Handbool of research methods in human memory hajime otani, bennerr l schwartx, routledge, 2019 scan

HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH METHODS IN HUMAN MEMORY The Handbook of Research Methods in Human Memory presents a collection of chapters on methodology used by researchers in investigating human memory Understanding the basic cognitive function of human memory is critical in a wide variety of fields, such as clinical psychology, developmental psychology, education, neuroscience, and gerontology, and studying memory has become particularly urgent in recent years due to the prominence of a number of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s However, choosing the most appropriate method of research is a daunting task for most scholars This book explores the methods that are currently available in various areas of human memory research and serves as a reference manual to help guide readers’ own research Each chapter is written by prominent researchers and features cutting-­edge research on human memory and cognition, with topics ranging from basic memory processes to cognitive neuroscience to further applications The focus here is not on the “what,” but the “how”­—how research is best conducted on human memory Hajime Otani is a professor of psychology at Central Michigan University His current research focuses on emotion and memory Bennett L Schwartz is a professor of psychology at Florida International University He conducts research on memory and metamemory He is currently Editor-­in-­Chief of New Ideas in Psychology HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH METHODS IN HUMAN MEMORY Edited by Hajime Otani and Bennett L Schwartz First published 2019 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Taylor & Francis The right of Hajime Otani and Bennett L Schwartz to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data A catalog record for this title has been requested ISBN: 978-­1-­138-­21794-­2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-­1-­138-­21795-­9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-­0-­429-­43995-­7 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC To our fathers Yo Otani and Foster Schwartz CONTENTS List of Contributors x Forewordxiii Prefacexv   History of Methods in Memory Science: From Ebbinghaus to fMRI Hajime Otani, Bennett L Schwartz, and Abby R Knoll   Dependent Measures in Memory Research: From Free Recall to Recognition Anne M Cleary 19   Measures of Forgetting Benjamin C Storm 36   Accuracy and Bias in Episodic Memory Aysecan Boduroglu and Aycan Kapucu 50   Response Time Measures in Memory Research Motonori Yamaguchi and Richard Schweickert 67   Methods of Studying Working Memory Zach Shipstead and Ashley Nespodzany 84   Methods of Studying Text: Memory, Comprehension, and Learning Kathryn S McCarthy, Kristopher J Kopp, Laura K Allen, and Danielle S. McNamara 104   The Methodology of Metamemory and Metacomprehension Deborah K Eakin and Jarrod Moss 125 vii Contents   Research Methods for Studying the Emotion-­Memory Relationship Hajime Otani, Terry M Libkuman, Abby R Knoll, and Cody J Hensley 154 10 Methods for Studying Memory Differences Between Young and Older Adults Asl Klỗ and Amy H Criss 178 11 Discovering Memory: Methods in the Study of Memory Development P Douglas Sellers II and Karin Machluf 192 12 Assessing Autobiographical Memory Disruptions in Psychiatric Populations Laura Jobson 205 13 Methods of Studying Memory Without Awareness Neil W Mulligan 222 14 Methods of Studying False Memory Henry Otgaar, Sanne T L Houben, and Mark L Howe 238 15 Methods of Studying Eyewitness Memory Nadja Schreiber Compo, Jonathan Vallano, Jillian Rivard, Angelica Hagsand, Michelle Pena, and Christopher Altman 253 16 The Assessment of Autobiographical Memory: An Overview of Behavioral Methods Adam R Congleton and Dorthe Berntsen 267 17 Methods of Studying Prospective Memory Melissa J Guynn, Gilles O Einstein, and Mark A McDaniel 284 18 Face Memory Karen Lander and Vicki Bruce 313 19 Challenges in Music Memory Research Zehra F Peynircioğlu, Esra Mungan, and Bennett L Schwartz 330 20 A User’s Guide to Collecting Data Online Kalif E Vaughn, Jeremy Cone, and Nate Kornell 354 21 Neuropsychological Methods in Memory Research Kata Pauly-­Takacs, Celine Souchay, Alastair D Smith, and Chris J A. Moulin 374 22 Applications of Functional MRI in Memory Research Joey Ka-­Yee Essoe and Jesse Rissman 397 viii Contents 23 From the Laboratory to the Classroom: Challenges and Solutions for Conducting Memory Research in Educational Contexts John Dunlosky, Kayla Morehead, Amanda Zamary, and Katherine A Rawson 24 Methods of Studying Individual Differences in Memory Kimberly M Wingert and Gene A Brewer 428 443 Index459 ix Index Johansson, M 170 Johnson, J D 415 Johnson, S K 342 Jones, R W 389 Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19 Judgments of Learning (JOL) 129 – 130 Just, M A 116 Kahan, M J 21 Kahana, M J 5, 21, 79, 186 – 187 Kahn, I 299 Kane, M J 94 Kantner, J 53 Kanwisher, N 323 Kapur, S 391 Karis, D 430 Karolinsk Directed Emotional Faces (KDEF) 166 Karpicke, J D 12, 439 Kaschub, C 287 Keidel, J L 420 Kelley, C 202 Kemp, R I 315 Kennedy, J F 154 Kensinger, E A 169, 170 Kern, R 165 Kershaw, T C 155 – 156 Kiani, R 415 King, M L., Jr 154, 155 Kirsner, K 231 Kliegel, M 286, 288 Knutson, N 344 Kopelman, M D 208 Korenman, L M 345 Koriat, A 50, 57, 132 Kornell, N 367 Kostic, B 23 Kovács, S 331 – 332 Kreibig, S D 166 Kriegeskorte, N 420 Kröner-Herwig, B 165 Kuhl, B A 415, 416, 418 Kuhl and Chun 418 Kuhn, M H 211 Kulik, J 154 – 157 Kuperman,V 164 Kutas, M 61 Kvavilashvili, L 290 Kyle, K 110 LaBar, K S 169 laboratory studies: of emotion-memory relationship 160, 161 – 163; of face memory 318 – 320; of prospective memory 291 – 298, 295, 296 – 297 LaMontagne, P 301 Landau, J D 287 Laney, C 168 Lang, P J 160, 164, 165, 166 Langley, M M 31 Larkin, G R 165 Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) 20, 110 Lavoisier, A.-L de Law of Disuse 39 learning: from text 105; verbal 19 learning curves 68, 68 – 69 Lebo, K 287 Leichtman, M D 201 Leiman, B 11 Lenz, G S 367 Leonard, S D 199 levels of processing 6 – 7 Levy, R 138 lexical decision tasks 112 – 113; prospective memory and 292 – 293 Libkuman, T 165 Life-Chapters Task 214 Life Events Inventory (LEI) 246 Life Story Chapter Narration 275 – 276 Lindberg, C M 165 Lindh, A 244, 245 Lindsay, D S 53, 201 – 202, 241, 242 linear ballistic accumulator model (LBA) 72 – 73, 73, 75 linear mixed effects (LME) models 137 – 138 Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Program (LIWC) 159 list-learning paradigm 3 – 4, 6, 19 list-method paradigm of directed forgetting 43 Livingston, R B 155 locations in artificial memory Lockhart, R S Loftus, E F 7, 10, 54, 200 – 201, 240 – 242, 246, 289 Logan, G D 69 Lohman, D F 448 long-term memory 76 – 80, 84; in Alzheimer’s disease 387; music memory and 330, 335, 339 – 343 looking times in implicit memory 193 – 194 Love, B C 368 Lubinski, D 448, 449 – 450 Lundqvist, D 166 Luong, C 288 Luria, A R 381 – 382 Mace, J H 230 Mack, M L 419 MacLeod, C M 76 Macmillan, N A 26 – 27 Madigan, S Madigan, S A 269 “Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limit on Our Capacity for Processing Information, The” Magliano, J P 113 Maglio, S J 165 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and music memory 345 – 346 magnetoencephalography (MEG) 322 466 Index Maguire, E A 413 Maki, R H 141 Malcolm X 155 Mance, I 89 Mandler, G 232 Manning, C G 246 Manning, J R 21 Marchewka, A 165 Marchitelli, G 129 Marge, M 368 Maril, A 12 Markov chains Marsh, E 439 Marsh, R L 287, 294 Martin, M 286 Mason, R A 116 Mattar, M G 409 Mayman, M 215 Mazzoni, G 129 McCabe, D P 391 McCallum, S L 215 McDaniel, M A 11, 286, 291, 301 McDermott, J 323 McDermott, K B 21, 247 McDuff, S G 415 McGaugh, J L 168, 382 McGorty, E K 314 McKoon, G 112, 182 – 183 McManis, M H 165 McNally, R J 207 McNamara, D S 110 McNeill, D 5, 133 McPartland, T S 211 McPherson, G E 345 Meacham, J A 11 meaning, quality, and structure of autobiographical memories 212 – 213 Mechanical Turk, Amazon see online data collection Mechelli, A 410 Mecklinger, A 170 medial-temporal lobe (MTL) regions of the brain 231 – 232 Meissner, C A 201 Melville, L F 215 Memon, A 201, 244 memory: age-related differences in (see older adults); autobiographical (see autobiographical memory); consolidation of 45 – 46; crashing 245; emotional 60 – 61; -emotion relationship (see emotionmemory relationship); episodic (see episodic memory); explicit 8, 198 – 202, 223; eyewitness (see eyewitness memory); face (see face memory); false (see false memory); implicit 8, 192 – 197, 223 – 228; levels of processing in 6 – 7; long-term 76 – 80, 84; prospective (see prospective memory); recognition (see recognition memory); semantic (see semantic memory); short-term 7, 84 – 85, 85; source 53 – 54; unconscious 8 – 9; without awareness (see awareness, memory without); working (see working memory) Memory Assessment Procedure (MAP) 158 Memory Characteristics Questionnaire 158, 271 memory development 192; explicit memory 198 – 202; implicit memory 192 – 197 memory fidelity and bias 178 – 179 memory for intentions screening test (MIST) 305 memory probe variation, cuing method 270 memory scanning 73 – 76 memory science: Cognitive Interview (CI) technique in 200 – 201, 257 – 258; cognitive psychology approach to 12 – 13; current and future trends in 13; Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) technique in 9 – 10; dependent measures in (see dependent measures); false-memory induction procedure in 10; information processing approach in 4 – 6; inherent stimulus properties and 31; list-learning paradigm in 3 – 4, 6, 19; online data collection in (see online data collection); processdissociation technique in 10 – 11; proliferation of neuroimaging in 11 – 13; research in the classroom (see educational contexts, memory research in); response time measures in (see response time); signal detection theory (SDT) in 9; see also laboratory studies memory search 73; long-term 76 – 80 memory updating tasks 91 – 92 Mensink, G J 77, 80 mental representation 104; coherence of 105 Mesout, J 314 metacomprehension: basic paradigm 139 – 140; defined 139; Delayed Judgments of Learning (DJOLs) in 140 – 142; materials used to measure 142 – 144; measurement and assessment of 144 – 145; procedures for measuring 139 – 144; see also comprehension metamemory 125 – 127, 126; acquisition and 128 – 130; basic paradigm 127, 127; defined 125; Delayed Judgments of Learning (DJOLs) and 130 – 131; Ease of Learning Judgments (EOL) and 128 – 129; Judgments of Learning (JOL) and 129 – 130; materials used to measure 134 – 135; measurement and assessment of 135 – 138; music memory 343 – 344; procedures for measuring 127 – 134; retention and 130 – 131; retrieval and 131 – 134; Retrospective Confidence judgments (RCs) and 134; sensitivity and 138 Metcalfe, J 57, 127, 132 Meyer, M 333 Mickes, L 390 Mickley Steinmetz, K R 170 Middleton, K 320 Mikels, J A 164, 165 Miller, D G 240 Miller, G A 4, 5, 69 Miller, J F 22 Millis, K K 112 467 Index Milner, B 376 Mind of a Mnemonist,The 381 Minho Affective Sentence (MAS) 166 misinformation effect 240 – 241; eyewitness memory and 257 mixed-design 400 mixture model 68 Miyake, A 100 mnemonic states and MVPA 416 modified free recall 41 modified modified free recall 41 Molaison, H G 376 Montreal Set of Facial Displays of Emotion (MSFDE) 166 Morey, C C 88, 89, 95 Morey, R D 89 Moritz, S 58, 248 Morris, A L 31 Moscovitch, M 167, 391 Moulin, C J 389, 391 Müller, G E 45 Mulligan, N W 229 – 230 multiple-choice questions in assessment of text comprehension 108 – 109 multiple versus single cues 24 – 25 Multiprocess View of prospective memory 294 multivariate approaches to fMRI data analysis 405 – 406; connectivity analysis 406 – 412, 412; distributed pattern analyses 412 – 417, 414 multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA) 413 – 417, 414 Mungan, E 342 Münsterberg, H 253 Murayama, K 137 Murdock, B B., Jr 70, 79, 94 Murphy, M D 20 music memory: developmental studies of 342 – 343; episodic memory in 339 – 341; immediate remembering in 338 – 339; implicit memory in 342; individual differences in 344 – 345; long-term remembering 339 – 343; metamemory in 343 – 344; nature of 337; neuroscience and 345 – 347; semantic memory in 341 – 342 music memory research 330 – 331; challenges unique to 334 – 337; historical overview of 331 – 334; nature of materials in 334 – 336; nature of participants in 336 – 337 Music Perception 330 Nádasdy, Z 194 Nairne, J S 24 Narens, L.: on metacomprehension 139; on metamemory 125, 129 – 134, 136 narrative method 212 – 213, 275 – 276 National Institute of Mental Health 160 Natu,V S 415 naturalistic methods 289 – 291 natural language processing (NLP) 110 – 111 N-back task 93 – 94; univariate approaches to fMRI data analysis of 404 – 405 near-miss distractors 108 Neath, I 26, 94 negative k values 91 Neisser, U 7, 50, 154, 156 Nelson, C A 196 Nelson, D L 55 Nelson, T O 76, 129; on metacomprehension 139; on metamemory 125, 129 – 134, 136 Nelson-Denny Reading Test 189 Nelson Word Association Norms 20 – 21 Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS) 165 neural measures of text comprehension 116 – 117 neurofeedback reinforcement 420 neuroimaging 11 – 13; classical neuropsychology and 390 – 393; of emotion-memory relationship mechanisms 169 – 171; of face memory 322 – 325; of music memory 345 – 347; of prospective memory 299 – 303; text comprehension and 116 – 117 neuropsychology 374; classical, in the neuroimaging era 390 – 393; clinical issues in 377; contemporary focus of 375; defining 374 – 379; of memory, case and group studies in 379 – 384; research design considerations in 384 – 386, 384 – 390; research rationale in 377 – 379; see also brain, the Newell, A 68 Newman, S E 2 – 3 Nielson, D M 418 Nieuwland, M S 116 Nils, F 166 NimStim 166 Nobel, P A 76, 77, 78, 80 nonrandom error and validity 448 – 449 Norman, D A Norman, K A 21, 413, 415, 416 Northrup, T 229 – 230 Novak, N 165 Oberauer, K 74, 100 O’Brien, E J 115 Occipital Face Area (OFA) 323 O’Hara, R Öhman, A 166 Okada, R 79 older adults: cognitive models that disentangle impaired processes in 186 – 188; controlling individual differences in cognitive studies on 188; jointly analyzing accuracy and response time in 181 – 186, 182, 185; limitations on studies of memory changes in 188 – 189; memory fidelity and bias in 178; slowing of processing speed specific to memory functions or generalizable to all cognitive functions in 179 – 181, 180 ongoing task and prospective memory 292 – 293, 295 468 Index online data collection: benefits for psychology 370 – 371; case studies in 369; choosing a system for 355 – 356; common myths about 366 – 368; data points to collect for administrative reasons in 357; ensuring the same person does not complete study multiple times in 365 – 366; excluding data from 366; how much to pay for 360 – 362; maintaining a positive reputation in 362 – 363; multi-session studies in 363 – 364; quality assurance in 359 – 360; reasons for conducting 354; recruiting participants for 355; technical set up for 355 – 356; websites involved in 373; what to say on recruitment page for 356; when MTurk workers are not naive 364 – 365; writing instructions for 357 – 359 online face memory 320 – 321 On Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology open-ended questions 109 ordinary least squares (OLS) 181 O’Reilly, J X 407 orthographic-n 31 Osgood, C E 3, 160, 164 Ost, J 245 Otani, H 5, 155, 165 Otgaar, H 241 Otto, M W 207 Öztekin, I 184, 186 Ozuru,Y 109 Page, M P 392 paired-associate learning 3; associative cues in 22 – 23; music memory and 340 Paivio, A 269 Palmer, M L 341 parallel search models 74 – 75 paraphrasing 107 Parker, E S 382 Parkinson’s Disease 284 partial least squares (PLS) 408 – 409 Pashler, H 368 Payen, G 314 Peace, K A 159 Pearlstone, Z 38 Pearson 445 Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient 445, 449 – 450 Pellegrino, J W 109 Penny, W 410, 411 Penrod, S D 314 perceptual implicit tests 225 – 226 Peretz, I 341, 345 Perfect, T J 389 perseveration-consolidation hypothesis 45 Peters, D P 314 Peters, M J.V 248 Peterson, L 4, 39 Peterson, M J 4, 39 Peynircioğlu, Z F 339, 341, 344 – 345 Pezdek, K 242 Philoppot, P 166 phonological loop physiological measures of memory 11 – 13 Piaget, J 192 Pichert, J W 109 Pickrell, J E 10, 241 pictures in emotion-memory relationship 164 – 166 Pictures of Facial Affect (POFA) 166 Pike, G 315 Pilzecker, A 45 Pinna, K 209 Piolino, P 207 Pitcher, D 324 Plato 1, 331 plausible inferences 107, 108 Poirier, M 24 Poisson process 71 Polyn, S M 21, 413, 415 Poole, B 314 Poole, D A 201 – 202, 241 Poon, L W 180 Porter, S 158, 159 positron emission tomography (PET) 116, 169 – 171; blocked designs and 399; neuropsychology and 391; prospective memory and 299 – 301 Posner, R J 341 post-reading measures of comprehension 106 – 112 post-test questionnaires 230 – 231 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 158; see also autobiographical memory Practical Aspects of Memory Prat, C S 116 Pratte, M S 413 Presque vu 30 Preston, A R 419 priming: in face memory 320; univariate approaches to fMRI data analysis of 405 principal components analysis (PCA) 450 – 452, 451 – 452 Principe, G F 245 process dissociation 10 – 11, 29 processing, levels of 6, processing measures of text comprehension 112 – 117, 114 processing task accuracy 87 prosopagnosics 321 – 322 Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) 303 prospective memory 11, 50; clinical assessment method for 303 – 307; considerations in studying 285 – 286; defined 284; functional neuroimaging and electrophysiological methods for 299 – 303; laboratory methods of measuring 291 – 298, 295, 296 – 297; measured in everyday life 286 – 289; naturalistic methods of measuring 289 – 291; studies of 284 – 285, 285 469 Index Prospective Memory Questionnaire (PMQ) 303 – 304 Prull, M W 228 psychiatric conditions, disruptions in see autobiographical memory Psychology of Music 330 Psychomusicology 330 psychophysiological interactions (PPI) analysis 407 PsycInfo 284, 285 Puff, R C 19, 20, 21 Qualtrics 355 Quamme, J R 416 quantitative modeling of prospective memory 297 – 298 quantity versus accuracy in episodic memory 54 – 56 questionnaires: for assessing autobiographical memory 274 – 275; on prospective memory 303, 303 – 304 Quillian, M R Raaijmakers, J G W 77, 80 Rabinovitz, B E 341, 344 Radeau, M 341 Raes, F 207 Ramon, M 322 Rand, D G 364 random error and reliability 447 – 448 random walk model 71 – 72, 72 Raney, G E 116 Rapee, R M 215 Rapp, D N 106 Ratcliff, R 112, 182 – 183 Rathbun, L 200 Ravenscroft, H 215 Rawson, K A 431 Ray, R D 166 Rayner, K 115 – 116 Read, J D 242 Read&Answer tool 111 – 112 reading 104; eye tracking during 115 – 116; time measurement of 113 – 115; see also comprehension recall: in childhood 199; cued 22 – 25, 76 – 80, 109 – 110; free 5, 20 – 22, 52, 76 – 80, 109 – 110, 199; response time and 76 – 80; text comprehension and 109 – 110 receiver operating characteristics (ROC) analysis 9, 26 – 27, 29 – 30; measures of accuracy and 59 recognition memory 26 – 31; associative 30 – 31; in childhood 199; confidence ratings and 29; continuous recognition testing paradigm 31; false 53; forced-choice 30, 52 – 53; indices of discrimination in 26 – 27; measures of multiple processes and 27 – 29; music memory 339 – 341; other types of tasks in 29 – 31; signal detection theory to models of information accumulation in 69 – 73, 70 – 73; varying numbers and types of lures in 52 recognition without cued recall method 29 reconsolidation 45 – 46 Recurrence Quantification Analysis (RQA) 118 – 120, 119 Reder, L M 134 Redick, T S 449 Rees, G 413 Reggente, N 416 Reisberg, D 168 Reiss, G 165 relative metacomprehension judgments 144 relative metamemory judgments 136 relearning method 19 reliability and random error 447 – 448 remember and know judgments 8 – 9 remember-know paradigm 28 Reminiscence Functions Scale (RFS) 276 Rendell, P G 288 repetition suppression 405 representational similarity analysis (RSA) 413, 417 – 420, 419 response bias 178 response deadline procedure 184 – 186, 185 response time 67 – 68; cued and free recall in 76 – 80; jointly analyzing accuracy and 181 – 186, 182, 185; memory scanning and 73 – 76; psychometric function of 68, 68 – 69; signal detection theory to models of information accumulation in recognition memory and 69 – 73, 70 – 73 retention and metamemory 130 – 131 retrieval: /encoding paradigm 42, 418 – 419, 419; metamemory and 131 – 134; prospective memory and 285 – 286; spontaneous 295 – 297, 301 – 303, 302; univariate approaches to fMRI data analysis of episodic memory 404 retrieval-induced forgetting 10, 44 – 45 retrieval-intentionality criterion 232 – 233 retrieval practice effect 12 – 13 Retrospective Confidence judgments (RCs) 134 retrospective memory factors and prospective memory 293 Reuter-Lorenz, P A 165 Reyna,V F Richardson, S L 11 Richmond, J 196 Richter, F R 416 Rissman, J 407, 415, 416 Ritchey, M 419 Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test (RBMT) 304 – 305 RJR (recall-judgment-recognition) method 5; music memory and 343 – 344 Robinson, J A 206 Rodgriquez-Raecke, R 248 Rodney, J M 215 Roediger, H L 12, 21, 56, 58, 246, 247 Rohrer, D 78 – 80, 368, 429, 434 470 Index Roos af Hjelmsäter, E 245 Rosch, E Rosenberg, E A 21 Rosenbloom, P S 68 Rotello, C M 59, 61, 75 – 76 Rottenberg, J 166 Rouder, J N 89, 90 Royal Price Alfred Prospective Memory Test (RPA-ProMem) 305 Rubin, D C 156, 209, 269, 341 Rubin-Rabson, G 332 – 333 Rudnicky, A I 368 Rugg, M D 170, 415 rumor mongering 245 running memory span tasks 92, 92 – 93 Russell 321 – 322 Ryals, A J 23, 30 Ryder, H L 315 Samson, A C 166 Sanchez, X 166 Sanislow, C A 166 scanning, memory 73 – 76 Schacter, D L 12, 169, 222, 233, 271, 379, 408 Schaefer, A 166 Scheepers, C 138 Schellenberg, E G 333 Scherer, K R 165 Schiffman, H 214, 268 Schmidt, F 165 Schmidt, K 170 Schmuckler, M A 333 Schnitzpahn, K 288 Schroder, T N 418 Schulkind, M D 341 Schwartz, B L 13, 127, 129, 132, 133 Schwarz, N 366 – 367 script knowledge 243 Scullin, M K 301 searchlight analysis 415 Search of Associative Memory (SAM) 77, 79, 164 – 165, 166 selective visual arrays tasks 91 self, autobiographical memory and the 211 – 212 Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) 164 Self-Defining Memory Task 211 self-organization 118 self-terminating scanning model 74 semantic memory 6 – 7; clustering in 21 – 22; deficits in 208 – 213; music memory and 341 – 342 semantic relatedness 20 – 21 Senkova, O sensitivity in metamemory judgments 138 sensory-recording variation of diary recording method 272 – 273 sentence verification 106 – 108 September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks 155, 156 Serences, J T 417 Sexual Experiences Survey 158 Shadish, W R 433 Shallice, T 8, 85 Sharan, A 21 Sheng, S 360 Shereshevsky, S 381 Sherman, S J 246 Shiffman, S 287 Shiffrin, R M 4, 6, 76, 77, 78, 80 Shipstead, Z 89, 91, 93, 94, 449 short-term memory 7, 84 – 85, 85; in Alzheimer’s disease 387; music memory 338 – 339 Siep, N 165 signal detection theory (SDT) 9, 26 – 27; force-choice recognition and 30; response time and 69 – 73, 70 – 73 Simmons, J P 370 Simons, D J 367 Simons, J S 12, 58 simple span tasks 85 Singer, L 434 single-probe response screen 89 – 90 situation model 105 Sjöden, B 245 Skitka, L J 155 – 156 Sliwinski, M J 181 Sloboda, J 338 Smith, A P 171 Smith, C N 390 Smith, E 242 Smith, H M J 315 Smith, N A 333 Smith, R E 294 Smith, S M 42, 407 social contagion 244 Soderstrom, B 166 Son Who Tried to Outwit His Father,The 4, 18 Sound-Scene Paired-Associate Paradigm 278 – 279 source memory 53 – 54 source monitoring training (SMT) 202 Spataro, P 228 Spearman, C 445 – 446, 452 speeded responding 233 Spellman, B A 131 Spence, M J 197 Sperling, M R 21 Spillers, G J 78 spontaneous false memories 247 – 248 spontaneous retrieval 295 – 297, 301 – 303, 302 Sporns, O 409 spreading-activation theory Spreng, R N 408 Squire, L R 232, 390 Staffelbach, M 368 Staged-Event Paradigm 273 – 274 Stahl, J 165 471 Index Staresina, B P 411 Starns, J J 183 Stephan, K E 410 stereotype-suggestion condition 201 Sternberg, S 73 – 75 Stevens, W D 408 Stevenson, R A 164, 166 stochastic selection model 68 – 69 Stone, A A 287 Stone, M 231 Stoycheff, E 364 Strange, B A 169 Stressful Life Events Screening Questionnaire (SLESQ) 158 structural equation modeling (SEM) 96, 99 – 100, 410 – 411 Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 205 Stuss, D T 379 subsequent memory paradigm 402 – 404, 403 successive relearning 428 Suci, G J 160, 164 suggestion-induced false memories: crashing memory in 245; false feedback in 243 – 244; forced confabulation in 246; imagination inflation in 246 – 247; implantation method of 241 – 243; memory conformity/social contagion in 244; misinformation method of 240 – 241; rumor mongering in 245 Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS) 323 super-recognisers 321 – 322 supervisory attention system 7 – 8 Suprenant, A M 26 surface code 105 Survey of Autobiographical Memory (SAM) 277 Sutherland, R 241 systems approach 6 – 7 Syzmanska, M 165 Takarangi, M K T 289 Talarico, J M 156 Talmi, D 167 Tan,Y T 345 Tanenbaum, P H 160, 164 target cues and prospective memory 292 Tarr, M J 324 task interference and prospective memory 294 task model level of comprehension 105 Tauber, U 437 Tekcan, A I 133 Test Ecologique de Memoire Prospective (TEMP) 305 – 306 Test Episodique de Mémoire du Passé autobiographique; [The Test of Episodic Memory for the Autobiographical Past] 207 – 208 text 104 – 105; deep comprehension of 104; measures of comprehension of 106 – 117; for measuring emotion-memory relationship 166; metacomprehension of (see metacomprehension); thinking dynamically about comprehension of 117 – 120, 119 textbase 105 Thapar, A 182 – 183 Think-Aloud/Talk-Aloud procedures 113, 114 Thinking About Life Experiences Revised Questionnaire (TALE-R) 276 Think/No Think (TNT) paradigm 43 – 44 Thompson, J 314 Thompson, J L W 344 Thompson-Schill, S L 231 Thorndike, E L 3, 39 Tily, H J 138 time: forgetting over 39 – 40; reading 113 – 115 time-based prospective tasks 11 tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state 5 – 6, 50; cues and forgetting in 43; fMRI research on 12; metamemory and 133 – 134; music memory and 343 – 344 toddlers, deferred imitation in 198 Tompary, A 419 Tong, F 413 Tottenham, N 166 Towell, N 315 Townsend, J T 75 Trabasso, T 113 train task 197 trait mnemonics 277 transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) 12, 322, 324 – 325, 346 – 347 transfer of training model Trauma Analogue Paradigm 278 Trauma History Questionnaire (THQ) 158 trauma memories 157 – 160 Traumatic Stress Survey (TSS) 158 Treese, A 170 Trehub, S E 333, 343 truth in episodic memory 55 – 56 Tulving, E 5, 6, 36, 38, 332, 391; on distinguishing between perceptual and ecphoric similarity of targets and lures 52; on remember and know judgments Turner, M L 85 Twenty Statements Task 211 two-process theory of monitoring prospective memory 294, 296 Type I errors 137, 145 UC Davis Set of Emotion Expression (UCDSEE) 166 Udell, J 245 unconscious memory 8 – 9 Underwood, B J univariate approaches to fMRI data analysis: applications of 402 – 405, 403; description of 401; implementation 401 – 402 472 Index Unsworth, N 78, 449, 455 Ure, D M 160 Vaidya, C J 231 Valentine, T 314, 316 validity and nonrandom error 448 – 449 Van Berkum, J J 116 Vandekerkchove, J 186 Van Der Maas, H L 186 Vanegas, S B 168 van Koppen, P J 245 van Stegeren, A H 169 Van Zandt, T 75 Vela, E 42 verbal learning 19 verbatim sentences 108 Verkoeijen, P 367 Vidailhet, P 131 Viger, S G 165 violation of expectation 195 – 196 Virag, L 313 – 314 Virtual Week task 306 visual and video scenes and false memory 248 visual arrays task 87 – 91, 88 visual-spatial sketch pad (VSSP) visuo-spatial memory 88 – 89 Võ, M L H 164 Vogel, E K 89 voluntary autobiographical memory 267; assessing the content and structure of distinct memory episodes in 268 – 275; methods of assessing 268; see also autobiographical memory Voss, J F 107 Vul, E 368 Vygotsky, L 382 Wabersich, D 186 Wade, A A 166 Wade, K A 242 Wagenaar, W A 245 Wagenmakers, E J 186 Wagner, A D 415, 416 Wagner, S M 23 Wagstaff, G F 256 Wallace, G 155 Walsh,V 324 War of the Ghosts,The Warriner, A B 164 Warrington, E K 85, 223 – 224, 231, 232 Waskett, L 24 Watkins, M J 24 – 25 Weaver, J J 12 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) 189 Wegner, D M 44 Weibert, K 324 Weinstein,Y 439 Weiss, D J 416 Wellman, H M 125 Wells, G L 255, 315 Wenzel, A 209, 215 Wenzl, A Wessa, M 165 West, R 299 West, S G 450 Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic (WEIRD) samples 370 whole-display response screen 90 Wiley, J 107, 109, 111, 115 – 116 William, Prince 320 Williams, D M 180 Williams, J M G 206 Williams Syndrome 383, 383 Wilson, M 390 Wilson, R S 231 Wilson, S J 345 Wimber, M 420 Windmann, S 61 Winfield, M M 23 Wing, E A 419 Wingfield, A Wippich, W 231 Wiseheart, M 438 Wixted, J T 78 – 80, 368, 390 Wolf, O T 169 Wolfe, M B 113 Woloshyn,V 202 Wong, A T 271 Woodward, T S 248 Woolrich, M W 407 Word Association Spaces (WAS) 21 word-association task 227 word frequency 31 words: cue, in autobiographical memory 214 – 215; in emotion-memory relationship 160 working memory 7 – 8; complex span task and 85 – 87, 86; confirmatory factor analysis of 96 – 99, 97 – 98, 452 – 455, 453; defined 84; domaingeneral and domain-specific components of 96; general considerations when conducting research on 94 – 100; memory updating tasks and 91 – 92; models for measuring 84 – 85; multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA) and 416 – 417; N-back task and 93 – 94; no task has a monopoly on the term 94 – 95; processing task accuracy 87; reliability and random error and 447 – 448; running memory span tasks and 92, 92 – 93; selective visual arrays tasks and 91; single-probe response screen and 89 – 90; some tasks more standardized than others and 95; structural equation modeling of 96, 99 – 100; structure of 73; studied as a system or an ability 95 – 96; tasks in 85 – 94; univariate approaches to fMRI data analysis of 404 – 405; validity and nonrandom error and 448 – 449; visual arrays task 473 Index and 87 – 91, 88; whole-display response screen and 90 Wundt, W Wynn, K 195 Xue, G 418 Yates, F A yes-no/old-new recognition tasks 26 – 27, 29 Yonehiro, J 89 Yonelinas, A P 29, 234 Young, A W 323 Yuille, J C 256, 269 Zaragoza, M S 246 Zaromb, F 5, 21 Zeller, R A 446 – 447 Zucker, H R 170 Zurawski, L 165 Zwaan, R A 107 – 108 474 Plate 1 Stimulus presentation timing: In this example, the goal is to examine how the brain processes objects, scenes, and faces differently during encoding This goal can be accomplished by any one of the three-­ stimulus presentation timing schema The gray blocks represent baseline periods (which could involve resting fixation or an active baseline task), and the vertical bars represent the onsets of stimuli presentation (yellow for objects, purple for scenes, and red for faces) Regardless of design, the order of stimulus categories and/­or items would be randomized or counterbalanced across participants The blocked design (a) version of this experiment consists of multiple blocks, each comprised of 15 stimuli from the same category, with baseline blocks in between The ITIs are fixed In the event-­related design (b) version, stimuli from all categories are intermixed and presented with jittered ITIs The mixed design (c) version is the same as the blocked design, except with jittered, rather than fixed, ITIs to facilitate estimation of event-­specific activity (e.g., to allow for analysis of subsequent memory effects or stimulus sub-­categories, such as male/­female or natural/­manmade) Plate 2 The subsequent memory paradigm: The goal of this example is to examine the differences in encoding activity that subsequently lead to different memory outcomes (a) Encoding phase: During fMRI scans, participants would be shown images using blocked, event-­related, or mixed design (b) Testing phase: Participants would be shown previously seen images along with unstudied foil images (foil prompts have been omitted from the illustration for visual simplicity) (c) Analysis phase: Participants’ behavioral responses during the testing phase can be used, retroactively, to categorize each encoding trial according to its subsequent memory outcome Event-­related activity associated with subsequently remembered and forgotten items can be separately estimated in each brain voxel, or within regions-­ of-­interest Time course plots can then be extracted to illustrate the mean hemodynamic response associated with each trial type Plate 3 Effective Connectivity Analysis (Dynamic Causal Modeling): This example experiment is based on Staresina, Cooper, and Henson (2013), and panel C partially reproduces Figure 22.4 in that publication The goal of this experiment is to characterize the flow of information within the medial temporal lobe during associative memory retrieval (a) Participants first encode a set of associations between arbitrarily paired objects and scenes (b) During scanning, participants are prompted with studied objects and scenes and instructed to covertly retrieve a visual image of the paired associate Trials can be categorized based on whether an object cues retrieval of a scene (O-­S) or a scene cues retrieval of an object (S-­O), as well as whether participants reported remembering (R) or forgetting (F) the associate (c) A 3-­node dynamic causal model allows the evaluation of information flow between the object-­selective perirhinal cortex (PrC), the scene-­selective parahippocampal cortex (PhC), and the hippocampus Models with various parameter settings can then be compared In this example, the best-­fitting model showed that recall success was associated with stronger connectivity from the PrC to the PhC (both directly, and via the hippocampus) during object-­cued retrieval of scenes, whereas the reverse was true for scene-­cued retrieval of objects Plate 4 Multi-­voxel pattern analysis (MVPA): This example MVPA application illustrates a scenario where one wishes to train a classifier to distinguish the brain patterns associated with two visual categories (faces and scenes) based on fMRI data acquired during perception (encoding) of face and scene stimuli, and then test the classifier’s ability to predict which stimulus category participants are bringing to mind during each retrieval trial based on the brain patterns evoked in response to an associative retrieval cue (e.g., a word or object that had previously been associated with a face or scene) (1) The classifier can either be trained and tested using the brain patterns within a specified region-­of-­interest (ROI), or whole brain searchlight MVPA can be conducted to map areas containing local voxel activity patterns that are reliably able to distinguish between the classes of stimuli (2) The data are divided into training and testing sets (in this case based on encoding and retrieval, but in many applications it might be useful to divide the data based on runs using a leave-­one-­run-­out cross-­validation approach) Data within the training set are labeled trial by trial according to their class membership (e.g., face or scene), and the classifier then derives a high-­dimensional decision boundaries for these classes (3) After this, the withheld testing set trials would be submitted to the classifier without the labels The classifier identifies each trial’s “place” in the decision space and outputs a classification (which category the classifier thinks that the trial belongs to) (4) Thereafter, the overall classification accuracy can be computed for this specific region or sphere One can also evaluate the “classifier evidence” for individual predictions based on how far a given test pattern falls from the decision boundary For instance, if face retrieval tends to be more vivid than scene retrieval, the classifier might show stronger evidence scores for face trials in the testing set (5) This concludes an ROI-­based analysis, whereas a searchlight analysis would store the classification result at the central voxel of the searchlight sphere and then move the sphere one voxel over and repeat the procedure until each voxel in the brain has served as the center of the searchlight sphere Plate 5 Representational Similarity Analysis: Encoding-­Retrieval Similarity (ERS): This example builds upon the subsequent memory example experiment (Figure 22.2), with testing phase fMRI data collection The goal of this example analysis is to examine, within a given ROI, whether the degree of similarity between encoding-­related and retrieval-­related activity is greater for items that were successfully remembered In this analysis, the images are categorized based on whether they were subsequently remembered or forgotten (1) Then a correlation (r) is computed between the encoding and retrieval activation pattern for each stimulus (2) After the pairwise dissimilarity (1­—r) is computed for each stimulus, a representational dissimilarity matrix can be used to plot the results, and relevant cells of this matrix can be contrasted to evaluate whether encoding-­retrieval similarity (ERS) differs significantly as a function of memory outcome ...HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH METHODS IN HUMAN MEMORY The Handbook of Research Methods in Human Memory presents a collection of chapters on methodology used by researchers in investigating human memory. .. professor of psychology at Florida International University He conducts research on memory and metamemory He is currently Editor-? ?in- ­Chief of New Ideas in Psychology HANDBOOK OF? ?RESEARCH METHODS. .. Conducting Memory Research in Educational Contexts John Dunlosky, Kayla Morehead, Amanda Zamary, and Katherine A Rawson 24 Methods of Studying Individual Differences in Memory Kimberly M Wingert