychological tests for cross-cultural assessment (pp. 39–63) Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Van Teijlingen, E R., & Hundley, V (2001) The importance of pilot studies Social Research Update, 35 Retrieved August 10, 2012, from: http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU35.html 376 Further Reading Vargas P T., von Hippel W., & Petty R E (2004) Using “partially structured” attitude measures to enhance the attitude-behavior relationship Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 197–211 Vargha, A., Rudas, T., Delaney, H D., & Maxwell, S E (1996) Dichotomization, partial correlation, and conditional independence Journal of Educational and Behavioural Statistics, 21, 264–282 Vaughn, S., Schumm, J., & Sinagub, J (1996). Focus group interviews in education and psychology.  Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Velicer, W. F., & Fava, J. L (2003) Time series analysis In J Schinka & W F Velicer (Eds.), Research methods in psychology (pp. 581–606) New York, NY: Wiley Wagner, E (2010) Survey research In B Paltridge & A Phakiti (Eds.), Continuum companion to research methods in applied linguistics (pp. 22–38) London: Continuum International Publishing Group Walach, H., & Schmidt, S (2005) Repairing Plato’s life boat with Ockham’s razor: The important function of research in anomalies for mainstream science Journal of Consciousness Studies 12(2), 52–70 Walford, G (2001) Doing qualitative educational research London: Continuum Walford, G (2005) Research ethical guidelines and anonymity International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 28(1), 83–95 Wall, C., Glen, S., Mitchinson, S., & Poole, H (2004) Using a reflective diary to develop bracketing skills during a phenomenological investigation Nurse Researcher, 11(4), 20–29 Waszak, C., & Sines, M (2003) Mixed methods in psychological research In A Tashakkori & C Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioural research (pp. 557–576) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Watts, S. & Stenner P (2012). Doing Q methodological research London: Sage Webb, E J., Campbell, D T., Schwartz, R D., & Sechrest, L., & Grove, J B (1981) Nonreactive measures in the social sciences Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Webb, E J., Campbell, D T., Schwartz, R D., & Sechrest, L (2000) Unobtrusive measures (rev ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Wengraf, T (2001) Qualitative research interviewing London: Sage Wiersma, W., & Jurs, S G (1990) Educational measurement and testing (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon Wiersma, W., & Jurs, S G (2009) Research methods in education: An introduction Boston, MA: Pearson Wilcox, R R (2003) Applying contemporary statistical techniques San Diego, CA: Academic Press Wiles, R., Crow, G, Heath, S., & Charles, V (2008) The management of confidentiality and anonymity in social research International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 11(5), 417–428 Wilks, T (2004) The use of vignettes in qualitative research into social work values Qualitative Social Work, 3, 78–87 Willis, J W (2007) Foundations of qualitative research: Interpretive and critical approaches Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Winch, P (1990) The idea of a social science and its relation to philosophy London: Routledge Wodak, R., & Meyer, M (2009) Methods of critical discourse analysis Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Wolfram Cox, J., & Hassard, J (2005). Triangulation in research methods: A critique and re-presentation Organization, 12, 109–133 Woolsey, L K (1986) The critical incident technique: An innovative qualitative method of research Canadian Journal of Counselling, 20, 242–254 Yen, W M (1986) The choice of scale for attitude measurement: An IRT perspective Journal of Educational Measurement, 23, 299–325 Yin, R K (2009) Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Yousuf, M. I (2007) Using experts’ opinions through Delphi technique Practical Assessment, Research, & Evaluation, 12(4) Retrieved April 15, 2013, from: http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=12&n=4 377 This page intentionally left blank Index A-B-A designs abductive approach absolutism abstract section of reports accidental sampling see convenience sampling action research alternative hypothesis analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) analysis of variance (ANOVA) analytic adequacy analytic induction analytic memos see memo writing anonymity aparadigmatic stance 10 applied vs basic research 10 archival records 12 arithmetic average see mean association, strength of see correlation attributes in quantitative research 12 attrition 13 audit trail 14 axial coding 15 axiology 15 bar chart or bar graph 17 Bartlett test 18 baseline 18 bell-shaped curve see normal distribution between-groups designs 19 between-strategies mixed-method data collection 20 biased sample 21 biographical research see life history interviews biserial correlation 21 bivariate analysis see univariate analysis Bonferroni procedure 22 bootstrapping 23 bracketing 24 canonical correlation 25 case study 25 categorical data see categorical variables categorical strategies 26 categorical variables 27 causal-comparative research 28 causal mechanisms 28 causal model of explanation 29 causal relationship 30 ceiling effect 31 census study 31 central limit theorem 32 chain sampling see snowball sampling cherry picking 32 Chi-square 33 classroom-based research 34 closed-ended questions 34 cluster analysis 35 cluster sampling 36 coding 36 coding scheme 37 coefficient of determination 38 Cohen’s d 38 Cohen’s kappa 39 cohort study 39 collaborative action research 40 compatibility thesis 40 complementarity purpose in mixed-methods research 41 complementary strengths thesis 42 computer cssisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) 43 conceptual framework 44 conceptualization stage 44 conclusions section of reports 45 concurrent mixed-methods designs 46 concurrent nested designs see concurrent mixedmethods design and embedded mixed-methods designs concurrent triangulation mixed-methods design 47 concurrent validity see criterion-related validity confidence interval 48 confidentiality 49 confirmability 49 confirmatory factor analysis see factor analysis confirmatory research 50 confounding variable 51 consent, informed 52 379 Index constant 52 constant comparison or constant comparative method 53 constructionism 54 constructivism 54 constructs 55 construct validit 56 content analysis 57 content validity 57 contextualizing (holistic) strategies see categorical strategies contingency table 58 continuous variables 59 contrast principle see similarity principle control group 59 control variables see confounding variable and extraneous varialbes convenience sampling 60 convergent mixed-method studies see concurrent triangulation mixed-methods designs convergent validity see multitrait-multimethod approach conversation analysis 61 conversion mixed data analysis see conversion mixed designs conversion mixed designs 62 corpora 63 corpus linguistics 63 correlation 64 correlational research 66 correlation coefficient 65 correlation matrix 65 counterbalancing 66 covariance 67 credibility 68 credibility audits 68 criterion-related validity 68 critical case sampling 69 critical ethnography 70 critical incident technique 71 critical realism 71 critical realism and mixed-methods research 72 critical theory 73 critical value 74 Cronbach’s alpha 74 cross-sectional research 75 cross-tabulation 76 cultural relativism 76 data 78 data analysis 79 databases 80 data conversion see conversion mixed designs data/measurement reliability see data quality; see also reliability data/measurement validity see data quality; see also validity 380 data mining 80 data quality 81 data saturation 82 data triangulation see triangulation DCT see discourse completion task debriefing see member checking deconstructionism 83 deductive approach 84 deductive hypothesis 85 degrees of freedom 85 delayed posttest see posttest delphi method 86 dependability 87 dependent t-test see paired-sample t-test dependent variable 88 descriptive research 88 descriptive statistics 89 design fidelity see design quality in mixedmethods research design quality in mixed-methods research 90 design section of research reports 90 design suitability see design quality in mixedmethods research development purpose in mixed-methods research 91 deviant case analysis 92 deviation, standard see standard deviation dialectical thesis 93 dichotomous variables 93 directional hypothesis 94 directional test of significance see directional hypothesis direct observation see participant observation discourse analysis 95 discourse completion task 96 discriminant function analysis (DFA) 96 discriminant validity see multitrait-multimethod approach discussion section of reports 97 dispersion see measures of variability or dispersion dominant-status concurrent design 98 dominant-status sequential designs 98 double-barreled questions 99 effect size 100 effect size in qualitative research 101 embedded (nested) mixed-methods research design 101 emergent themes 102 emic Perspective 103 empiricism 104 epistemology 104 epoche see bracketing Erklären see Verstehen vs Erklären error of measurement 105 ethics 106 ethnography 107 Index ethnomethodology 108 etic perspective 109 evaluation research 109 evidence 110 expansion purpose in mixed-methods research 111 experimental designs 112 experimental group 113 explanatory concurrent mixed-methods research designs see embedded (nested) mixed-methods research designs explanatory research 114 explanatory sequential designs in mixed-methods research 114 exploratory research 115 exploratory sequential designs in mixed-methods research 116 ex-post facto research 116 external validity 116 extraneous variables 117 face validity 118 factor analysis 118 factorial designs 119 falsifiability 120 field notes 121 field work or field study 121 floor effect 122 focus group interviews 122 formative evaluation see evaluation research Friedman t-test 123 F test 124 fully integrated mixed designs 124 fundamental principle of mixed methods research 125 fused data analysis 126 generalizability see external validity general linear model (GLM) 127 genre analysis 128 grounded theory 129 H0 see null hypothesis H1 see alternative hypothesis Halo effect 131 Hawthorne effect 132 hermeneutics 132 histogram 133 homogeneous sampling 134 homoscedasticity see Bartlett test hypotheses 134 hypothesis testing 135 idealism 136 ideographic methods 137 ideographic statements see ideographic methods incommensurable paradigms see incompatibility thesis incompatibility thesis 138 independent t-test see t-test independent variables 138 indexicality 139 inductive approach 140 inductive hypothesis 140 inference see inference process inference process 141 inference quality 142 inference transferability 143 inferential stage 143 inferential statistics 144 informant checking 145 informed consent see consent, informed initial coding 146 initiation purpose in mixed-methods research 146 instruments 147 intact groups 148 integrative efficacy 149 integrative framework for inference quality and transferability 149 intensity sampling 150 inter-coder reliability 150 internal consistency 151 internal validity 152 Internet 152 interpretive agreement 153 interpretive consistency 154 interpretive distinctiveness 155 interpretive (integrative) correspondence 155 interpretive paradigm 156 interpretive rigour in mixed-methods research 157 inter-rater reliability see inter-coder reliability intersubjectivity 157 intertextuality 158 interval scale 159 intervening variables 159 interview bias 160 interview protocol (guide) 161 interviews 161 introduction section of research reports 162 introspective data collection see think-aloud protocols investigator triangulation see triangulation item analysis 163 iterative sequential mixed-methods research designs 164 John Henry effect 165 Kruskal-Wallis test 166 Kuder-Richardson 20 & 21 167 kurtosis 168 latent variable see structural equation modelling (SEM) legitimation model 169 381 Index level of analysis see multilevel mixed data and analysis level of measurement 170 level of significance 171 life history interviews 172 Likert scale 172 linear regression 173 line graph 174 linguistic ethnography 175 literature review 176 logistic regression 177 longitudinal research 177 Mann-Whitney U test 178 matrix of data collection strategies 178 maximum variation sampling 179 mean 180 measurement scale see level of measurement measures of central tendency 180 measures of variability or dispersion 181 median 182 member checking 182 member validation see member checking memoing see memo writing memo writing 183 meta analysis 184 meta-inference 185 methodological stage 186 methodological triangulation 187 methods monostrand designs methods section of research reports 188 mixed methodology 189 mixed methods data analysis 189 mixed methods design 190 mixed-methods monostrand designs 191 mixed-methods multistrand designs 192 mixed-methods research 193 mixed methods sampling techniques 194 mode 194 moderator variables 195 monomethod designs see mixed-methods monostrand designs monomethod monostrand designs see mixedmethods monostrand desings monostrand conversion designs see conversion mixed designs; see also mixedmonostrand designs 196 multicollinearity 196 multilevel mixed data analysis 198 multilevel mixed designs 198 multilevel mixed methods sampling 199 multimodal distribution see mode multimodality 200 multiperspectival methodology 200 multiple correlations 201 multiple paradigms thesis 201 multiple regression 202 382 multistrand designs 203 multitrait-Multimethod approach 204 multivariate analysis see univariate analysis multivariate analysis of variance 205 naïve realism 207 narrative inquiry 208 naturalism 209 naturalistic inquiry 201 negative case analysis 210 negative case sampling see critical case sampling; see also negative case analysis negatively skewed distribution 211 network sampling see snowball sampling nominal scale see level of measurement nomothetic methods 212 nomothetic statements see nomothetic methods nondirectional test 213 non-parametric tests 213 nonparticipant observation 214 non-probability sampling see purposive sampling nonreactive observations 214 nonstructured interview see unstructured interviews normal distribution 215 null hypothesis see hypothesis NVivo 216 objectivity 218 Ockham’s razor see parsimony principle Ontology 219 open coding 219 open-ended questions 220 operational definition 220 operationalisation 221 opportunistic sampling 222 ordinal scale see level of measurement orientational research see critical theory outliers 222 paired-samples t-test 224 panel study 225 paradigm 225 parallel mixed data analysis 226 parallel mixed-methods designs 227 parallel mixed-methods sampling 228 parameters 229 parametric tests 229 parsimony principle 230 partial correlation 231 partially structured interview see semi-structured interviews participant observation 232 participants 232 path analysis 233 Pearson correlation coefficient (Pearson r) see Pearson product-moment correlation pearson product-moment correlation 234 Index phenomenography 236 phenomenology 236 Phi (φ) correlation 237 pie chart 238 pilot study 239 point-biserial correlation 240 population 241 positively skewed distribution 242 positivism see (post)positivism post hoc tests 243 (post)positivism 243 posttest-only design 244 posttests 245 pragmatism 246 predictive validity see criterion-related validity pre(non)-experimental designs 246 pretests see posttests primary sources 247 a priori themes 11 probability sampling 248 probing 249 problem of induction 249 problem of verification see problem of induction procedures section of research reports 250 program evaluation see evaluation research proposals see research proposals propositional knowledge 251 purpose section of research reports 252 purposive sampling 252 p-value see level of significance Q methodology 254 qualitative data analysis 255 qualitative research 256 qualitizing 257 quantification 257 quantitative data analysis 258 quantitative research 259 quantitizing 259 quasi-experimental research design see experimental designs questionnaires 260 questionnaire survey 261 quota sampling 262 r see correlation coefficient rbi see biserial correlation coefficient rpbi see point-biserial correlation rxx see reliability coefficient rxy see validity coefficient r2xy see coefficient of determination; see also Pearson product-moment correlation R see multiple regression R2 see regression random assignment see randomisation randomisation 264 random sampling see simple random sampling random selection see randomisation range 265 ratio scale see measurement scales realism 266 reanalysis 267 references section of research reports 268 reflexive methodology 268 reflexivity 269 register analysis see text analysis regression analysis 270 regression line see line of best fit reliability 271 repeated measures design 272 replication studies 273 representation 273 representative sample 274 research design 275 research diary/researcher log 276 research hypothesis see hypothesis research journal see research diary/research log research methodology 277 research methods 277 research paradigm 278 research problem 278 research proposals 279 research questions 280 respondent validation see member chekcing response rate see questionnaire surveys results section of research reports 281 sample 283 sample size 283 sampling error 284 sampling frame see sample sampling procedure 285 scatterplot 286 Scheffe test see post-hoc tests scientific method 287 SD see standard deviation search engine 288 secondary analysis see reanalysis secondary sources see primary sources selective coding 289 self-report log see research diary/research log SEM see standard error of measurement; see also structural equation modeling semantic differential scale 289 semiotic research 290 semi-structured interviews 291 sequential explanatory mixed-methods designs 292 sequential exploratory mixed-methods designs 292 sequential mixed data analysis 293 sequential mixed-methods designs 294 sequential mixed-methods sampling 295 significance level 296 similarity principle 296 simple random sampling 297 383 Index simultaneous mixed-methods designs see concurrent mixed-methods research studies single paradigm thesis 298 skewness see negatively skewed distribution; see also positively skewed distribution snowball sampling 298 social desirability bias 299 social science citation index 299 Solomon design of experiments 300 Spearman-Brown formula 301 Spearman rank-order correlation 300 split-half reliability 302 SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) 302 standard deviation 303 standard error of measurement (SEM) 304 standard/standardized scores 305 statistic see descriptive statistics statistical significance see level of significance statistical tests of significance 305 stimulated-recall interviews 306 strand of a mixed-methods research design 307 stratified sampling 307 structural equation modeling (SEM) 308 structuralism 309 structured interviews 310 structured observation 310 subjectivity 311 summative evaluation see evaluation research survey research 312 symbolic interactionism 312 systematic sampling 313 temporal transferability 315 test of significance see statistical tests of significance test reliability see reliability test-retest reliability see reliability tetrachoric correlation 316 text analysis 316 textography 317 thematic analysis 318 theme 319 theoretical consistency 319 theoretical framework 320 theoretical sampling 321 theory 322 thick description 323 think-aloud protocols 324 Thurstone scale 325 time-series design 325 384 traits see constructs transcription 326 transferability 327 transformative-emancipatory paradigm 327 transparency 328 treatment group see experimental group trend study 329 triangulation 329 triangulation purpose in mixed-methods research 330 true experimental design see experimental designs true score 331 trustworthiness 332 T-score see standard/standardised scores t-test 333 Tukey test see post-hoc tests two-tailed test see nondirectional test Type I error 334 Type II error 334 unimodal distribution 336 unit of analysis 336 univariate analyses 337 unstructured interviews 338 unstructured observation 339 validity 341 variability 342 variables 342 variance 343 verifiability principle of meaning (verification principle) see problem of induction verification principle 589 verisimilitude 344 Verstehen vs Erklären 345 Vignettes 345 visual ethnography 346 Warrant 348 Wilcoxon signed-ranks test 349 within-design consistency 350 within-group designs see repeated measures design within-strategies mixed-methods data collection see between-strategies mixed-methods data collection World Wide Web (WWW) see Internet Yates’ correction 352 z-score see standard/standardised scores ... from the qualitative data in support of the findings from the quantitative data and analysis, which can result in triangulation of the quantitative and qualitative data and analysis When using a. .. of analysis Categorical data See categorical variables Categorical strategies Broadly speaking, qualitative data analysis can be approached using either categorical strategies or fracturing the. .. available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging -in- Publication Data Riazi, A Mehdi, author   The Routledge Encyclopedia of research methods in applied linguistics : quantitative,