This page intentionally left blank Two Cultures of Rights the quest for inclusion and participation in modern america and germany This collection examines key issues in the history of the struggle for civil rights, political rights, and social rights in the United States and Germany from the late nineteenth century to the present The book provides a cross-national comparative perspective and presents national case studies that explore the similarities and differences in the conceptualization of rights on both sides of the Atlantic By examining the different ways that rights have been denied due to race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation, the essays in this volume address vital aspects of the definition of citizenship for women, African Americans, Asian Americans, Jews, resident aliens, and homosexuals The book demonstrates that these struggles for rights became an essential feature of not only political discourse but also social and political practice and culture in Germany and the United States Manfred Berg teaches history in the John F Kennedy Institute for North American Studies at the Free University of Berlin Martin H Geyer is a professor of history at the University of Munich publications of the german historical institute washington, d.c Edited by Detlef Junker with the assistance of Daniel S Mattern The German Historical Institute is a center for advanced study and research whose purpose is to provide a permanent basis for scholarly cooperation between historians from the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States The Institute conducts, promotes, and supports research into both American and German political, social, economic, and cultural history, into transatlantic migration, especially in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and into the history of international relations, with special emphasis on the roles played by the United States and Germany Recent books in the series David E Barclay and Elisabeth Glaser-Schmidt, editors, Transatlantic Images and Perceptions: Germany and America since 1776 Norbert Finzsch and Dietmar Schirmer, editors, Identity and Intolerance: Nationalism, Racism, and Xenophobia in Germany and the United States Susan Strasser, Charles McGovern, and Matthias Judt, editors, Getting and Spending: European and American Consumer Societies in the Twentieth Century Elisabeth Glaser and Hermann Wellenreuther, editors, Bridging the Atlantic: The Question of American Exceptionalism in Perspective Two Cultures of Rights the quest for inclusion and participation in modern america and germany Edited by manfred berg Free University of Berlin martin h geyer University of Munich GERMAN HISTORICAL INSTITUTE Washington, D.C and Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge , United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521792660 © The German Historical Institute 2002 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2002 - isbn-13 978-0-511-06945-1 eBook (EBL) - isbn-10 0-511-06945-6 eBook (EBL) - isbn-13 978-0-521-79266-0 hardback - isbn-10 0-521-79266-5 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents List of Contributors page ix Introduction Manfred Berg and Martin H Geyer part one race, immigration, and rights Asian Americans: Rights Denied and Attained Roger Daniels 19 Individual Right and Collective Interests: The NAACP and the American Voting Rights Discourse Manfred Berg 33 Securing Rights by Action, Securing Rights by Default: American Jews in Historical Perspective Hasia R Diner 59 From Civil Rights to Civic Death: Dismantling Rights in Nazi Germany Karl A Schleunes 77 The Rights of Aliens in Germany and the United States Christian Joppke 95 part two civil and social rights “The Right to Work Is the Right to Live!” Fair Employment and the Quest for Social Citizenship Eileen Boris vii 121 viii Contents Social Rights and Citizenship During World War II Martin H Geyer 143 Just Desserts: Virtue, Agency, and Property in Mid-TwentiethCentury Germany Michael L Hughes 167 The Political Culture of Rights: Postwar Germany and the United States in Comparative Perspective Hugh Davis Graham 189 10 The Emerging Right to Information Margaret S Dalton 205 part three gender, sex, and rights 11 Feminist Movements in the United States and Germany: A Comparative Perspective, 1848–1933 Ann Taylor Allen 12 Minorities, Civil Rights, and Political Culture: Gay and Lesbian Rights in Germany and the United States Michael Dreyer Index 231 249 273 270 Michael Dreyer and they were soon followed by groups for all sorts of local or larger environmental concerns, by women’s groups, and by civil rights groups that were (and are) often religiously inspired and that might deal with anything from individual rights in Tibet to child labor in India, to the plight of asylum seekers in Germany This vast array of causes would not have been thinkable in the 1960s, let alone the 1950s Although the largest of these movements, the peace movement, was not successful in its fight against NATO’s stationing of Pershing II missiles in Germany, it nevertheless created an atmosphere of citizen participation, which, ironically, although directed mainly against American policies, looked like American participatory movements A lasting result of the changes in the political culture and the change to a more postmaterialist value structure is manifest in the success the Green Party has enjoyed in German electoral politics The gay and lesbian movement in Germany was not at the forefront of these changes, but it undoubtedly profited immensely from them And it borrowed its strategy and tactics even more directly than most other social groups from the United States Although a certain amount of antiAmericanism was – and is – quite common for the German Left, this was generally not the case among gays and lesbians The rapid advances of their American counterparts, not to mention the burgeoning gay subculture, gave cities like New York and San Francisco the character of a promised land It is significant that the main annual event, the gay pride parade, has a different name in Germany: It is called Christopher Street Day, after the Greenwich Village street where the Stonewall Riots took place in 1969 The partial convergence of political strategies has led to an organizational framework in Germany that in some ways resembles its American counterparts Gay lobbying groups are now part of the German political scene One can summarize these developments in seven closing statements, which at the same time serve as an outlook (1) The term civil rights was only appropriate for the American gay rights movement The earliest German groups chose the path of scientific and legalistic persuasion, not the assertion of civil rights Since the advent of a participatory civic culture in Germany, however, civil rights can be used to describe the movement’s goals in both countries (2) The AIDS crisis dramatically politicized the movement during the 1980s It forced public officials and politicians to deal with homosexuality in an open-minded way in order to contain the epidemic At the same time, it revealed the homosexuality not only of numerous prominent public figures but also of seemingly “normal” neighborhood people, thus Gay and Lesbian Rights 271 giving homosexuality a human face It may sound cynical, but it remains a fact that the tragedy of AIDS enhanced the visibility of gays as no other event has done (3) The collaboration between male homosexuals and lesbians took on different forms.Whereas the gay rights groups in the United States usually boost some form of co-equal double leadership, in Germany lesbians tend to be active in the general women’s movement (4) The goals to be achieved still vary somewhat.Whereas the German movement is bent on full equality and integration into society, the American movement seems to be headed toward the assertion of some kind of minority status This reflects their different social climates and environments Although there is a tradition of minority representation in the United States, there is nothing even remotely comparable in Germany Hence, the different agenda (5) The means to achieve these goals are still imbedded in the histories of the respective countries’ political cultures Whereas the movement in the United States seems to rely on the Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights, in Germany science and scholarship still claim frontrow seats in the arguments of the gay rights movement Civil rights arguments in the American tradition are quickly gaining in Germany, however (6) In the United States, given the complicated and protracted lawmaking procedures, the medium of choice by which to advance goals in the political realm are mainly the courts In Germany, although lawsuits have gained prominence, change occurs mainly via legislative action The Green Party, itself a child of the protest movements of the late 1970s, has become a staunch advocate of gay rights, fostering numerous parliamentary initiatives The most prominent spokesperson for the gay rights movement, Volker Beck, has become a member of Bundestag for the Greens It should be noted, however, that there is a certain irony in these political venues: The American movement chooses the courts for a genuinely political, civil-rights-oriented argument, whereas the German movement uses the legislative body to argue in a legalistic and scientific manner (7) The issue that promises to hold center stage both in Germany and in the United States seems to be the question of same-sex marriage.55 It will be interesting to see whether this will lead to a further convergence of political styles and tactics 55 On this debate, see Andrew Sullivan, ed., Same-Sex Marriage: Pro and Con; A Reader (New York, 1997) 272 Michael Dreyer The growing number of similarities between the goals and strategies employed by groups in Germany and in the United States highlight the similarities that exist in two modern – or, rather, postmodern – highly pluralistic societies The dissimilarities, however, remain just as striking even today and point to differences in national political heritage and political culture Index 1984 (Orwell), 214 abortion: right to choose, 5; right to life, Action Committee for the Repeal of Paragraph 175 (Germany), 264 See also Hirschfeld, Magnus; homosexuality Addams, Jane, 236, 244 African Americans, 9, 19, 23–5, 33–57, 121–41, 201, 222, 238–9: as allies of American Jews, 71–2; “black supremacy,” 50; black power, 56; political allegiance of, 47–8; political strength of, 44; and voting rights, 33–57 See also Voting Rights Acts Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), 240 AIDS crisis, 15, 270–1 Alien Land Acts (Calif.), 31 aliens (U.S.), 95: Aliens Act (1798), 21; rights of, 104 Almond, Gabriel, 250 Altmeyer, Arthur, 155, 163 American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 52, 75–6 American Equal Rights Association, 233 American Federation of Labor (AFL), 122, 128, 132 American Indians, American Israelite (periodical), 69, 72 American Jewish Congress, 75 See also American Jews American Jews: discrimination against, 60; familial connections to Europe, 62; marginalization of, 63, 65; participation in U.S Civil War of, 67; and public education, 60; and the American state, 61 See also Jews American Labor Conference, 163 American Law Institute, 257 American Legion, 31–2 American Mercury (periodical), 38 American Woman Suffrage Association, 234 Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), 200 animals, rights of, Anthony, Susan B., 234 anti-Jewish legislation: in Maryland, 63; in New Hampshire, 63 anti-Semitism, 10–11, 63, 65, 70, 72–3, 81, 86 Aristotle, 208 Armenpflege (poor relief ), 236 273 274 Index Aryan Paragraphs (Nazi Germany), 89–90, 244 Asian Americans, 9–10, 19, 23–4, 26 Asian Indians, 20, 28, 30 Association Law (Prussia), 233–4, 237–8 Atlantic Charter, 131, 150–2, 159 Ausländerlobby (foreigner lobby), 115 Bangemann, Martin, report authored by, 215 Bannister, Marion Glass, 245 Bäumer, Gertrud, 244, 246 Bauser, Adolf, 176 Beck, Volker, 271 Bell, Daniel, 214 Beveridge, William, 158–9, 162; report authored by, 144, 160–1 Bilbo, Theodore, 121 Bildung (humanistic education), 64 Bill of Rights (U.S.), 3, 152, 165, 271 birthright citizenship, 20 Bismarck, Otto von, 210, 235 blacks See African Americans Blair, Tony, 27 Blood Protection Law (Nazi Germany), 93 Board of Delegates of American Israelites, 67 Bock, Gisela, 245 Bolshevism, 78 Brand, Adolf, 263, 264, 268 Bremen Public Library, 225 Britain, 2, 143–4, 148, 150–1, 158, 195 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 159 Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP), 122, 125 Brown v The Board of Education (1954), 25, 55 Bryan, William J., 39 Bülow, Bernhard von, 264 Bunche, Ralph, 125 Bündnis ’90-Green Party (Germany), 219, 270–1 Cable Act (1922), 26 California Supreme Court, 128 Canada, 62, 149, 161–2, 195 Carter, Jimmy, 198 Cash, Wilbur, 35 Catholicism (U.S.), 64, 70, 128, 136 census: in Prussia, 210; in U.S., 210 Center Party (Germany), 242 Central Association of BombDamaged, 169, 175 Central Office for International Social Engineering, 145 Charleston News and Courier (newspaper), 36 Charlotte’s Web (North Carolina), 225 Chauncey, George, 266 Chavez, Dennis, 134 Chicago, 49–50, 236, 265 Children’s Bureau, 236 Chinese Americans, 20, 23–6, 28 Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 21, 28–9, 97 Christ und Welt (periodical), 177, 181 Christian Democratic Union (CDU), 196, 219 Christian Social Union (CSU), 169 Christian Statesman (periodical), 67 Christianity, 10–11, 84, 234, 246: in the U.S., 62, 65 Church of the Holy Trinity v United States (1892), 68 Churchill, Winston, 150 Citizens Committee to Outlaw Entrapment, 267 See also homosexuality Citizenship and Social Class (Marshall), citizenship, definition of, 1, 95 Index Civil Liberties Act (1988), 27, 32 Civil Rights Act (1964), 122 Civil Rights Division, U.S Department of Justice, 201 civil rights movement (U.S.), 116: and African Americans, 5–6; and homosexuality, 270 Civil War (U.S.), 66–7, 101, 192, 233 Clinton, William J., 199, 218, 221 Coming of Postindustrial Society, The (Bell), 214 Commission on Law and Social Action, 75 Commission on the Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC), 27 Committee for Constitutional Government, 133 Committee on Fair Employment Practice (FEPC), 121, 124 Committee on Long-Range Work and Relief Policies, 151 Communications Act (1934), 222 Community of the Special, 263 concentration camps, 254 See also internment camps (U.S.) Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 129 Constitutional Court/Bundesverfassungsgericht, 109, 110, 111, 255 consumer advocates, 193 Coolidge, Calvin, 31 Council on Foreign Relations, 152 Cramer, Lawrence, 127 Crisis, The (periodical), 39, 41, 46, 53–4 Critical Legal Studies Movement, Cuban Americans, 102–3 Culture of Rights, A (Lacey and Haakonssen), 3–4 culture wars, 198 275 Daniels, Jonathan, 126 Darwinism, 85 Daten-Autobahn (information superhighway), 226 Daughters of Bilitis, 266–8 See also homosexuality Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR), 243 Dawson, William, 131, 137 Declaration of Independence, 38, 130 Declaration on the Fundamental Rights of the German People (1848), 80 Delano, Frederic A., 151 democracy, and rights, 249 Democratic Party (U.S.), 35, 45, 48, 194, 197, 198, 202, 204, 242 Department of Justice (U.S.), 29 DePriest, Oscar, 49 Detroit Council of Churches, 131 Deutsches Recht (Frank), 86 Dewson, Molly, 245 diaspora ( Jewish), 61–2 disabled, rights of, 193 Dissent (periodical), 203 Dixiecrats, 122 Domestic Council Committee on the Right of Privacy, 212 Douglass, Frederick, 47 Dred Scott v Sandorf (1856), 5, 101 Du Bois, W E B., 41, 45, 46, 49 East Elbia, 116 Eastland, James O., 121 Easton, David, 251 Economist, The (periodical), 158 Eghigian, Greg, 171 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 74 Electronic Freedom Foundation, 218 Elemente der Staatskunst, Die (Müller), 84 employment discrimination, 23 Enabling Act (1933), 88, 90 276 Index English language, 226 Enlightenment, The, 77 environmentalism, 5, 193 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 122, 201 Equal Protection clause, 99 Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), 241, 244 Erhard, Ludwig, 180 European Commission, 217 European Community, 215 Fair Employment Practice Council of Metropolitan Detroit, 135 fair employment practices, 12 Fair Employment Practices Committees (FEPC), 23–4, 126–32, 135–6, 140–1 Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), 129–30 fascism, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 267 Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 222 Federal Register (periodical), 201 federalism, 266 feminism, 14–15, 231–47; and gender, 231–2 Fernandez v Wilkinson, 103 Fiallo v Bell, 100 Filipino Americans, 20, 26, 30 “Final Solution.” See Holocaust first-class citizenship, 33, 56 Fischel, Arnold, 67 Ford, Gerald R., 212 Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service, 159 Fourier, Charles, 231 France, 59, 95, 195, 231 Franco-Prussian War (1870–1), 233 Frank, Hans, 82, 83, 85, 92 Frauen-Zeitung (periodical), 232 Free Corps, 82 Freiburg University, 89 Freisler, Roland, 91 French Revolution, 8, 77, 80 Frick, Wilhelm, 81–2, 87–8, 91 See also National Socialism; Nazi Germany Friedman, Lawrence, Fuchs, Lawrence, 203 Full Equality in a Free Society (American Jewish Congress), 75 Funk, Walther, 145 Gabrielson, Guy George, 134 Garrison, William Lloyd, 50 Gary (Ind.), 56 Gastrecht (guest-law), 107 Gates, Bill See Microsoft Foundation Gay New York (Chauncey), 266 gay/lesbian rights movement, 15, 193, 249–72 Gemeinschaft (community), 78 General Association of German Women/Allegemeiner deutscher Frauenverein (ADF), 233 General Federation of Women’s Clubs, 236 Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907–8), 22, 31 Gerber, Henry, 265 Gercke, Achim, 86 German Americans, 20 German Bar Association, 260 German Bundestag, 27, 176, 256, 271 German Chess Association, 89 German Christians, 246 German civil code (1900), 80, 81, 90, 91, 92 German Democratic Republic (GDR), 170, 190, 255 German Empire, 15, 80, 235, 250, 253, 263 Index German Federal Ministry of Economics, 215 German Federal Ministry of Education, Science, Research, and Technology, 226 German Federation of Rentiers, 177 German Finance Ministry, 180 German Foreign Office/Auswärtiges Amt, 90 German Froebel Union/Deutscher Froebelverein, 246 German Jews See Holocaust German Labor Front (DAF), 145, 146, 147, 159, 160 German Lawyers Convention, 107–8 German League of Protestant Women/Deutsch-Evangelischer Frauenbund, 240 German League of Woman Citizens/Deutscher Staatsbürgerinnen-Verband (formerly ADF), 243 German penal code, 252 German Sonderweg, 15 German Welfare Office, 177 German Woman Suffrage League/Deutscher Verein für Frauenstimmrecht, 238 Germany revolution of 1848, 8, 234 Gestapo, 80 See also National Socialism; Nazi Germany ghettos: Little Manilas, 24; Little Saigons, 24 Gitlin, Todd, 203 Global Information Infrastructure, 218 Globke, Hans, 93 Gold Rush, 23 Gore, Al, 218, 221 Graham v Richardson (1971), 98 Granger, Lester, 124 Great Depression, 51, 54, 78, 194 Great Migration, 45 277 Great Society, 201 Green, William, 132 Greenwood, Arthur, 159 Grimm, Dieter, 183 Grosswirtschaftsraum (greater economic sphere), 145 Group of Seven (G-7), 195–6 Grundgesetz (West German Basic Law), 8, 106–7, 109–11, 115–16, 191, 197, 204, 255 Grundrechte (basic rights), Guernica (Spain), 27 Haas, Francis J., 128 Hailbronner, Kay, 105 Haitians, 102–3 Halifax, Edward, 150 Hansen, William, 152 Harlem (N.Y.), 47, 50 Haskell, Thomas L., Haussleiter, August, 169 Hay, Harry, 267 See also gay/lesbian rights movement Hegel, George Wilhelm Friedrich, 182 Heidegger, Martin, 89 Herberg, Will, 74 Hesse, J Jens, 196 Heydebrand und der Lasa, Ernst von, 86 Hierl, Konstantin, 82 Himmler, Heinrich, 254 See also National Socialism; Nazi Germany Hindenburg, Paul von, 88 Hindu Citizenship Committee, 30 Hirohito, Emperor, 53 See also Japan Hirschfeld, Magnus, 260–1, 264–5, 268: and theory of homosexuality, 261–2 See also homosexuality Hispanics, 193, 202, 222 History of Suffrage in the United States (Porter), 37 278 Index Hitler, Adolf, 53, 70, 77, 85, 87–8, 149, 151, 160, 245, 253 See also National Socialism; Nazi Germany Hoey, Clyde R., 132 Hollinger, David, 203 Holocaust, 8, 11, 74, 77, 247 homosexuality, 15, 193, 252: antihomosexual “pink lists,” 256; criminalization of, 261; decriminalization of, 15; enforcement of antigay laws, 259; and entrapment, 256; and Nazi Germany, 269; and science, 261, 265–6 See also Hirschfeld, Magnus Hoover, Herbert, 47 Hoover, J Edgar, 267 Hössli, Heinrich, 260 Houston, Charles, 43 Howard University Law School, 127 Humphrey, Hubert H., 133 immigration, 9, 20, 35; and family reunification, 21–2 Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), 102 immigration legislation: Illegal Immigration and Immigrant Responsibility Act (1996), 114; Immigration Act (1965), 21; Immigration Reform Act, 193; Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986), 114 India League of America, 30 Indian Association for American Citizenship, 30 Indian National Congress of America, 30 Indian Welfare League, 30 Industrie-Kurier (periodical), 181 Information Society Project Office, 217 information: age of, 206, 208, 213; definition of, 206; right to, 14, 205–27 Inter-American Committee to Promote Social Security, 163 Inter-Departmental Committee on Social Insurance and Allied Services, 158 international human rights, 11 International Labor Charter, 164 International Labor Conference, 164 International Labor Office (ILO), 145, 149, 150, 163, 164, 165 Internet, 220, 223 See also information internment camps (U.S.), 10, 32 Irish Americans, 20, 27 Isensee, Josef, 107, 108 Isherwood, Christopher, 253 Israelis, 74, 109 Jacobson, David, 103 Japan, 26–7, 30–1, 157, 162, 196 Japanese Americans, 10, 22–5, 28, 30–1 Japanese-American Citizens League ( JACL), 31–2 Japanese-American Claims Act (1948), 27, 32 Jefferson, Thomas, 209 Jews, 9–11, 254, 260: assimilation, 80; emancipation in U.S., 10; emancipation in Europe, 80; emigration from Central Europe, 63; expulsion from German organizations, 90 See also American Jews; Holocaust; Judaism Jim Crow laws, 35, 55, 124, 128 Johnson, George M., 127, 129 Johnson, James Weldon, 38, 45 Joppke, Christian, 191 Judaism, 59, 62, 65, 73 See also American Jews; Jews Index Kant, Immanuel, 83–4, 182 Kather, Linus, 172, 176 Kennedy, John F., 48 Kertbeny, Karl Maria, 260 Kessler-Harris, Alice, 123 Key, V.O., 42 Keynes, John Maynard, 149 Kissinger, Henry A., 212 Knauff v Shaughnessy (1950), 100 Knauff-Mezei doctrine, 100–1, 103 Know-Nothing Party (U.S.), 63 Kohl, Helmut, 196 Königsberg, 92 Koonz, Claudia, 245, 247 Korean Americans, 26, 30 Kraft, Waldemar, 178 Krieger, Leonard, 84 Kriegsbeschädigte (war-damaged), 13, 167–87 Kymlicka, Will, Labour Party (Britain), 122 Ladder, The (periodical), 267 LaFollette, Charles M., 130 Länder (German federal states), 81, 111–12, 180, 224, 237–8, 253, 260 Landon v Plasencia (1982), 102 Lastenausgleich (balancing of burdens), 13, 168–74, 177, 180–1, 183–6 Lathrop, Julia, 236 Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor (Nazi Germany), 79 League for the Protection of Mothers/Bund für Mutterschutz (BfM), 239, 240 League of German Women’s Associations/Bund deutscher Frauenvereine (BDF), 237, 240, 243, 244 League of National Socialist Jurists, 82 279 League of Women Voters (U.S.), 243, 244 Leeser, Isaac, 68 Levy, Jonas, 66 Ley, Robert, 146, 159 Liberal Democratic Party ( Japan), 196 liberalism, 93, 251: German, 84 Lind, Michael, 203 literacy tests, 37, 42–3 Loving v Virginia, 26 low-income families, 222 Mackenzie, Ian, 162, 163 Mann, Klaus, 253 Marcantonio, Vito, 131 March on Washington Movement (MOWM), 124, 125, 136 Mariel Boat Lift, 102–3 marriage: mixed-sex, 50, 90–1; samesex, 271 Marshall, T H., 1–2, 8–9, 14, 122, 123, 144, 166 Marshall, Thurgood, 135 Martin, David, 101, 102 Marxism, 93, 196 Mattachine Society, 266, 267, 268 See also homosexuality McCarran-Walter Act (1952), 20, 32 McGovern, George, 197 Medicare, 199 Mein Kampf (Hitler), 90 Memex, 207 Mexican Americans, 26 Microsoft Foundation, 223, 226 migration to U.S., 61–2 Ministry of Information (Britain), 149 Mischling (racially mixed individual), 79 Mohl, Robert, 84 Mormons, 71 Mothers’ Cross (Germany), 246 Mothers’ Day (U.S.), 246 Motomura, Hiroshi, 104 280 Index Müller, Adam, 84 multiculturalism, 13, 16 Munich Olympic Games (1972), 109 Mutterschutz (protection of mothers), 239 Myrdal, Gunnar, 32, 39, 125 Napoleonic code, 252 National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), 237, 238, 241, 243 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 10, 33–57, 75: leadership of, 49; and alliance with American Jews, 71 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 157 National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs, 243 National Association of Real Estate Boards, 24 National Black Political Convention, 56 National Committee for India’s Freedom, 30 National Committee to Abolish the Poll Tax (NCAPT), 52 National Conference of Social Work, 127 National Council for a Permanent FEPC, 134 National Information Infrastructure Agenda for Action, 215, 217 National Information Policy report, 214 National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), 130 National Resources Planning Board (NRPB), 151, 152, 153, 154, 161, 164 National Socialism, 11, 70, 77, 81–2, 86, 92, 114, 116, 160, 173, 179, 184 See also Nazi Germany National Socialist Doctors’ Association, 92 National Union of German Housewives’ Associations/Reichsverband deutscher Hausfrauenvereine, 243–4 National Woman Suffrage Association, 234 National Women’s Party (NWP), 241–4 Native Americans, 19, 27 naturalization (U.S.), 9, 19 Naturalization Act (1870), 29 Nazi Germany, 8, 11, 14–15, 87, 91–2, 105, 160, 203, 212, 232, 244–7, 253, 256, 264 See also National Socialism Neue Internationale Rundschau der Arbeit (periodical), 145 New Deal (U.S.), 12, 48–9, 121, 130, 141, 143, 151, 161, 194–5, 197, 201–2, 245, 247 See also Roosevelt, Franklin D New York Evening Post (periodical), 50 New York Post (periodical), 131 New York State Civil Rights Act (1945), 75 New York State Legislature, 135 New York Times (periodical), 55 Nicolai, Helmut, 82, 85, 86 Nixon, Richard M., 195, 199 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 270 North German Federation, 252, 260 Nuremberg Laws, 11, 78, 86, 92 Obrigkeitsstaat (paternalistic state), 84 Occident and American Jewish Advocate (newspaper), 68, 72 Office of Civil Rights, 201 Index Office of Federal Contract Compliance, 201 One (periodical), 267, 268 Orwell, George, 214 Ostjuden (East European Jews), 81 Otto, Louise, 232 “outing” (of homosexuals), 264 281 Progressive Era, 35 Protestantism, 70, 234 Prussia, 64, 233, 237–8: civil code, 91; penal code, 252 Public Health Insurance Chambers, 89 Quakers, 234 Page Act (1875), 20–1 Palestinians, 109 Pan-American Conference on Social Security, 162 Pandit, Sakharam Ganesh, 29 Paperwork Reduction Act (1980), 213 Paquette Habana (1900), 104 Paragraph 175: 15, 175, 252, 255–6, 266–9 See also homosexuality; Hirschfeld, Magnus; Nazi Germany Parker, Judge John J., 49 Passenger Cases (1849), 20 patriotism, and African Americans, 53 Patterson, Ellis E., 131 Pearl Harbor, attack on (1941), 53, 162 Perkins, Frances, 245 permanent residents (legal), 98 Philadelphia Plan, 200 Philosophes, 182 Pillsbury, Albert, 40 Plessy v Ferguson (1896), 37 Plyler v Doe (1982), 99, 103 Poland, Nazi occupation of, 83 Polish Jews, 59 See also Jews poll tax, 52–3 Pollitt, Katha, 203 Populism, 23 Porter, Kirk, 37 Powell, Adam Clayton Jr., 138 Prenn, Daniel, 83 President’s Office of Emergency Management, 126 race, 4–5, 9, 39, 245 racism, 20, 36 Radical Republicans, 20 Randolph, A Philip, 122, 124, 126, 127 Rankin, John, 132 Reagan administration, 102, 197, 199, 200, 213 Rechtsstaat (a state ruled by law), 8, 83, 85, 182, 258 Recommendations to Improve the Legal Status of Foreigners in Germany (Schwerdtfeger), 107 Reconstruction (U.S.), 35, 36, 37, 56 redlining, 25 Reform Judaism, 69 Reich Citizenship Law, 78, 89, 93 Reich Interior Ministry, 87 Reich Supreme Court, 91 Reichsfremde (resident aliens), 87 Reichstag, 81, 88, 237, 242, 258, 261, 262, 263 Reichstag Fire Decree (1933), 90 Republican Party (U.S.), 36–7, 45, 47, 194, 197–8, 202, 204, 242, 244 Rheingold, Howard, 226 “rights talk,” 2, 13 Rockefeller, Nelson A., 212 Rodriquez-Fernandez v Wilkinson (1981), 104 Röhm, Ernst, 253 See also homosexuality; National Socialism; Nazi Germany 282 Index Roman Catholic Church, 64, 70 Roman law, 85 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 12, 47–9, 129, 131, 137–8, 150, 153, 158, 160, 162, 165, 194; “Four Liberties,” 150–1 See also New Deal (U.S.) Roosevelt, Theodore, 25, 31 Ross, Malcolm, 136 Ross, Nellie Tayloe, 245 Roundtable on Privacy and Information Policy, 212 Russell, Richard B., 133 Russian Jews, 59 See also Jews Schiller, Herbert I., 224–5 Schuck, Peter, 97, 99–100, 102 Schwerdtfeger, Gunther, 107–8 Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, 260, 263, 265–7 See also Hirschfeld, Magnus Security, Work, and Relief Policies (NRPB), 151, 154, 161 Seneca Falls Convention (1848), 232 Serviceman’s Readjustment Act (1944), 162 Seuffert, Walter, 174 Seventh-Day Adventists, 71, 76 Shafer, Byron, 194, 196 Shaplen, Robert, 30 Shaughnessy v Mezei (1953), 100 Sheppard-Towner Act (1921), 242 Shklar, Judith N., 4, 121 Singh, Sirdar Jagjit, 30 Sino-American Treaty (1881), 22 Six Chinese Companies, 28 slavery, 5, 20, 192 “social citizenship,” 12 social Darwinism, 184 Social Democratic Party (SPD), 170, 180, 181, 184, 235, 237, 239, 257, 260 Social Insurance and Allies Services, 158 Social Policy Association/Verein für Sozialpolitik, 235 Social Security Act (1935), 147, 155, 199 Social Security Board (SSB), 154–5, 158, 161, 163, 245 socialism, 78, 192, 238: opposition to, 245 See also Social Democratic Party (SPD) Society of Constitutional Lawyers (Germany), 107 Souls of Black Folk, The (Du Bois), 41 Sozialstaat (social-welfare state), SS (Schutzstaffel), 80 Stahl, Julius, 84 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 232 Stonewall Riots, 269–70 See also gay/lesbian rights movement Storey, Moorfield, 41 Strasser, Gregor, 82, 86–7 Streicher, Julius, 90 Stuckart, Wilhelm, 92 Stürmer, Der (periodical), 90 Sumner, Charles, 20 Sutherland, George, 29 Synod of the German Evangelical Church, 89 Taft, William Howard, 31, 37, 39 Taft-Harley Labor Relations Act (1947), 134, 191 Taney, Chief Justice Roger B., 4–5 See also U.S Supreme Court telecommunications, 221 temperance movement, 234 Thai Americans, 30 Thatcher, Margaret, 196 See also Britain Thind, Bhagat Singh, 29 “Third Reich.” See Nazi Germany Thompson, “Big Bill,” 50 Index Three Rivers Free-Net (Pittsburgh), 225 three-class voting system (Prussia), 237, 238 Truax v Raich (1915), 129 Truman administration, 165 Truman, Harry S, 48, 191 Turkish Germans, 111–12 Twilight of Common Dreams, The (Gitlin), 203 U.S Congress, 19–21, 27, 30–2, 40, 49, 59, 66–7, 97, 100–1, 136, 156, 161, 191, 198–200, 204, 241–3 U.S Constitution, 3, 5, 7, 11, 19, 34, 37, 41, 64, 103, 104, 210, 218: Eighth Amendment, 103; Fifteenth Amendment, 35, 37, 40–1, 44, 54; Fifth Amendment, 101, 103; First Amendment, 59, 64, 76; Fourteenth Amendment, 20, 22, 28, 40–1, 54, 99, 132, 271; Thirteenth Amendment, 20 See also Jim Crow laws; U.S Congress; U.S Supreme Court U.S Department of Commerce, 225 U.S Employment Service, 140 U.S Supreme Court, 20, 27, 37–8, 49, 52, 54–5, 68, 96–104, 112, 129, 193, 199 Ulrichs, Karl Heinrich, 260 Union of Professional Boxers, 89 United Nations, 2: Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), 2, 143, 165, 191, 218 Urban League (U.S.), 124 Verba, Sidney, 250 Villard, Oswald Garrison, 50 Volksgemeinschaft (racial community), 70, 86, 93, 146, 148 283 Voting Rights Acts (1965 and 1970), 44, 56 Wackerzapp, Oskar, 173 Wagener, Otto, 87 Wagner Act (1935), 128–30, 136 Wagner, Gerhard, 92 Wagner-Murray-Dingell Bill, 155, 157, 162, 164 Walling, William English, 46 Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Act, 130 War Department (U.S.), 67 War Manpower Commission, 126 Warren, Earl, 23, 193 See also U.S Supreme Court Wars of German Unification (1864–71), 233 Washington Hebrew Congregation, 66 Washington, Booker T., 38 Weber, Max, 210 Weimar Republic, 8, 77, 80–1, 83, 85, 90, 148, 211, 246, 253 Weinkauf, Hermann, 85 Weiss, Nancy, 48 Welles, Sumner, 158 white supremacy, 45, 77–8 White, Walter, 43, 53 Wiebe, Robert H., Wilkins, Roy, 55, 57 See also National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) Wilson, Woodrow, 31, 46, 209 Winant, John G., 159, 163 Wise, Isaac Mayer, 69 Witte, Edwin, 147 Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), 234, 235 Women’s Division of the Democratic National Committee, 245 284 Index Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, 241 women’s movement See feminism World War I, 179, 193: and AfricanAmerican patriotism, 53; and feminism, 240; German defeat in, 78; and postwar era, 23; and radical politics, 82 World War II, 10–12, 23, 26, 123, 134, 141, 143–66: and AfricanAmerican patriotism, 53; bombing victims of, 167; and gay liberation, 264, 265; as historical divide, 62, 65, 67, 72; and impact on civil rights, 2, 54; and postwar era, 23; U.S entry into, 53 Yearbook for the Intermediate Sex (Hirschfeld), 261, 267 Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), 67 Young, Whitney, 55 Youth Welfare Law (Germany), 242 Yugoslavs, 111–12 Zahn Harnack, Agnes von, 244 Zetkin, Clara, 238 Zionism, 74–5 ... Exceptionalism in Perspective Two Cultures of Rights the quest for inclusion and participation in modern america and germany Edited by manfred berg Free University of Berlin martin h geyer University of. .. page intentionally left blank Two Cultures of Rights the quest for inclusion and participation in modern america and germany This collection examines key issues in the history of the struggle for. .. groups have made their demands for equality, inclusion, and participation in the language of rights In the course of these struggles the concept of American citizenship took shape As the late Judith