This page intentionally left blank CAN MIGHT MAKE RIGHTS? This book looks at why it is so difficult to create “the rule of law” in postconflict societies such as Iraq and Afghanistan and offers critical insights into how policymakers and field-workers can improve future rule of law efforts Aimed at policymakers, field-workers, journalists, and students trying to make sense of the international community’s problems in Iraq and elsewhere, this book shows how a narrow focus on building institutions such as courts and legislatures misses the more complex political and cultural issues that affect societal commitment to the values associated with the rule of law The authors place the rule of law in context, showing the interconnectedness between the rule of law and other post-conflict priorities, from reestablishing security to revitalizing civil society The authors outline a pragmatic, synergistic approach to the rule of law that promises to reinvigorate debates about transitions to democracy and post-conflict reconstruction Jane Stromseth is a professor of law at Georgetown University Law Center, where she teaches in the fields of international law and constitutional law She has written widely on international law governing the use of force, humanitarian intervention, accountability for human rights atrocities, and constitutional war powers She has served in government as a director for Multilateral and Humanitarian Affairs at the National Security Council and as an attorney-advisor in the Office of the Legal Adviser at the U.S Department of State She serves on the editorial board of the American Journal of International Law David Wippman is Vice Provost for International Relations, Cornell University, and a professor of law at Cornell University Law School He previously served as a partner at Reichler, Appelbaum, & Wippman, a firm specializing in the representation of developing countries, and as a director for Multilateral and Humanitarian Affairs at the National Security Council Wippman is coauthor (with Steve Ratner and Jeff Dunoff) of International Law: Norms, Actors, Process (2d ed 2006) Rosa Brooks is a professor of law at Georgetown University Law Center, currently on leave while serving as Special Counsel at the Open Society Institute Before entering academia, Brooks served as a senior advisor at the U.S Department of State’s Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor and as a consultant for Human Rights Watch and other nongovernmental organizations She serves on the executive council of the American Society of International Law, and she writes a weekly opinion column for the Los Angeles Times Can Might Make Rights? BUILDING THE RULE OF LAW AFTER MILITARY INTERVENTIONS Jane Stromseth Georgetown University Law Center David Wippman Cornell Law School Rosa Brooks Georgetown University Law Center A project of the American Society of International Law cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521860895 © Jane Stromseth, David Wippman, and Rosa Brooks 2006 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2006 isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-511-24549-7 eBook (EBL) 0-511-24549-1 eBook (EBL) isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-521-86089-5 hardback 0-521-86089-X hardback isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-521-67801-8 paperback 0-521-67801-3 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate For our families Contents Acknowledgments Introduction: A New Imperialism? page ix Interventions and International Law: Legality and Legitimacy 18 What Is the Rule of Law?: A Pragmatic Definition and a Synergistic Approach 56 Blueprints for Post-Conflict Governance 85 Security as Sine Qua Non 134 The Challenge of Justice System Reform 178 Accountability for Atrocities: Moving Forward by Looking Backward? 249 Creating Rule of Law Cultures 310 Enhancing Rule of Law Efforts: Planning, Funding, and Local Ownership 347 10 Conclusion 388 Index 393 vii 400 Haitian National Police (HNP), 180, 214, 215 Hammergreen, Linn, 202, 243 Hartmann, Michael, 277 Hayek, Friedrich von, 70 Henkin, Louis, 23 heroin/opium trade, 122, 161 Herzegovina (see Bosnia-Herzegovina) High Commissioner for Human Rights (U.N.), 221 High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Change (U.N.), 39, 362 A History of the United Nations Charter (Russell), 23 HNP See Haitian National Police Horowitz, Donald, 88 HRW See Human Rights Watch human rights abuses, 67 advocacy, 260 interveners and, 339 interventions and, 77 NGOs, 197 norms, principles, 13 promoting, 60 protection of, 26, 27 public commitment to, rule of law and, 59, 79, 186, 321 Sierra Leone clinic of, 334 treaties, 25, 29 U.N Charter, Article 55, and, 353 uncoordinated monitoring of, 350 UNMIK and, 195–196 violations of, 26 Human Rights Chamber (Bosnia), 239 Human Rights Commission (U.N.), 278 Human Rights Watch (HRW), 67 humanitarian intervention(s), 2, 24, 29, 34 Kosovo dilemma of, 35–40 legal basis for, 38 norms, 38 Hussein, Saddam, 6, 30, 127 Bush Administration on, 47 defiance of, 47 NGO development thwarted by, 332 proceedings against, 302–304 removing/replacing, 126, 389 hybrid tribunals, 274–301 accountability/fairness of, 278, 280 advantages of, 275 of Bosnia, 274 of Cambodia, 274 of East Timor, 274, 283, 301 emergence of, 274 of Kosovo, 275–278 INDEX of Sierra Leone, 274, 289–295, 301 U.N support for, 290 variety of, 275 ICC See International Criminal Court ICCPR See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICG See International Crisis Group ICHR See Irish Centre for Human Rights ICJ See International Court of Justice ICTJ See International Center for Transitional Justice ICTR See International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ICTY See International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia identity-based conflicts, 106–117 identity politics, 106 IGC See Interim Governing Council IGNU See Interim Government of National Unity IJC See Independent Judicial Commission imperialism goals of new, military interventions compared/ contrasted with, western state’s rejection of, IMTF See Integrated Mission Task Force independence movements, Independent Judicial Commission (IJC), 226 Indonesia acquittals of, 282 Ad Hoc Human Rights Court, 282 Commission of Truth and Friendship (CTF) of, 284, 285, 301 international pressure on, 278 trends in, 282 Indonesian Code of Criminal Procedure, 194 Indonesian Criminal Code, 194 Institute of Peace (U.S.), 17, 91, 92, 109, 114, 144 Model Detention Act, 221 Special Report, 150 institutional insularity, 179 institutions collapse of, 313 insularity of, 179 interveners and state, 83 Integrated Mission Task Force (IMTF), 357, 360 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 25 INTERFET See International Force East Timor Interim Agreement for Peace and Self-Government (Kosovo), 112 Interim Governing Council (IGC), 127–128 INDEX Interim Government of National Unity (IGNU), 100 International Association of Women Judges, 239 International Center for Transitional Justice (ICTJ), 298 International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination, 25, 79 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 26, 36 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 25, 79, 320 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 25 International Criminal Court (ICC) potential impact of, 305–306 Rome Statute of, 305 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), 263 accountability/justice demonstrated by, 272 capacity-building by, 273 creation of, 272 domestic impact of, 271–274 expenses of, 290 funding of, 273 obstacles faced by, 274 partnerships of, 273 Rwanda votes against, 271 shortcomings of, 265 Web site, 272 International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia (ICTY), 263 expenses of, 290 financing of, 269 impact on domestic rule of law, 265–268 obstacles faced by, 274 Rules of the road, 266 Serbia and, 266, 268–271 shortcomings of, 265 UNMIK relationship with, 265 International Crisis Group (ICG), 110, 163, 216, 267, 333 International Force East Timor (INTERFET), 192, 278 international law, 26 impact of, 50 legitimate objectives of intervention and, 50–51 International Police Task Force, 152 international security assistance force (ISAF), 43, 120, 121 U.S./NATO expansion of, 162 INTERPOL, 281 interveners accountability of, 315, 326 arrests/detention by, 220 401 balance of power shifts caused by, 380 belligerents v., 146 cease-fires urged by, 86 challenges/opportunities for, 313 choices of, 391 collaborative/multi-lateral actions of, 315, 327 DDR and, 166 dilemma of, 88 dispute-resolution mechanisms of, 337 divisive questions of, 87 enhancing planning/coordination for, 356–367 harm minimized by, 325 human rights accommodations of, 339 illegitimate/illegal actions of, 390 intelligence capability lacking in, 167 international standards imposed by, 90 Iraq, 162 knowledge lacked by, 136–137 Kosovo problems of, 195, 208 legal framework required of, 51 linguistic/cultural know-how of, 315, 326 marginalization by, 343, 381 media and, 345 NGOs catered to by, 332 police and, 204 political arrangements achieved by, 88 prioritization/sequencing necessity for, 355 public goods provided by, 135 purpose of, 85 reluctance of, 89 rule of law cultures created by, 328 rule of law promotion by, 312, 326–327 Security Council resolutions sought by, 51 short-term v long-term mission of, 41 spoilers v., 155, 164 standards of conduct required of, 51 state institution focus of, 83 strategic interests of, 89 temporary legal codes needed by, 192–193 transparency of, 315, 326 underestimation by, 368 value conflicts of, 385 violations by, 90 western state, 90 interventions armed, 18 Cold War, 28 half-hearted, 367 human rights, 77 humanitarian, 2, 24, 29, 34, 35–38, 40 international law and legitimate objectives of, 50–51 Kosovo, 5, 6, 16, 34, 114 lack of resource influence on, legality/legitimacy of, 12, 18, 52–53, 65 402 interventions (cont.) multilateral, old/new problems of, “on the cheap,” reasons for, rebuilding indigenous security, 136 rule of law culture created by, 311 Security Council authorized, 30 Soviet Union, 28 Tanzania’s Ugandan, 28 U.S pro-democratic, 28 window of opportunity after, 188 Iraq, Abu Ghraib prison, 6, 51, 219, 323 anti-Coalition sentiment in, 324 authoritarian misrule of, 162 Baath party repression in, 126 Brookings Iraq Index, 52 Bush, George W., planning for, 367 coalition government possibility for, 131 coalition opposition to, 127 Coalition Provisional Authority, 127, 142 constitutional politics of, 117 constitutional process of, 96, 130 continuing problems in, 68 de-Baathification efforts in, 163 democracy challenges of, 124 detention problems of, 219, 220 disbanding combat forces in, 168 ethnic federalism of, 131 ethnosectarianism in, 131 foreign debt of, 125 genocide and, 302 Governing Council of, 127–128, 302, 381 government’s collapse, 125 international interventions in, 16, 86 interveners/spoilers of, 162 judicial appointments in, 234 Kurds of, 96, 125 Kuwait invaded by, 30, 125 lack of WMDs in, 50 linguistic/cultural differences, difficulties of, 322 looters in, 145–146 military collapse of, 366 oil reserves of, 125 Persian Gulf War ceasefire violations of, 47 pursuing spoilers/making enemies, 162–165 rebuilding rule of law in, returning nationals influence on, 383 rule of law lacking in, 56 security goals of, 163 Shiites of, 96, 125, 129 Special Tribunal for Crimes Against Humanity of, 302–304 Sunni Triangle, 163 INDEX Sunnis of, 52, 97, 125, 130, 220 TAL of, 129 TNA of, 130 trials in, 254 2003 war in, 46–50 U.S Coalition tensions with, 322 U.S escape route possibilities, 64 U.S lessons in, 145 U.S military intervention in, 2, 5, 6, 12 U.S planning for, 364, 365 U.S soldiers killed in, 389 U.S transitional government in, 126 war crimes tribunals, 239 winning in, 135 Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund, 371–372 Iraq War, 19, 46–50 U.S poor planning for, 364 weak political support for, 49 Iraqi Armed Forces, 164 Iraqi Kurds, 38, 39 Irish Centre for Human Rights (ICHR), 197, 221 ISAF See international security assistance force Islam, 123 Italian Carbinieri, 150 Jaka, Alhaji Jusu, 294 Japan, 98, 140 Jensen, Erik, 230 Johnson-Sirleaf, Ellen, 101 JSMP See Judicial System Monitoring Programme judges of Afghanistan, 229, 233 appointment of, 230–234 associations, 332–333 of Bosnia, 232 changing attitudes of, 240 contributions of, 238 difficulty finding experienced, 237, 239 of East Timor, 232 of Iraq, 234 of Kosovo, 231–232 as mentors, 237 misconduct of, 235, 236 premature empowerment of, 235–236 Regulation One non-acceptance by, 317 of Sierra Leone, 231 training of, 234–235, 342 UNMIK appointment of, 238, 384 UNTAET appointment of, 238 Judicial System Monitoring Programme (JSMP), 201–202, 243–244, 330 CAVR work evaluated by, 330 funders of, 331 INDEX Judicial Training Center (East Timor), 235 judiciary of Afghanistan, 124, 229 corruption of, 137, 241 increasing transparency of, 242–243 political influence of, 241 post-conflict strengthening of, 230–235 reform of, 314 of Rwanda, 273 strengthening of, 236 support of, 240–242 UNMIK’s establishment of, 320 justice access problems, 244 goals of, 255 ICTR and, 272 independence as, 278 for perpetrators, 255 transitional, 141, 253, 256 triad, 184, 185 victor’s, 293 justice system(s) of Bosnia, 226 building fair, effective, 178, 181, 183 capacities needed in, 184 criminal, 184 dispute resolution mechanisms, 245 NGOs indispensable role building, 330 predatory politics’ influence on, 179 prisons and, 222–223 strategic assessment of, 191 synergistic approach to, 181–184, 188, 349–350 transformation of, 243 unbalanced reform in, 217–218 Kabbah, Ahmad Tejan, 158 Kallon, Morris, 289 Kambanana, Jean, 263–264 Karadzic, Radovan, 264 Karzai, Hamid, 97, 120, 122–123, 209 KCS See Kosovo Correctional Service Kellog-Briand Pact, 21 KFOR See Kosovo Force KLA See Kosovo Liberation Army Kleinfeld, Rachel, 73 on rule of law, 181, 182 Korea, 28 Kosovar Albanians, 52, 112 constitutional process of, 92–95, 380 ethnic cleansing campaign against, 316 Kosovar Serb reconciliation with, 113 NATO and, 325 Regulation One rejected by, 318 Serbian oppression of, 317 UNMIK reputation with, 319 western interventions welcomed by, 380 403 Kosovo, See also United Nations Mission in Kosovo Albanians of, 52, 112 biased trials of, 274 blueprint for, 113 Bosnian-style consociationalism in, 112 CIVPOL in, 148 collapse of state-authority, 138 Constitutional Framework for Provisional Self-Government in, 115–117 criminal networks of, 90 DDR program of, 148 democracy’s progress in, 98, 113 detention facilities in, 320 divisions within, 106 ethnic divisions within, 276 final status, 103, 113–115, 117 humanitarian catastrophe in, 36 humanitarian intervention dilemma of, 35–40 hybrid tribunals of, 274–278 ICTY’s impact on, 265–268 incapacitated judicial system of, 276 Interim Agreement for Peace and Self-Government in, 112 international tribunals of, 254 intervener’s problems in, 195, 208 intervention and UN Charter, 38 intervention phases in, 382 intervention in, 5, 6, 16, 34, 114 judicial appointments in, 231–232 judicial misconduct in, 235 KFOR’s arrival in, 208 KLA of, 8, 208 lack of agreed-upon law in, 316 linguistic/cultural differences, difficulties of, 322 minority rights and, 111–117 NATO in, 19, 27, 33, 50, 170, 195, 312 organizations collaborating in, 63 parallel justice system of, 277 planning/coordination pillars, 361 police of, 203 political bargains of, 87 political system of, 113 prison reform in, 223 problems remaining in, 66 progress in, 170 protectorate status of, 113 Rambouillet agreement, 112 rule of law promotion in, 62, 322 Serb authorities withdrawal from, 112 Serbs of, 112, 113 64 panels of, 276, 277 strengthening rule of law in, 187 unlearned lessons of, 322 404 Kosovo (cont.) “victors justice,” 276 women police in, 210 UN Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) 102, 104, 112 UN Resolution 1244, 113 Kosovo Correctional Service (KCS), 223 Kosovo Final Status: Options and Cross-Border Requirements (U.S Institute of Peace), 114 Kosovo Force (KFOR), 37, 114, 170, 208 detainees held by, 220 Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), 8, 208 Kosovo Police Force, 211 Kosovo Police Service (KPS), 170, 208 Kosovo Police Service School (KPSS), 208 Kosovo Protection Corps, 170 Kouchner, Bernard, 316 KPS See Kosovo Police Service KPSS See Kosovo Police Service School Krstic, Radislav, 264 Kurds, 96, 125 Kuwait, Iraq’s invasion of, 30, 125 Latin America, 25 abuse of power in, 61 restoring rule of law in, 62 rule of law promotion, 65 law See also international law; rule of law of armed conflict, 26 coercion v., 313 criminal, 192, 193 doubt of, 311 entrenched attitudes toward, 312 equality before, 182 formalistic approach to, 318 government bound by, 181 implementation of, 202 improving national, 196 Kosovo’s lacking agreed-upon, 316 meaningful dissemination of, 202 normative commitment to, 75 question of applicable, 192 reasons people obey, 310 law enforcement capacity, 226 law-making, reforming process of, 199–202 law reform, goals/challenges of, 193–195 law school clinics, 74 Lawrence, T E., 376 lawyers rule of law programs and, 314 training of, 342 League of Nations, 21 Covenant of, 21 legal advocacy, 74 The Legal Basis for Preemption (Taft), 46 INDEX legal codes, 192–193 legal education investing in, 333–334 role of, 15 legal theorists, 77 legislatures, assistance to, 200, 201 legitimacy constitutional, 86 democratic, 93 Interim Government of National Unity (IGNU’s), 100 intervention’s, 12, 18, 52–53, 65 police challenges of, 207 Levitte, Jean-David, 48 liberal imperialists, Liberia, See also All Liberia Conference; National Patriotic Front of Liberia civil society activists of, 101 civil war in, 90 corruption in, 101 death statistics of, 170 disarmament statistics, 171 ECOMOG forces in, 157 ECOWAS and, 33, 34, 99 elections of, 99–102 GEMAP of, 101 international interventions in, 5, 16 interveners in, 102 mercenary politics of, 100 National Transitional Government of, 101 Nigerian-led forces in, 19 peace agreement, 101, 165 peace operations termination, 377 reconstruction process of, 381 regional security problem of, 102 rule of law lacking in, 56 Taylor’s invasion of, 99 U.N peacekeepers deployed to, 101 western democratic governance imposed on, 378 Libya, 102 Lijphart, Arend, 107 Linton, Suzannah, 237 Lome Accord, 251 Lopes, Aniceto Guterres, 285, 286 Mani, Rama, 205 marginalized groups, 16 McCool, Carolyn, 94 media interveners and, 345 strengthening of, 341, 344 mediators, role of, 339–340 Middle East, 6, 76 Middle East Partnership Initiative, 63 military INDEX constabulary forces, 150, 151 enhancing security capability by, 149–151 French Gendarmerie, 150 Haiti’s dismantling of, 146 Italian Carabinieri, 150 post-conflict role of, 154 slow adjustment by U.S., 144 Spanish Guardia Civil, 150 state reliance on, 147 unpreparedness of, 144 U.S Special Forces, 151 military interventions government restructuring and, 134 in Haiti, 5, 16, 67 human rights principles and, 13 humanitarian, imperialism compared/contrasted with, in Iraq, 2, 5, motives behind, order restored via, 144 triggering of, 86 U.N Charter’s rules restricting, 27 U.S.-Afghanistan, U.S.-Iraq, Milosevic, Slobodan, 35, 263–264, 268 minority rights, 75, 106–117 Mission Implementation Plan, 111 Mladic, Ratko, 264 model codes, 197–199 Model Detention Act, 221 Monrovia, ECOMOG securing of, 99 Monteiro, Longuinhos, 283 multilateral treaties, 25 Muslims, 89, 107, 109 mutual veto, 107 nation-building, 29, 30 by Bush Administration, 63 problems created by, 369 United Nation’s, 118 National Consultative Council (NCC), 104 National Council of East Timorese Resistance (CNRT), 104, 380 National Endowment for Democracy (NED), 63 National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), 99, 157 National Penitentiary (Haiti), 224 National Recovery Strategy (East Timor), 383 National Security Council, 164 National Security Presidential Directive (NSPD) Directive 3, 366, 386, 388 National Security Strategy, 43, 44, 45 405 National Strategy for Victory in Iraq, 164 National Transitional Government, 101 NATO See North Atlantic Treaty Organization NCC See National Consultative Council NED See National Endowment for Democracy New Zealand Department of Corrections, 224 NGOs See nongovernmental organizations Nigeria ECOMOG dominated by, 158 Liberia and, 19 1977 Protocols, 25 non-elites, court/governance access of, 341 non-governmental actors, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) citizen empowerment by, 260 constructiveness/destructiveness of, 331 global network of, 29 human rights advanced by, 197 Hussein’s thwarting of, 332 interveners catered to by, 332 judicial reform promoted by, 226 justice system building by, 330 law-related, 63 legal advocacy, 74 role of, 15 rule of law fostered by, 342 of Sierra Leone, 298 support for, 201, 243–244 women aided by, 331 Norman, Sam Hinga, 293, 296 norms accountability, 260–261, 263 cascades, 261 democracy, diffusion of, 260 domestic, human rights, humanitarian intervention, 38 international, 4, 27 self-determination, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 2, 28 air campaign of, 321 arrests made by, 321 Article response by, 41 Germany and, 35 ISAF expansion by, 162 Kosovar Albanians and, 325 Kosovo and, 19, 27, 33, 50, 170, 195, 312 peacekeeping operations, 63 spoilers confronted by, 159 suspects detained by, 321 Yugoslavia and, 31 406 North Korea, rule of law lacking in, 56 NPFL See National Patriotic Front of Liberia NSPD See National Security Presidential Directive Oakley, Robert, 145 O’Connor, Vivienne, 194 Office of High Representative (Bosnia), 110, 111, 226–227 Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA), 365 Office of the Coordinator for Reconstruction and Stabilization, 366, 367 Office of the U.N High Commissioner for Human Rights, 25, 197 Office on Drugs and Crime (U.N.), 197, 221, 225 O’Neill, William, 203 Open Society Institute , 334 Operation Enduring Freedom, 43, 118 opium/heroin trade, 122, 161 opportunity post-intervention window of, 145–147 societal elements of, 139 order government provision of, 137 military restoration of, 144 winning war v maintaining, 136 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (O.S.C.E.), 63, 348, 356, 360 Organization of African Unity, 25 Organization of American States (OAS), 25 ORHA See Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance O.S.C.E See Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Ovcara trial (Serbia), 270 Pakistan, 157 paralegals, role of, 339–340 Patrick, Stewart, 372 PDD See Presidential Decision Directive peace adequate resources for, 367 creating conditions for, 370 political embrace of, 155 problems implementing, 374 programs implementing, 348, 377 sabotaging, 156 peace agreements, study of, Peace Implementation Council, 110 Peace of Westphalia, 21 peace operations, 145, 154 ad hoc organization of, 353 evolution of, 154 funding of, 374 King’s College review of, 351 INDEX local involvement in, 379–384 logic of, 382 primary goal of, 154 Security Council endorsement of, 351 termination of, 377 Peacebuilding Commission (U.N.), 351, 363, 376, 386 Peacebuilding Fund (U.N.), 364 peacekeepers neutrality of, 154 of Pakistan, 157 women as, 344 Penal Management Division (PMD), People’s Republic of China, 19, 23 Perito, Robert, 217 perpetrators accountability/justice for, 255 de-legitimizing, 259 Persian Gulf War (1991), 30, 38, 39, 46, 47 pledges following through on, 371 U.S unfulfilled Iraq, 371–372 PMD See Penal Management Division police See also civilian police; Haitian National Police; Scorpion police incident abusive interrogation by, 203 Afghanistan’s, 211, 213 citizens and, 204 community-based system of, 179 corruption of, 203 discipline/oversight of, 213 of East Timor, 203, 211, 212 gender balance of, 210 of Haiti, 203, 211, 214 international, 214 interveners and, 204 of Kosovo, 203 legitimacy challenges of, 207 professionalism, 211–213 promotion of, 213 recruitment of, 213 reforming/strengthening of, 204 societies’ relationship with, 204–205 of Somalia, 203 state reliance on, 147 state’s relation with, 214–216 supporting efforts of, 135 training, 211–213 transformation of, 213 U.N vetting of, 208 UNMIK’s establishment of, 320 police reform goals of, 205–207 post-conflict society, 203–214 policing community, 205–207 democratic, 205 INDEX political bargains, 87 political blueprints, 85, 350 political elites, 117, 139, 315 political parties, assistance/training to, 201 politics demilitarization of, 165 electoral, 87 identity, 106 Iraq’s, 117 justice systems and predatory, 179 Kosovo’s system of, 113 Liberia’s mercenary, 100 poll Afghanistan, 52, 325 Time-ABC, 324 Ponte, Carla del, 270 Posner, Richard, 70 post-conflict blueprints, 97, 141, 348 post-intervention societies “best practices,” characteristics of, chicken-egg problem in, 312 creating rule of law in, 10 reestablishing security in, Powell, Colin, 18, 45 power sharing, 106–117 preemptive action doctrine, 43–46 Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) PDD-56, 364 priorities international v national, 15 prison reform, 218–226 rules/training/accountability, 221–222 prison(s) Afghanistan’s neglected, 225 of East Timor, 221, 223, 224 of Haiti, 224–225 justice system and, 222–223 of Kosovo, 223 neglect of, 218 oversight of, 222 reform of, 218–226 resources needed by, 222 UNMIK’s establishment of, 320 proportionality, winner-take-all v., 108 Provisional Reconstruction Teams (PRTs), 121 PRTs See Provisional Reconstruction Teams public order, maintenance of, 150 The Question of Intervention: Statements by the Secretary General (Annan), 37 racism, 75 Radio Rwanda, 272 407 Ramboulllet Agreement, 112 See also Interim Agreement for Peace and Self-Government in Kosovo Ramos-Horta, Jose, 281 rape, 168, 211 Raz, Joseph, 70 reconstruction blueprint for political, 85 of Liberia, 381 owning process of, 376 post-conflict, security as sine qua non of, 134 Reconstruction Trust Fund (Afghanistan), 375 reform adaptive, 183 Bosnia’s problems with, 227–228 Brahimi Report’s call for, 357 justice system’s unbalanced, 217–218 law, 193–195 NGOs and judicial, 226 prison, 218–226 rule of law, 16, 114, 253 reform, adaptive, 183 refugee(s) crisis, 36 rights of, 110 regimes, toppling totalitarian, 61 Regulation 2000/64 (UNMIK), 276 Regulation 24 (UNMIK), 317 Regulation 26 (UNMIK), 322 Regulation One (UNMIK), 317, 318, 319 Report on The Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-conflict Societies (2004), 193 The Reports of the Death of Article 2(4) Are Greatly Exaggerated (Henkin), 23 Republika Sprska, 108–110, 228, 266 Resident Coordinator (U.N.), 359 Revolutionary United Front (RUF), 158 amnesty given to, 158, 251 coup staged by, 158 disarmament refusal, 169 Guinea v., 159 Sierra Leone and, 169 trials involving, 289 Rice, Condoleezza, 45 rights minority, 75, 106–117 women’s, 75 Rio Pact, 41 ripple effects accountability, 260 Sierra Leone, 297 Rome Agreement, 266 Rome Statute of International Criminal Court, 305 408 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 25 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 22 RUF See Revolutionary United Front rule of law, 4–5 absence of, 59–60 accountability and, 186, 258–261 adaptive reform and, 183 Aristotelian precept regarding, 70 belief in, 311 blueprints, 11, 14 building blocks for, 11, 12, 14, 16, 75, 178 building house metaphor, 10–11 capitalism and, 58 complexity of, 57, 78 conceptual elusiveness of, 386, 388 countries lacking in, 56 cultural commitment to, 15, 78, 325 decisions regarding, 71 defined, 69, 72–73, 77–80, 324, 328 economic growth and, 60 education’s influence on, 342 establishing complexity of, 347 Fiss on, 59 five separate ends of, 73 formal accounts of, 72 formal/minimalist concept of, 70, 75 Great Britain and, 70 historicity, 72 human rights and, 59, 79, 186, 321 “I know it when I see it” definition of, 73, 80 ICTY’s impact on, 265–268 impact of, 331, 334, 336, 343 importance of, 57, 61 index, 354 institutional definition, 325, 328 international tribunals and, 263–274 intervener’s promotion of, 312, 326–327 key elements of, 185 Kleinfeld on, 73, 181, 182 Kosovo and, 62, 322 Latin America’s restoration of, 62 legal scholar’s definition of, 72–73 legitimacy and, 185 as long-term project, 79 military interventions and, minorities and, 344 NGO’s influence on, 342 nuances of, 389 obstacles/threats to, 191 one size fits all approach, 9, 188 overlapping conceptions of, 71 paradoxes created by, 315 people protected by, 13 planning/coordination efforts for, 350–356, 367 policymakers’ promotion of, 69, 325 INDEX post-conflict efforts for rebuilding, 9, 10 post-conflict societies and, 78 practitioners of, 314 programs, 189 protection as goal of, 193 reforms, 16, 114, 186, 253 requirements for, 72 resources for, 190 rhetorical commitments to, 60 self, community, and, 312 shared cultural commitment to, 76 society’s recognition of, 310 strengthening of, 187, 189 substantive/maximist concept of, 70–72 sustainability and, 186 synergistic approach to, 13, 58, 80–84, 181–184 systemic issues, 14 terrorism and, 59 vagueness of, 56 values underlying, 15 violence and, 78 virtues of, 314 young people and, 344 rule of law assistance, 61, 75, 179 cultural sensitivity issues and, 378 evaluating effectiveness of, 347 legal education and, 185 rule of law culture, 310 building/sustaining, 341 creation of, 314 fostering of, 327–340 intervener’s creation of, 311, 328 NGOs’ fostering of, 331 nurturance of, 314, 330–332 programs critical to, 329 as uncharted territory, 314 Rule of Law Focal Point Network (U.N.), 358 rule of law programs, 14, 61, 178 finding funds for, 370–376 lawyers and, 314 rhetorical/financial commitments to, 65 rule of law promotion, 14, 16, 58, 62 aid providers interested in, 69 expense of, 62 international enthusiasm for, 62 lack of success, 353 in Latin America, 65 norm creation/cultural change and, 75 private foundations and, 62 stumbling efforts at, 327 Rumsfield, Donald, 57 Russell, Ruth, 23 Russia, 19, 23 See also Soviet Union Chechnya military campaign of, 66 corruption in, 66 INDEX organized crime in, 65 privatization in, 65 rule of law success stories in, 65 slow progress of, 347 Rwanda See also International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda genocide in, 32, 157, 271 international tribunal and, 254, 263 judiciary of, 273 political power vesting in, 87 Radio, 272 reconciliation in, 273 resource competition, 262 rule of law promotion in, 62 tribunals, 254, 263, 272 Sankoh, Foday, 158, 292, 294 Scalia, Antonin, 70 Schmidl, Erwin, 153 Scorpion police incident (Serbia), 270 Scowcroft, Brent, 366 Secretary General (U.N.), 104 Peacebuilding Commission, 351, 363, 376, 386 Report on The Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-conflict Societies (2004), 193 Security Council relationship with, 369 Special Representative of, 359, 360 security blueprints, 136 conditions for providing, 135–137 context of, 140–143 defined, 141 economics of, 137 enhancing military’s, 149–151 forces, 135 gap, 147–153 government/participation pillars of, 141–142 international/national, 2, 59, 60, 134 Iraq goals of, 163 justice/reconciliation pillars of, 141 local ownership of, 136 normalcy and, 142 post-intervention demand for, 136 promoting, 136 protections offered by, 141 short-term, 143–153 as sine qua non, 134 social/economic well-being pillars of, 142 understanding, 137–143 Security Council, 19, 22 atrocities response to, 38 authority to take action, 23–24 divisions within, 46, 47 Haiti and, 31 409 interveners seeking resolutions from, 51 interventions authorized by, 30 nation-building by, 30 Peacebuilding Commission, 351, 363, 376, 386 peacekeepers deployed by, 101 Peacekeeping Commission of, 363 peacekeeping mission of, 28 peacekeeping transitions endorsed by, 351 permanent members of, 23 Resolution 678, 49 Resolution 687, 46, 47 Resolution 836, 31, 63 Resolution 1244, 37, 113, 143–144, 155, 317, 359 Resolution 1272, 96, 103 Resolution 1368, 40 Resolution 1373, 41 Resolution 1441, 48, 108–110 Resolution 1483, 64, 111 Resolution 1511, 113, 128 Response to September 11, 2001 by, 41 Secretariat’s relationship with, 369 Taliban regime’s defiance of, 42 threats to peace defined by, 23, 32 self-defense, U.N Charter Article 51 on, 22, 44 self-determination norms, September 11, 2, international community reaction to, 40 interventions after, rule of law promotion and, 59 Security Council’s response to, 41 U.S response to, 40, 63, 118 Serbia Albanians oppressed by, 317 capacity-building within, 269 ethnic cleansing campaign, 66, 316 ICTY and, 266, 268–271 Kosovo withdrawal by, 112 Ovcara trial, 270 returnees to, 114 Scorpion police unit incident, 270 Special Court for Organized Crimes and War Crimes, 270 U.N control in, 316 Serbs Bosnian, 92, 109 Kosovar, 112 Serious Crimes Unit (East Timor), 279, 280, 283, 286, 288 Sesay, Issa Hassan, 289 settlement blueprints, 86 Shiites, 96, 125 Sierra Leone, 2, 158–159 Accountability Now Clubs, 297 AFRC of, 289 410 Sierra Leone (cont.) amnesty given by, 251 Amputee Association, 294 army/police deployment, 169 atrocities, 293 capacity-building in, 297–299 CDF of, 289, 293 CGG of, 294 child soldiers of, 249 civil war in, 90, 289 courts established in, 354 DDR and, 168, 169 democracy’s progress in, 98 dispute-resolution mechanisms in, 335 Doherty as judge in, 237 ECOWAS and, 33, 34, 102 Generic Guidelines for Strategic Frameworks applied in, 359 Great Britain military in, 159 hereditary chieftaincies restored in, 385 human rights clinics, 334 hybrid tribunals of, 274, 289–295, 301 impunity cascade of, 261 international interventions in, 5, 16 judicial appointments in, 231 NGOs of, 298 Open Society Institute, 334 outreach in, 295–297 Parliament, 292 patriarchal structures, 336 peace agreement, 165 peace operations termination, 377 peacekeeping mission in, 67 progress in, 159, 170 ripple effects within, 297 RUF and, 169 rule of law promotion in, 62 Special Court, 254, 290, 291, 292, 294 Special Court Interactive Forum, 298 StopGaps program, 169 Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 189–190, 256, 299–301 U.N Integrated Office for, 170 UNAMSIL and, 169 war crime prosecutions, 256 Sistani, Ali, 129 Six plus Two group, 118 slavery, 75 Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 111 society(ies) See also post-intervention societies building, deeply divided, 106 opportunistic elements in, 139 police relationship with, 204–205 post-conflict/post-intervention, 76, 78, 203–214 INDEX repressive/conflict-ridden, rule of law recognized by, 310 transformation of, 189 troubled/transitional, 61 war-torn, 347 soldiers children as, 249 training of, 150 women as, 299 Somalia, 135 collapse of state-authority in, 138 non-effective government of, 139 peace operations termination, 377 police of, 203 unexpected casualties/mounting costs in, 368 U.S leaves, 139, 364 warlord challenge of, 156–157 South Africa apartheid of, 334 constitution of, 96, 343 interim Government of National Unity, 93 Soviet Union, 23 abuse of power in, 61 collapse of, 61 intervention by invitation, 28 restoring rule of law in, 62 U.S confrontation with, 28 Spanish Guardia Civil, 150 Special Court for Sierra Leone, 254, 290, 291, 292, 294, 298 Special Court for Organized Crimes and War Crimes (Serbia), 270 Special Forces (U.S.), 151 Special Independent Commission for the Convening of Emergency Loya Jirga, 120 Special Panels for Serious Crimes (East Timor), 279, 282, 283, 288 Special Representative of Secretary General (SRSG), 104, 112, 360 Special Tribunal for Crimes Against Humanity (Iraq), 302–304 Special War Crimes Chamber (Bosnia), 228 spoilers assistance derailed by, 351 Bosnia’s entrenched, 159–160 confronting, 155 empowerment of, 390 interveners v., 155, 164 Iraq pursuit of, 162–165 NATO confronts, 159 types of, 164 warlords as, 154–172 Sprska See Republika Sprska SRSG See Special Representative of Secretary General 411 INDEX Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (U.N.), 221, 222 Stanley Foundation Report, 358 State Court of Bosnia-Herzegovina, 228 state(s) building of, 138 European, 138 ineffective governing of, 138 institutions, 83, 216–217 military reliance by, 147 police reliance by, 147 war economy of, 139 Stewart, Potter, 56 Summers, Robert, 72 Sunni Triangle, 163 Sunnis, 52, 97, 125, 130, 220 Supreme Court (U.S.), 56, 70 synergism biological definition of, 80 theological definition of, 81 of Afghanistan, 258 for atrocities, 250 in Iraq, 254 in Sierra Leone, 289 truth commissions and, 256 war crimes, 239, 266 tribunals, international See also hybrid tribunals financing of, 265, 266 rule of law and, 263–274 Rwanda and, 254, 263, 272 shortcomings of, 264 Yugoslavia and, 263 truth commissions, 250 of Bosnia, 254 of East Timor, 256 legacy of, 263 of Sierra Leone, 256 trials v., 256 Tudjman, Franjo, 269 Taft, William H., 46 TAL See Transitional Administrative Law Taliban regime, of Afghanistan, 118 groups opposed to, 161 Security Council defied by, 42 U.S pursuit of, 121 Tanham, George, 134 Tanzania, 28 Taylor, Charles, 99, 157, 159, 292, 293 insurgencies supported by, 158 prosecution of, 292–294, 295 reign’s end for, 101 ruling style of, 100 terrorism/terrorists, 2, 40, 45 al-Qaeda 42 causes of, rule of law and, 59 Time-ABC poll, 324 Timor Leste See East Timor TNA See Transitional National Assembly Tolbert, David, 265, 269 Transitional Administrative Law (TAL), 129 transitional justice, 141, 253 See also accountability, 141 evolution of, 255 trends, 256 Transitional National Assembly (TNA), 130 TRC See Truth and Reconciliation Commission treaties See also Abuja agreement ANZUS treaty, 41 human rights, 25, 29 international, 79 multilateral, 25 trials See also criminal trials Uganda, Tanzania’s intervention in, 28 Ukraine, slow progress of, 347 U.N See United Nations UNAMA See United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan UNAMSIL See United Nations Mission for Sierra Leone UNDP See United Nations Development Programme UNHCR See United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Unified Task Force (UNITAF I), 156, 157, 167 UNITAF I See Unified Task Force United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), 225, 304 United Nations Charter, 13, 19 architects of, 22 Article 1(3), 24 Article 2(4), 22 Article 2(7), 24 Article 51, 22, 44 Article 53, 33 Article 55, 24 Chapter VII, 22, 30, 36, 40, 51 Chapter VIII, 22 conflict resolution and, 33 flexibility of, 23 fundamental principles of, 22 international legal framework of, 21 1945 adoption of, 44 non-intervention principle, 23 use of force and, 21–27 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 298 412 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 360 United Nations Mission for Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL), 158, 159, 169, 170 United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), 37, 197 Chapter VII mandate, 171 damaged credibility of, 319 disarming combatants by, 171 effective reintegration packages, 171 human rights protection by, 195–196 ICTY relationship with, 265 institution-building by, 102 international judges employed by, 384 judge deployment by, 238 judicial dismissal regulations of, 235 Kosovar Albanians/Kosovar Serbs reconciliation, 113 Kosovar opinion of, 319 KPS supervision by, 208 police, prison, judicial systems established by, 320 Regulation 24, 317 Regulation 26, 322 Regulation 2000/64, 276 Regulation One, 316, 319 reversal by, 318 “standards before status,” 115 undermining of, 114 UNTAET’s advantage over, 105 United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET), 279, 280 United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNISOM I), 156 United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNISOM II), 31, 157 United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR), 31 United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET), 32, 103, 197, 224, 339 capacity-building of, 383 criticism of, 103 hybrid accountability system established by, 279 judge/prosecutor appointments by, 238 organized elections, 104 strategic problems of, 361 Timorization process of, 104 UNMIK and, 105 World Bank and, 362 United Nations (U.N.), See also General Assembly; Security Council arrests made by, 321 Brahimi Report and, 152, 193 Commission on Human Rights, 37 INDEX Criminal Law and Judicial Advisory Unit, 358 Democracy Fund, 63 Democratic Republic of Congo and, 369 Department of Peacekeeping, 357, 361 Department of Political Affairs, 361 Development Programme, 91, 92 East Timor interventions by, 32, 63, 103 Fund for Peacebuilding, 376 High Commissioner for Human Rights, 221 High Level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Change, 362 Human Rights Commission, 278 human rights commitment of, 321 hybrid tribunals supported by, 290 Integrated Office for Sierra Leone, 170 INTERFET authorized by, 192 KCS of, 223 Kosovo and, 63 lead planning/coordination by, 357, 358 nation-building and, 118 NATO and, 63 Office on Drugs and Crime, 197, 221, 225 O.S.C.E and, 63 Peacebuilding Commission, 351, 363, 376, 386 Peacebuilding Fund, 364 peacekeeping operations, 63 PMD of, 223 police vetting by, 208 poor coordination efforts, 358 Report of the Subcommittee of, 24 Resident Coordinator, 359 Rule of Law Focal Point Network, 358 salaries paid by, 283 Secretary General, 104, 193, 359 Security Council, 85 Serious Crimes Unit, 279 Special Representatives of, 321 Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, 221, 222 Stanley Foundation Report on, 358 suspects detained by, 321 Transitional Administration, 371 Transitional Administration in East Timor, 379 United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 62 United States Institute of Peace (USIP), 17, 91, 92, 109, 197 United States (U.S.) Afghanistan military intervention by, 2, 5, 19, 42 Afghanistan’s light footprint and, 118 Al-Qaeda pursued by, 64, 118, 121 413 INDEX Aristide’s restoration by, 140 Bosnia and, 89 Coalition led by, 322, 323 courts/constitution of, 77 CPA led by, 302 Defense Department, 151 Department of State, 92 Euro-Atlantic integration pursued by, 111 General Accounting Office, 347, 351 Geneva Conventions disregarded by, 323 Germany transformed by, 98 Iraq lessons of, 145–146 Iraq military intervention by, 2, 5, 6, 12 Iraq War poor planning by, 364 Iraq’s transitional government and, 126 ISAF expansion by, 162 JAG officers of, 323 Japan transformed by, 98 military’s slow adjustments, 144 Operation Enduring Freedom, 43, 118 policy debates, post-September 11 military interventions, 63 pro-democratic interventions of, 28 rule of law promotion expense, 62 self-defense legal right invoked by, 42 September 11, 2001 response by, 40, 118 slavery/racism in, 75 soldier deaths of, 389 Somalia left by, 139, 364 Soviet Union confrontation with, 28 Special Forces, 151 superpower status of, Taliban pursued by, 121 Uphold Democracy launched by, 214 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 79, 320 UNMIK See United Nations Mission in Kosovo UNMISET See United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor UNOSOM I/II See United Nations Operation in Somalia UNPROFOR See United Nations Protection Force UNTAET See United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor Uphold Democracy, 214 U.S See United States USAID See United States Agency for International Development veto, mutual, 107 victims accountability and, 249 CAVR and, 288 victor’s justice, 293 Vietnam, 134 Vincent, Robin, 291 violence accountability and, 250 Bosnia’s intergroup, 106 cultural understandings of, 77 Kosovo police and, 211 rule of law and, 78 women and, 168 war crime(s) See also accountability prosecutions, 256 trials, 239, 266 War Crimes Chamber, 228, 239, 267–268 warlords Afghanistan’s, 8, 90, 121 collaboration with, 12 confronting recalcitrant, 156 flourishing of, 139 non-strengthening of, 380 as political partners, 159 Somalia’s challenge by, 156–157 as spoilers, 154–172 war(s) See also civil war maintaining order v winning, 136 as state policy, 21 on terror, 60 weapons of mass destruction (WMD), 44, 50 Web site(s) Brookings Iraq Index, 52 Carnegie Corporation Endowment for International Peace, 74 CPA, 302 CTF, 284 HRW, 67 ICJ, 36 ICTR, 272 Institute of Peace (U.S.), 109 JSMP, 243–244 Lome Accord, 251 National Security Council, 164 National Security Strategy, 43 Office of the U.N High Commissioner for Human Rights, 25 Operation Enduring Freedom, 43 West, Ronald, 212 West Africa, 292 winner-take-all, proportionality v., 108 Wiranto, 280 WMD See weapons of mass destruction women See also gender issues Afghanistan denies rights of, 195 AI and, 245 as commodity, 167 DDR and, 168 414 women (cont.) NGOs’ aid to, 331 peacebuilding by, 344 as police, 210 protecting/empowering, 210–211, 344 rights of, 75 as soldiers, 299 violence to, 168 World Bank, 58 Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit, 373 economic mandate of, 373 rule of law index, 354 Watching Briefs, 353 INDEX World War II, 140 Written Answer for House of Commons (Blair), 36 Yale Law School, 59 Yugoslavia See also International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia Bosnia as mini-, 106 greater openness in, 318 international tribunal for, 254, 263 NATO and, 31 political change within, 160 Socialist Federal Republic of, 111