A History of Architecture and Trade A History of Architecture and Trade draws together essays from an international roster of distinguished and emerging scholars to critically examine the important role architecture and urbanism played in the past five hundred years of global trading, moving away from a conventional Western narrative The book uses an alternative holistic lens through which to view the development of architecture and trade, covering diverse topics such as the coercive urbanism of the Dutch East India Company; how slavery and capitalism shaped architecture and urbanization; and the importance of Islamic trading in the history of global trade Each chapter examines a key site in history, using architecture, landscape and urban scale as evidence to show how trade has shaped them It will appeal to scholars and researchers interested in areas such as world history, economic and trade history and architectural history Patrick Haughey is a Professor of Architectural History at Savannah College of Art and Design, USA, where he teaches modern, urban and global architecture history His research uses a multidisciplinary approach to architecture history, deploying world systems, economics, history and cultural geography His scholarship critiques the impacts of colonialism and finance on architecture and urbanism He also teaches studio, drawing and rendering for the Interior Design and Architecture Departments Routledge Research in Architecture The Routledge Research in Architecture series provides the reader with the latest scholarship in the field of architecture The series publishes research from across the globe and covers areas as diverse as architectural history and theory, technology, digital architecture, structures, materials, details, design, monographs of architects, interior design and much more By making these studies available to the worldwide academic community, the series aims to promote quality architectural research For a full list of titles, please visit: www.routledge.com/architecture/series/RRARCH From Doxiadis’ Theory to Pikionis’ Work Reflections of Antiquity in Modern Architecture Kostas Tsiambaos Thermal Comfort in Hot Dry Climates Traditional Dwellings in Iran Ahmadreza Foruzanmehr Architecture and the Body, Science and Culture Kim Sexton The Ideal of Total Environmental Control Knud Lönberg-Holm, Buckminster Fuller, and the SSA Suzanne Strum The Architecture of Medieval Churches Theology of Love in Practice John A.H Lewis A History of Architecture and Trade Patrick Haughey A History of Architecture and Trade Edited by Patrick Haughey First published 2018 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Patrick Haughey The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Haughey, Patrick, editor Title: A history of architecture and trade / edited by Patrick Haughey Description: New York : Routledge, 2018 | Series: Routledge research in architecture | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2017030220 | ISBN 9781138635739 (hardback) | ISBN 9781315206363 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Architecture and society—History | Commerce—Social aspects—History Classification: LCC NA2543.S6 H57 2018 | DDC 720.1/03—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017030220 ISBN: 978-1-138-63573-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-20636-3 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by Keystroke, Neville Lodge, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton Contents Acknowledgments Author biographies Introduction: The architecture of trade is as old as human history vii ix PATRICK HAUGHEY Legacies of colonialism: Towards an architectural history of capitalism 10 PATRICK HAUGHEY Spices, spies, and speculation: Trust and control in the early Batavia-Amsterdam system 44 ROBERT COWHERD Cities of incense and myrrh: Fantasy and capitalism in the Arabian Gulf 62 NASSER RABBAT Borneo, the river effect, and the spirit world millionaires 80 MARK JARZOMBEK House as marketplace: Swahili merchant houses and their urban context in the later Middle Ages 115 THOMAS GENSHEIMER An anachronism of trade: The Mercato Nuovo in Florence (1546–1551) LAUREN JACOBI 128 vi Contents Merchant identity: The cartographic impulse in the architectural sculpture of the Llotja of Palma de Mallorca 142 DORON BAUER The travels of a merchant throughout the Islamic World 156 CECILIA FUMAGALLI Savannah’s Custom House: A peculiar construction of galvanized iron, apparently durable and well-adapted to a southern climate 168 DENNIS DE WITT 10 The modernization of a port in British India: Calcutta, 1870–1880 194 ANIRUDDHA BOSE 11 Building the marble elephant: The creation of Philadelphia’s iconic City Hall 208 GLEN UMBERGER Index 223 Acknowledgments In February of 2015 the Architectural History department at Savannah College of Art and Design held its 9th and final international Symposium on the Architecture of Trade, co-directed by Patrick Haughey and Robin Williams While this book was inspired by the symposium, it is neither a compendium of the topics presented nor a publication affiliated with the department or the college Books like this require the effort of a number of people First and foremost, I would like to thank my wife Without her, I cannot be who I am For all of my work I am extremely grateful for my family and friends, who, with an abundance of patience both challenge and support me I must thank Robin Williams, my department chair and co-director of the 2015 9th Symposium: The Architecture of Trade, for his tireless commitment to the discipline of architectural history and to our community The Savannah Symposium was a vital bi-annual gathering of scholars from all over the world and the department of Architectural History As of now, this is the last book to be inspired by the hundreds of participants and supporters, as the symposium has been cancelled The Savannah Symposium, my inspiration as an educator, and our department would not be possible without the support of Savannah College of Art and Design As always, behind the scenes of the symposium and our department are some very special people including, among many: Marilyn Armstrong, Sandra Hatteberg, Susan Richards and Alice Eisner, as well as our own dedicated students and professors In addition, I received valuable edits and advice on my chapter from Professor John Carey Murphy and former architecture student Samson Johnson, among others I would also especially like to thank the editors and people at Routledge Publishers for their patience Finally, I would like to thank my colleagues from my History, Theory and Criticism family at MIT, especially Robert Cowherd and Mark Jarzombek who helped inspired my research, as well as my other friends here in Savannah and elsewhere for supporting my decades-long history obsession I am grateful for all of the teachers in my past who have left their mark To all the authors whose contributions made this volume possible, thank you for your dedication, timeliness and support Any and all errors or misunderstandings of their contributions are of course my own doing viii Acknowledgments Now more than ever, it is important that readers, scholars, schools and publishers stand up to what seems to be an endless assault against education, history and humanity This book is dedicated to my students, past, present and future, whose passion, insight and trust have always kept me inspired Author biographies Doron Bauer is Assistant Professor of Art History at Florida State University, USA He received his PhD in 2012 from Johns Hopkins University He has received a number of awards, including Research Fellowship, Kunsthistorische Institut in Florenz (2016); Predoctoral Research Fellowship, Kunsthistorische Institut in Florenz (2011–2012); La bourse d’échanges culturels de la Conseil Général de la Vienne (2010–2011); Chateaubriand Fellowship, French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2009–2010) and Singleton Graduate Fellowship, The Singleton Center for the Study of Premodern Europe (2009–2010) He is the co-editor of a forthcoming book, Art in the Kingdom of Majorca: An Anthology of Sources (Universitat des les Illes Balears, 2017); ‘‘Milk as Templar Apologetics in the St Bernard of Clairvaux Altarpiece from Majorca” (Studies in Iconography, 36, 79–98, 2016); and “Castus Castor (The Chaste Beaver): Some Reflections on the Iconography of the Southern Portal of Santa María de Uncastillo” (Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, 1, 213–230, 2009) Aniruddha Bose is Assistant Professor of History in the History and Political Science Department at Saint Francis University, Loretto, Pennsylvania, USA He received his PhD in History from the Department of History at Boston College, Massachusetts in 2013 He is the author of “Science and Technology in India: The Digression of Asia and Europe,” History Compass (February 2007) Dr Bose is currently revising a manuscript based on his doctoral dissertation tentatively titled “Modernization and Class Conflict: The British Raj on the Calcutta Waterfront.” His research for this project has been supported by generous grants from the Clough Center for the Study of Constitutional Democracy in Boston College, where Dr Bose was a Graduate Fellow (2011–2012) and by a University Fellowship from Boston College It has also been supported by grants from the Faculty Development Committee at Saint Francis University and the School of Arts and Letters at Saint Francis University The manuscript is currently under contract with Routledge Robert Cowherd is an Associate Professor of Architecture at Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, USA He was a 2014–2015 Fulbright Building Philadelphia’s iconic City Hall 215 Building such an extraordinary public work not only required vast sums of money, but also the talents of it architect, John McArthur, Jr., who also had the advantage of the availability of one of the Nation’s premiere architectural talents of the day in his mentor, Thomas Ustick Walter Walter, who was living in Philadelphia since his retirement as the Architect of the Capitol, was experiencing some personal financial difficulties and was pursuing new professional opportunities in order to support his family On June 1, 1874, Walter was officially hired for the Architect’s Office of the New Public Buildings in the City of Philadelphia to serve under his former student, McArthur Walter’s diary entries and his personal correspondence after June 1874 provide fascinating insights into his work and the evidence strongly suggests Walter contributed significantly to the designs for the building, though he was working under the direction and supervision of McArthur In his capacity as “Assistant Architect,” Walter, an architect of national acclaim having just completed perhaps the most well-recognized building in the United States, was elected to serve as the second President of the American Institute of Architects, an organization of which he was a founding member.25 G.E Kidder Smith remarks in his Source Book of American Architecture: 500 Buildings from the 10th Century to the Present that “[t]he evidence also seems conclusive that Thomas Ustick Walter had a hand in the design of the tower and inner decoration.”26 In fact, Walter’s innovative contributions and superb architectural expertise enabled City Hall to not only be completed but also to become, for a time, the tallest building in the world At this time throughout North America, cities were erecting new city halls that sought to achieve greater heights as a means of civic self-promotion and this dynamic shift in municipal architecture was most ambitiously realized in Philadelphia by the small team of notable architects and artisans who produced the tallest building in the world, at a record height of 548 feet Some have argued that the title of world’s tallest building prior to Philadelphia City Hall was the 353-foot Milwaukee City Hall, claiming it “was the second tallest structure in the nation behind the Washington Monument,” which topped out in 1884.27 Milwaukee City Hall’s pedigree as “tallest” building is said to have eclipsed the 348-foot tall Manhattan Life Insurance Building in New York (Kimball and Thompson, 1894) and was only succeeded by the 391-foot tall Park Row Building at 15 Park Row, New York (R.H Robertson, 1899).28 It was, in fact, Philadelphia City Hall, with an official height of 548 feet, which would hold the title of “World’s Tallest” until the Singer Building (Ernest Flagg, 1908) in New York The Washington Monument is 554 feet, and 11/32 inches tall (completed in 1884) and the Eiffel Tower is 986 feet tall (completed in 1889) are both taller than Philadelphia City Hall when its tower was completed in November 1894, but are more properly classified as structures and not as buildings These structures also represent a dramatic change to their respective cities’ skylines, becoming dominant secular features that eclipsed church buildings Yet, not only was Philadelphia’s City Hall the tallest in the world, it was also 216 Glen Umberger the largest municipal building constructed on the North American continent, larger in square footage even than the United States Capitol building in Washington, D.C and taller than the 361-foot tall Illinois State Capitol Building (Alfred H Piquenard, et al., 1888) in Springfield, Illinois In each of John McArthur’s designs for Philadelphia City Hall, of which there were several, the building always featured a clock tower In McArthur’s 1860 and 1869 plans, for example, the public buildings featured a modest tower and similarly, the 1871 design for Penn Square featured a 300-foottall tower, capped by an 18-foot-tall bronze statue of William Penn Even at that height, City Hall would have been the tallest building in Philadelphia and the first building to eclipse the city’s numerous church spires, including McArthur’s West Spruce Street Presbyterian Church, completed in 1857 Sometime in 1875, the year after Walter joined the Architect’s Office, the tower design underwent a substantial change when more than 200 feet were added to the tower’s height, which at over 500 feet made it the tallest building in the world, a fact heralded in Turner’s Guide to and Descriptions of Philadelphia’s New City Hall or Public Buildings with the subtitle: “The largest and grandest structure in the world.”29 Clearly, Philadelphia’s architectural ambition to build the “tallest building” was a reflection of civic pride and while the exact timing of this change to the design of City Hall’s tower remains uncertain, it is clear from his personal papers that Walter made significant contributions to the change in design clearly reflecting a desire to build an even more prominent building than the one that originally had been conceived For example, beginning on New Year’s Day 1880, Walter records in his diary that he “call[ed] at office [and] made some studies of the foundation of tower” and then spent the entire month of January “at sections through tower.”30 It is interesting that he is studying the foundations of the tower as those “foundations” were completed in late June 1874, five-and-ahalf years earlier Walter’s diary entries for the month of February 1880 continue to record his duties in the design of the tower, but perhaps one of the most interesting entries is from February 16, in which he records “at calculations of weight of tower.”31 These entries may indicate that the architects were planning to greatly expand the height of the tower and wanted to verify that the current foundation would support the additional weight Indeed Walter’s true architectural genius was an engineering feat completed seven years after his death—the installation of the colossal bronze statue of William Penn atop City Hall, which was cast at the Tacony Iron and Metal Company, one of several foundries in Philadelphia that produced structural and decorative ironwork Although Walter did not design the statue, that honor belonging to Alexander Milne Calder (1846–1923), it was Walter’s engineering skill that allowed Penn to surmount the tower in November 1894 Based on what is known about his previous work at the U.S Capitol, in particular the mechanism by which Freedom rose to her pedestal in December 1863, it is certain that Walter employed the same engineering for William Penn’s rise to the top of the city hall clock tower 31 years later.32 Building Philadelphia’s iconic City Hall 217 One of the most notable aspects of Philadelphia City Hall is its elaborate sculptural program By the mid-nineteenth century, civic architecture and symbolic ornament had become inextricable, with the most important buildings possessing the most elaborate decorative program, often co-opting traditional architectural iconography from houses of worship to articulate a secular civic identity and authority Philadelphia City Hall’s didactic program included themes such as commerce, mechanics, architecture, science, poetry, music, navigation and botany.33 Instead of promoting nationalism, the iconographic program at Philadelphia City Hall conveys ideals of civic identity and municipal authority through a multitude of allegorical representations by one sculptor, Scottish-born Alexander Milne Calder Calder, who trained in London and worked on the Albert Memorial, immigrated to the United States in 1868, and continued his studies at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts In 1873, Samuel Perkins and John McArthur, Jr hired him as a “plaster modeler;” he was the first tenant of the new building, his studio occupying space on the basement level in the southwest corner.34 Working under the direction of the Architect’s Office, Calder molded his works in clay and then cast them in plaster; these plaster molds would then be translated by carvers into stone or, in the case of William Penn, cast in bronze at the foundry Fortunately, most of these plaster models were photographed before they were destroyed and the photographs were published in a book, including one plaster model representing trade with a depiction of a ship with its anchor, wooden crates stored in a warehouse and in transit topped by a bunch of bananas (Figure 11.3).35 The sculptural program at Philadelphia City Hall, created to portray a particular and perpetual civic image of the city, involved more than 250 individual sculptural pieces with depictions of historical and allegorical figures, designed not only to inform the public as to the building’s multiple purposes, as each side represents its different governmental function, but also to teach a lesson To this end, he employed traditional religious subjects for secular symbolic purposes For example, on the south side of the building, which is the location of the judicial branch and one of the three homes of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, the keystone figure in the central portal is that of the historical figure of Moses, the lawgiver from the Biblical book of Exodus, presiding over the entrance to the courts Similarly, on the western side of the building that was used as the prisoners’ entrance, the keystone above the central portal carries the allegorical figure of sympathy She is flanked in the spandrels by depictions of the Biblical stories of Cain and Abel from the Old Testament and the Parable of the Prodigal Son from the New Testament These panels are representative of sin and repentance and illustrate the use of religious themed iconography in a secular, civic setting The east portal, designed to be the Mayor’s grand entrance, by contrast, employed strictly secular iconography (Figure 11.4) Here Calder created 218 Glen Umberger Figure 11.3 Commission for the Erection of the New Public Buildings of the City of Philadelphia Sculptures and Ornamental Details in Bronze and Iron of the New City Hall, Philadelphia, 1883 (5 volumes), Philadelphia: Office of City Architect, 1883 (Photo by Author) two life-sized allegorical panels of the figures “Architecture” and “Science.” Architecture is represented by a female figure in a reclining pose with an early representation of the Philadelphia City Hall clock tower over her shoulder Science, the corresponding male figure is also in a reclining pose, with a stack of books representing the pursuit of knowledge and the lamp of wisdom perched above his head This allegory is noteworthy in that Calder modeled the face of “Science” after that of the architect, John McArthur, Jr Additionally, Calder provides the viewer with moralizing symbolism by placing a compass, a masonic symbol “to circumscribe and keep us within bounds with all mankind” and a tool used by an architect in his right hand.36 These allegorical panels and the symbolism contained therein while noble, are certainly secular in nature, and were intended to be lessons of identity, morality and citizenship.37 While Philadelphia City Hall was intended to be an exuberant architectural icon for the city, not everyone agreed with Benjamin Harris Brewster’s sentiments that “[it was] one of the most majestic structures that adorn, or have adorned, any city of the world.”38 One representative criticism came Building Philadelphia’s iconic City Hall 219 Figure 11.4 “Science” and “Architecture,” plaster models for east portal stair spandrels, artist Alexander Milne Calder (Courtesy of Philadelphia City Archives, Photos by Author) from Alexander K McClure, editor of the Philadelphia Times, who called it “The Temple of Philadelphia’s Folly.”39 These sentiments were echoed by another newspaper which ran a headline from September 20, 1876, deriding Philadelphia City Hall as “The Folly at Broad and Market [Streets] the monstrous inchoate municipal palace.”40 Regardless of its style, and in spite of its cost, Philadelphia City Hall remains an iconic symbol of the city that harkens back to its commercial, political, and economic past Notes Commission for the Erection of the New Public Buildings of the City of Philadelphia, Proceedings at the Laying of the Corner Stone of the New Public Buildings on Penn Square, in the City of Philadelphia, July 4, 1874 (Philadelphia: Henry B Ashmead, Printer, 1874), Ibid., 52, Oration by Benjamin Brewster Ibid., 41 Elizabeth M Geffen, “Industrial Development and Social Crisis: 1841–1854,” Philadelphia: A 300-Year History, ed Russel L F Weigley (New York: W.W Norton, 1982), 308 Thomas H Keels, Forgotten Philadelphia: Lost Architecture of the Quaker City (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007), 125 Population numbers were found at www.census.gov/history In 1890, Chicago replaced Philadelphia as the second largest city in the country, even though its population was nearly 1.1 million souls Ibid., 368 The City of Philadelphia, prior to the Consolidation of 1854 had been four square miles bounded by Vine Street (north), South Street (south), the Schuylkill River (west), and the Delaware River (east) Philadelphia architects, by this time, had already been experiencing a dramatic downturn in design commissions due to the failing economy In order to find suitable work, William Strickland moved to the frontier town of Nashville, Tennessee, where he would receive the commission for his masterpiece, the 220 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Glen Umberger Tennessee State Capitol (1845–1859) and Thomas Ustick Walter removed to Washington to begin work on the United States Capitol Dome and Expansion (1851–1865) The documentary record offers no evidence that there was any impropriety on Walter’s part in awarding the commission to McArthur, his friend and former student On the contrary, there is evidence to support the fact that Walter simply believed McArthur to be the best-qualified architect to handle the Herculean task McArthur was an accomplished architect, having completed a wide range of sizeable commissions including churches, private residences, hotels, commercial buildings, academic buildings, and hospitals Independence Square, which was not one of Penn’s original five squares, was a full block bordered by Fifth to Sixth Streets, and Chestnut to Walnut Streets, on which the Old Pennsylvania State House had been erected, facing Chestnut Street; a large open public green space fronted Walnut Street It represented the political and economic center of the city dating from the Colonial period Thomas Ustick Walter’s correspondence in the Collections at the Athenaeum of Philadelphia, offers some fascinating insights into this model This wooden model was made by Allen Bard, at the direction of Thomas Ustick Walter in his role as Chairman, Committee on Plans and Architecture pursuant to a letter dated November 20, 1869 to “make a model of the same, to a scale of 1/8 of an inch to a foot, by the 29th of December (5 weeks from next Wednesday) without fail; and if so, whether you can keep the expense with or 700 dollars.” It was used in a meeting of the Board of Commissioners for the Erection of Public Buildings on December 27, 1869 The model was kept at Independence Hall until March 1871 when, according to a March letter from Walter to Jonathan Pugh, Esq., Commissioner of Markets and City Property it was removed, “[i]n accordance with our understanding yesterday, please cause to be delivered to the bearer, Mr Allen Bard, the Model for new Public buildings, now in Independence Hall, for the purpose of placing it in the rooms of the Philad[elphia] Chapter of the American Institute of Architects, in the Atheneum [sic] building, where it will be preserved subject to orders of the City Authorities.” There is evidence that the model was moved to the Athenaeum, however no records exist as to its final disposition Washington Square lies directly adjacent to Independence Square to the southwest In 1954, human remains were discovered during excavations for a new fountain in Washington Square The city under the assumption that the remains belonged to a soldier from the American Revolution, constructed a mausoleum for “The Unknown Soldier,” in which the remains were reinterred during a military ceremony held at the site An “eternal flame” and monument with a bronze statue of George Washington would also be erected to commemorate the sacrifice of the war dead Quote from the Journal of Select Council (1866–1867) Michael P McCarthy, “Traditions in Conflict: The Philadelphia City Hall Site Controversy,” Pennsylvania History 57, no (October 1990), 308 Howard Gillette, Jr., “Philadelphia’s City Hall: Monument to a New Political Machine,” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 97, no (April 1973), 237–238 The official results were 51,623 in favor of Penn Square; 32,825 for Washington Square Dorothy Gondos Beers, “The Centennial City: 1865–1876,” Philadelphia: A 300-Year History, ed Russell F Weigley (New York: W.W Norton, 1982), 426 Among Wanamaker’s mercantile innovations were the “White Sale,” price tags that were clearly affixed to all items for sale, a money back guarantee for goods Building Philadelphia’s iconic City Hall 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 221 purchased and he was the first to send “buyers” overseas to purchase the latest fashions for resale in his store Information taken from Building a Modern Railroad, published by Reading Railroad, 1958 See www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/ ironhorseusa2000/firsts.htm&date=2009-10-26+00:33:47, accessed May 23, 2015 Stokley’s nickname, “Sweet William” was a tribute to his success in the candy business, and not to his political persona Commission for the Erection of the New Public Buildings of the City of Philadelphia, Proceedings at the Laying of the Corner Stone of the New Public Buildings on Penn Square, in the City of Philadelphia, July 4, 1874 (Philadelphia: Henry B Ashmead, Printer, 1874), Ibid Ibid Benjamin Harris Brewster from Keynote at Cornerstone Laying Ceremony, July 4, 1874 Commission for the Erection of the New Public Buildings of the City of Philadelphia, Proceedings at the Laying of the Corner Stone of the New Public Buildings on Penn Square, in the City of Philadelphia, July 4, 1874 (Philadelphia: Henry B Ashmead, Printer, 1874), 36 He would serve in that capacity during his entire tenure in the Architect’s Office at Philadelphia City Hall, but interestingly, Walter’s official biography found in A Legacy of Leadership: The Presidents of the American Institute of Architects, 1857–2007 neglects to include any mention of his employment in this capacity See R Randall Vosbeck, Legacy of Leadership: The Presidents of the American Institute of Architects, 1857–2007, www.aia.org/aiaucmp/groups/aia/documents/ pdf/aiab095031.pdf G.E Kidder-Smith, Source Book of American Architecture: 500 Buildings from the 10th Century to the Present (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), 225 City of Milwaukee, “Basic Facts About City Hall,” http://city.milwaukee.gov/ BasicFacts#.VV9RbuupolI While these are both technically steel framed skyscrapers and office buildings, I would argue that neither was in fact the tallest building in the world since Philadelphia City Hall was topped out on November 28, 1894, precisely at 10:00 a.m with the installation of the 37-foot-tall bronze statue of William Penn, bringing it to its final height of 548 feet tall Additionally, Philadelphia City Hall was at this point, although officially still under construction, already occupied by all three branches of local city government and accordingly being used for its intended purpose Today, the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habits, which maintains the official list of the world’s tallest buildings, uses the following criteria for when a building becomes “complete,” and hence “tallest”: the date on which it is “topped out architecturally,” “fully clad,” and/or “open for business, or at least partially occupiable [sic].” For a full description of the criteria, see www.ctbuh.org/TallBuildings/HeightStatistics/Criteria/tabid/446/ language/en-GB/Default.aspx Using this method, Philadelphia City Hall was the tallest building in the world from November 1894 until 1908 Frederick Turner, Jr., ed., Turner’s Guide to and Descriptions of Philadelphia’s New City Hall or Public Buildings: The Largest and Grandest Structure in the World (Philadelphia: Frederick Turner, Jr., 1892) Thomas Ustick Walter, “Diary, 1880,” Thomas U Walter Collection, The Athenaeum of Philadelphia Ibid This notation is noteworthy since the tower at City Hall does not rest on bedrock, but rather on a concrete slab, eight-and-a-half feet thick, measuring 90 feet square and 20 feet below grade, which was installed in 1874 222 Glen Umberger 32 A careful study of the few documents in the archives at Philadelphia City Hall and documents at the United States Capitol reveal almost identical engineering at work 33 These eight themes, which appear in allegorical forms in the arch spandrels inside the North Portal entrance to Conversation Hall, are just a few of the many sculptural elements found at Philadelphia City Hall For a more complete catalog, see Commission for the Erection of the New Public Buildings of the City of Philadelphia, Sculptures and Ornamental Details in Bronze and Iron of the New City Hall (Philadelphia: Office of City Architect, 1883), volumes 1–5 34 The “basement” level is the first floor as McArthur used the European nomenclature for above ground floors: Basement, First Floor, First Mezzanine, Second Floor, Second Mezzanine, Third Floor, and Attic There are, in fact, two levels below ground, which today are referred to as the “basement” while the upper floors are simply known as Floors One through Seven respectively 35 It should be noted that Calder’s work was not limited to the secular iconographic program at Philadelphia City Hall; the First Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia (1869–1872) commissioned Calder to produce nave columns for their new church building, located at Twenty-first and Walnut Streets Calder’s column capitals for this sacred space are variations on the Corinthian order and include depictions of corn, wheat, grapes, cotton, tobacco, and sugar, which were the leading agricultural products of the 1870s Calder would use variations on this theme later at Philadelphia City Hall 36 McArthur and Walter were both Freemasons This quote comes from Malcolm C Duncan, “Duncan’s Masonic Ritual and Monitor” (1866), http://sacredtexts.com/mas/dun/dun02.htm 37 The proper assignment of gender in sculpting allegorical figures was explained by Thomas Ustick Walter as follows: “You must not expect to find any where [sic] established forms and designs for any mythological personifications Every artist carries out his own conception as to what will best represent the quality, or principle he desires to personify.—Should it be War, for example, he will aim at great fierceness of countenance, combined with fearlessness, and resolution, and intelligence War being in the feminine gender he must personify it by a female figure, but he will seek to invest that figure with all these properties—he will chose an attitude the most energetic, and at the same time the most appalling, and he will adopt such arms and implements as make the most havoc in destroying human life; and he will adopt such surroundings as will convey the most idea of War, as cannon, broken armor and any other dreadful contrivances for slaughter that may occur to him If he is really an artist he will not copy what others have done—if he searches for examples, modern or ancient, it will be to avoid repeating them.” “Thomas Ustick Walter letter to R Fenner, Esq., Cambridge, Massachusetts, dated May 25, 1869.” Thomas Ustick Walter Collection, The Athenaeum of Philadelphia 38 Proceedings at the Laying of the Corner Stone of the New Public Buildings on Penn Square, in the City of Philadelphia, July 4, 1874 (Philadelphia: Henry B Ashmead, Printer, 1874), 32 39 Dorothy Gondos Beers, “The Centennial City: 1865–1876,” Philadelphia: A 300-Year History, ed Russell F Weigley (New York: W.W Norton, 1982), 426 40 This newspaper headline from September 20, 1876 can be found as part of a permanent exhibition on the history of Philadelphia City Hall, installed on the ninth floor in the tower elevator waiting room Index Page numbers in italics show illustrations, n indicates an endnote Abu Dhabi 70, 71, 72 Aden 46 Africa: Dutch East India Company (VOC) 58; luxury goods traded 63, 142; markets and interregional trade 115–117; Portuguese trading empire 1–2, 4–5; Triangle Trade 31; see also Swahili Coast Alberti, Leon Batista 159 Albuquerque, Alfonso de Alexandria 1, 46 Ambon 47, 54, 55 America: American Revolution 24, 33, 212; colonist’s trading grievances 23–24; slavery, Christian justification 33–34; Triangle Trade 31; see also United States American Institute of Architects 215 Amsterdam: Batavia-Amsterdam trade route 53, 55, 58–59; institutions of trust 50–52, 51, 52, 54; map of 1688 59; port origins 45; trade and warehousing 48, 49, 50 Ando, Tadao 71 Angola 4–5 Antwerp 2, 47–48 Appleby, Joyce 10, 38n1 Arabian Gulf: British intervention 67; commerce, urbanization and labor 67–70, 69, 73, 73–74; early settlements and trade centres 62–63, 64, 65; “Emirate Style” architecture 70, 71; global trade centres 65–66, 66; social-political architecture 71–73, 72 Aragon 142, 148, 151 Archimedes 45 Arkwright, Richard 25–26, 41n50 Arruda, Francisco 2–3 Ashanti Azores Baltimore & Ohio Railroad 173, 213 Banda Islands 54–55 Bantam 53, 54 Barth, Heinrich 115–116 Bartoleme de Bassis 148 Batavia 14, 44–45, 54–56, 55, 57, 58–59, 61n28 Bayly, C.A 17 bazar (market) 156, 157, 164n4 beads, cultural value 89–90, 94–95, 109n56 Beccari, Odoardo 93, 96, 110n73 Beckert, Sven 17, 30–31 Bengal 18–19, 20–22, 24, 197–200 Benjamin of Tudela 122–123 Berardi, Roberto 157, 166n23, 166–167n24 Berckheyde, Job 51, 52 Bergamo 135 bezoar stones 81 Bigirm (Chad) 116 Bock, Carl 84 Bombay 19 bond market 15 Bond, Richard 174 Borghini, Vincenzo 128 Borneo: ancient export trade 81–84; Asian and colonial exploitation 102–104, 112n103, 113n115; classification of peoples 108n41; contemporary culture 113–114n119; forest exchanges 91–93, 110n64; 224 Index imports given value 88, 88–91, 109n52, 109n56; Indianized kingdoms, influence of 97–99, 112n100; river cultures and trading conventions 84–88, 87, 99–100, 108n42, 108–109n46; spiritual prosperity and deceptive trade 93–97, 100–102 Bornu (Nigeria) 116 Boston 23, 173–174, 177 Boston Merchants Exchange: damage, Fire of 1872 172, 189–190n36; floors on iron beams 176–177, 190n44; iron roof construction 170, 173, 175–176, 182–183, 187; Isaiah Roger’s design 174–175, 190n41 Brescia 135 Bretton Woods 36 Brewster, Benjamin Harris 214, 218 Britain: American colonist’s grievances 23–24; Calcutta’s port, governance of 194, 195, 199; corrugated iron manufacture 172–173; East India Company’s economic significance 18–24, 21, 22; exploitation in Borneo 102–103; influence in Persian Gulf 67; Pitt’s India Act 1784 24; Regulating Acts 1773 23; Triangle Trade and consumerism 31, 32–33; see also England Bronson, Bennet 93 Brooke, James 102 Brunei 83, 86, 89, 95, 99 Burckhardt, Jacob 128 Burns, Howard 136 Burroughs, Charles 129 Calcutta: boatman strike and petition, 1878 203–205; East India Company developments 14, 19, 20, 24; Palace of the Governor 24, 25; port licensing regime, policing excesses 198–203, 204; port modernization and labor expansion 194–197, 196, 197; port operations criticised 198, 203 Calder, Alexander Milne 216, 217–218, 218, 219, 222n35 Calvino, Italo 65 Cambay 95, 124 Cambodia 97, 101 camphor 81, 82, 84, 86, 104n3 Canary Islands Canton 19 capitalism: architectural materials 12; colonialism and economic inequalities 14, 16–18; consumerism and the slave economy 30–35; East India Company’s authoritative reign 18–24; economic and philosophical roots 12–16, 38n15, 39n20; hypercommercialization, Arabian Gulf 67–74, 69, 71–72; industry and urbanization 29–30; labor inequalities, Gulf States 68; neoliberalist rebranding and inequality 35–36, 43n81; origins of 10–11 caravanserai 156, 159 Caribbean Islands 32–33 Cartaz System Cartwright, Edmund 25–27 Catherine, Saint 146, 147, 148 Certeau, Michel de 13 Chad 116 Charles II, King of England 18–19 Charleston 31 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 143 Charter of Privileges 1701 210 Chesbrough, E.S 174 Childe, V Gordon 71n1 China: asymmetrical trade with Borneo 88, 90, 94–95, 96, 99; medicines from Borneo 81, 82, 83, 106n18; spice trade 47; tea trading 19, 21, 23 chocolate 32 Churchill, Winston 67 Cincinnati 170 cinnabar (mercury) 82–83 Civil War, American 168–169, 209, 211 Clare, Saint 148, 149, 150 Classical Political Economy 12 Clive, Robert 20 cloves 47, 55 Cluskey, Charles B 177–178 Cochituate Aqueduct, Boston 173–174, 189n24 Cochrane, Eric 130 Coedes, George 82, 83 Coen, Jan Pieterszoon 54 Coeur, Jacques 142 coffee 32, 59, 102 colonialism: capitalism and architecture 11–12; capitalism’s inequalities 14, 16–17; East India Company’s involvement 18–24; slave economy 31–34 Index Como 135 Constable, Olivia 128 Constantinople 1, 46, 128 copper: Borneo’s valued imports 90, 92, 101, 103; Federal building design 172, 178; Portuguese trade 1, 4; role in Capitalism 12, 17 Cornell Iron Works 171, 182, 182, 183–184, 191n65 Cornell, John B 183–184 Cornell, William W 183–184 Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany 130–134, 133, 136–137, 137 cotton: England’s textile industry 29–30; slave economy 31, 35; trading commodity 21, 28, 96, 123, 124, 195 Cremona 135 Cueta (Morocco) Dabuli 123 Damascus 14 Davis, Mike 70 Dayak 85, 86, 91, 94–95, 97–98, 103–104, 108n41 Deamer, Peggy 11 Derrida, Jacques 17 diamonds 82, 102 diwani rights 20 Djenne Doha 66, 71 Domenge i Mesquida, Joan 151 Dove, Michael 84 Dubai 67, 70 Dutch colonies 32, 102 Dutch East India Company (VOC) 18, 19, 53–56, 58–59 Dutch West India Company 32 East Africa: medieval interregional trade 115, 116–119, 122–125; merchant elites’ houses 119, 119–120, 120–121, 122 East India Company (EIC) 18–24, 53, 54 Efficient Market Theory 15 Egypt 46, 62, 63, 68 Eiffel Tower, Paris 215 Elam, Caroline 136 Elizabeth I, Queen of England 18 Emirate style 70, 71 Enclosure Acts, England 26–28, 35 Engels, Friedrich 30 England: capitalism, origins of 10; Enclosure Acts and industrialization 25–28, 35; Glorious Revolution 19; 225 industry and urbanization 28–30; patent system 26; see also Britain Enlightenment and economics 12, 15–16, 17–18, 26, 32 “entrepot” 50 Eridu 62 Estado de Indies Everett, Alfred H 94, 111n81 fascism 37 Ferdinand of Antequera 151 Fergusson, Niall 38n3 Fertile Crescent 62 financial markets, origins of 14–15 Finlay, Robert 101 firman (trade rights) 18–19, 20 First Society cultures 100 Florence: Cosimo I’s revival and the Mercato Nuovo 129, 130–137, 132, 135, 137; Renaissance banking systems 14–15; Uffizi as administrative centre 131, 139n26 Foster+Partners 71 France 19, 32–33, 215 frankincense 63 Freud, Sigmund 103 Funan 84, 86, 90, 95 Furness, Frank 213 Gama, Vasco de 2, 4, 46 Garau, Antonio 144, 145 Gedi 120, 121 Gehry, Frank 71 Genoa 15, 46, 144 Gilded Age 13 Gilpin, Richard 177 Gliddon, George Robins 12 Goa 2, 24 gold: Borneo’s exports 81, 82, 83, 94, 98–99, 102, 103; Florentine trade and coinage 131, 137; Java gold origins 98–99; slave economy 31; spiritual value 85–86, 94; West African trade Gold Coast Goree Greece 62 Grunebaum, Gustave von 158 Guinea Gujarat 124 Gulfi architecture 68–69 Hadid, Zaha 71 Harrisson, Tom 92, 110n71 226 Index al-Hasan ibn Suleiman, Sultan 118 Heise, Arne 12–13 Henry, Infante of Portugal Hinduism 80, 82, 83, 124 Holland 45, 48, 53, 58–59; see also Amsterdam Hoogly River, India 194, 195 Hose, Charles 90, 107n34 Houtman, Cornelis de 53 Howe, H.H 198 Hudson, Michael 13 Husuni Kubwa Palace 118–119 Italy: Florence, Cosimo I’s revival 129, 130–134, 133, 135–137; medieval mercantile loggia 128, 135 ivory 83, 116 Ibn Battuta 88, 118 Ibn Khaldun 157, 165n12 imperialism 16 India: asymmetrical trade with Borneo 83, 94–95, 96, 97, 99–100; British imperialism 16; Calcutta’s port modernization 194–205, 196, 197; devotional economy 82, 105n9; Dutch East India Company (VOC) 54; East India Company’s trading and governance 18–22, 24, 53; merchants’ impact on Swahili Coast 123–125, 126n20; Pitt’s India Act 24; Portuguese trading empire 2, 4, 67; religious imports from Borneo 81, 82, 104–105n7; Swahili Coast merchants 115, 116; trade from Southeast Asia 84 Indianization 80–81 indigo 21 Indonesia: Dutch East India Company’s exploits 54–56, 57, 58; early Dutch expeditions 53 Industrial Revolution 25–26, 28–30, 35, 209 Iraq 62, 69, 123 Islamic city: foundouq (multi-purpose building) 160; hammam (public bath) 122, 159, 160–161; market (suq/bazar), importance of 156–158; merchant’s experience 159–162, 163, 164; mosque and the madrasa 161; nomads, separation of 159, 166n18; Oumma (community) 162 Islamic trade network: caravan routes and caravanserai 156, 158–159; Islamic city, a merchant’s experience 159–162, 163, 164; public markets port cities 122–123; Swahili Coast merchants 116–118 Karlin, Mark 37 Keynes, John Maynard 13 Keyser, Hendrik de 50, 51 Khallassies 197 Kilwa Kisiwani 118–119 Kish 122–123 Knights Hospitaller 144 Kukawa 116 Kutai Martadipur, Borneo 97–98 Jakarta see Batavia Jamaica 32, 33 Japan 89 Java 53, 97, 98–99, 101 Jevons, William S 12 Joao, King of Portugal jute 194–195 Lagash 62 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 12 Lamu, Kenya 117, 117, 119, 119–120 Lincoln, Abraham 168–169 Lisbon: Monastery of Saint Jerome 3, 4, 5, 47; pepper trading 1, 46; spice trade 2, 46–48; Tower of Belem 2–3, 47 Liverpool 28–29 Llotja of Palma: merchant class identity 142–143; political significance 150–152, 155n35; sculptural decoration and related landmarks 143–146, 147, 148–150, 149, 151–152, 154n32 Llotja of Valencia 142, 149, 149–150 Lo, Andrew 37 loggia: medieval mercantile 128–129, 135–136; Mercato Nuovo, Florence 129, 130–134, 132, 136–137; Mercato Vecchio, Florence 135, 135–136 London 20, 21, 24 Long Depression 13 Mada’in Saleh 63 Madura 56 Magellan, Ferdinand 47, 83, 86 Majorca 142, 150–151; see also Llotja of Palma Malabar Coast 24, 46 Index Malays 86, 99, 108n41 Malthus, Thomas 11 Manchester 28, 29–30 Manhattan Life Insurance Building 1894 215 Manueline style 2, 47, 150 Manuel, King of Portugal Marỗais, George 157, 158 Marỗais, William 157 Marco Polo 64 Mardijkers 56, 57 Marginal Revolution 12 Martaban jars 88, 88–89, 94, 109n50 Martin, King of Aragon 142, 151 Martin, Reinhold 36–37 Marx, Karl 11, 30, 41n60 masjid al-jami 161 Massena 116 Massignon, Louis 157 Maxentius, Emperor 148, 151 McArthur, John, Jr 210–212, 211, 215, 216, 217, 220n10 McClure, Alexander 219 Mecca 158, 161 Medici family 130, 131, 132 Melaka, Malaysia 46–47 mercantilism 31 Mexico 150 Michelangelo 129, 133, 136 Milan 135 Mill, John Stuart 11, 15–16 Mills, Robert 177 Milwaukee 215 Mogadishu 116, 118 Mombasa 116 Monastery of Saint Jerome, Lisbon 3, 4, 5, 47 Monza 135 Morocco Moscow 14 Mossi people Mozambique 1, 116 Mughals 19, 20 Mullett, A.B 169–170, 172, 188n5, 189n16 Mundy, Rodney, Captain 102–103, 113n117 Muslim: Swahili Coast merchants 118, 124; traders 2, 46, 47, 93, 177; see also Islamic city; Islamic trade network myrrh 63 natural philosophy 12 neoliberalism 35–37 227 Newcomen, Thomas 25 Newton, Isaac 12 New York 70, 177, 182, 182, 183, 215 Niỗard, Pere 144145, 145, 146 Nicholas, Saint 145–146, 148, 149 Niernsee, John Rudolph 173 Nigeria 116 Norris, John 177–182, 180, 182, 183, 184, 188n10 North, Frederick, Lord 23, 24 Notman, John 177 Nott, Josiah Clark 12 Nouvel, Jean 71 nutmeg 2, 30, 46, 47, 54, 55 opium 20, 21, 31, 103 Ott, Julia 32 Ottoman Empire 46, 67 Padua 135 Palma, Mallorca: 1644 map of 143; Church of St John the Baptist 143–144; Convent de Santa Clara 148, 149, 150; The Llotja, architecture of trade 142–146, 147, 148–152, 149; medieval politics and merchant allegiance 150–152; Portopí 144–146, 145, 149, 150; textile industry and saintly patron 146, 147, 148 Parker, Charles E 174 Park Row Building 1899 215 Parris, Alexander 177 patent system 26 Pavia 135 pearls 81 Penan 85, 93, 108n41 Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts 1876 213 Pennsylvania Railroad 213 Penn, William 210, 216 pepper 1, 2, 46–47, 55 Perkins, Samuel 214, 217 Persia 115, 116 Persian Gulf 122–123 Petra 63, 64 Philadelphia: Academy of Natural History 177; Act for the Erection of Public Buildings 1870 212–213, 214; Act of Consolidation 1854 210; American Academy of Music 1855 213; City Hall, design and location 210–213, 211, 220n17; City Hall, financing and construction 213–215, 228 Index 216, 221n28, 221n31, 222n34; City Hall, reflection of aspirations 208–209, 209, 210, 215–216, 218–219; City Hall, sculptural program 216–218, 218, 219, 222n33; Independence Hall 211–212; industrialization and city growth 209–210, 213; iron structured buildings 173, 177; Penn Square 210, 211–212, 214, 216; rail network 213; Washington Square 212–213, 220n14 Philbrik, T.M 198 Piketty, Thomas 10–11 Piloti, Emmanuel 128 Plassey 19, 20 Pliny 82 Portugal: Cartaz System 2; Lisbon 1, 2–3, 3, 4, 5, 47; Portuguese trading empire 1–2, 4–5, 46–48, 52, 53, 124 Puradvipa 82 Qaiỗariyya 158 Rational Market Theory 33 Red Sea 62, 164 Reid, Anthony 88–89 Renaissance 14–15, 30, 129, 130 Renwick, James 171, 182, 182, 183 Ricardo, David 11 River Effect 96, 101–102 Robertson, G.A 200–203 Rogers, Isaiah 169, 170, 172, 173, 174–176, 183 Roman Empire 82 Rome 82, 128, 132 Rutter, Owen 84, 107n30 Rykwert, Joseph 70 Sagrera, Guillem 142, 143, 151 Sahlins, Marshall 100 salt: Borneo import 88, 90, 92, 95, 96, 101, 110n59; trading commodity 1, 30, 45 sanbuq (boat) 118 San Dominique 32–33 Sarawak 101 Saudi Arabia 63 Sauvaget, Jean 157 Savannah Custom House, Georgia: General Sherman’s telegram 168–169; iron roof construction 169, 169–170, 182–183, 184–187, 185–186; John Norris’s design 177–179, 191–192n66; masonry floors on iron beams 179–182, 180, 182 Scott, James 80, 98, 100 Sellato, Bernard 91 semangat (status) 88–89, 90–91, 96 Seven Years War 32, 33 Sexton, Kim 135, 141n56 Sherman, William T., General 168–169 Sickels, T.E 173, 189n24 Siena 131 silk 30, 97, 123, 124, 131, 136, 150, 210 silver 17, 31, 47 Singapore 81 Singer Building 1908 215 Siraf 122 slavery: addictive consumerism 30–35; African trade 116; Christian justification 33–34; colonialism 12, 21, 24; Liverpool’s role 28; Mardijkers freedom 56, 57; Triangle Trade 31–32 Smith, Adam 10, 11, 12, 15, 17, 25, 26 Smith, G.E Kidder 215 Somalia 63, 116 Song Dynasty 88, 91, 101 Southeast Asia: Borneo as trading nation see Borneo; Dutch East India Company’s exploits 54–56, 57, 58; labor supply for Arabian cities 68; spice trade, Portuguese dominance 46–47 Southworth, William 93–94 Spain 52–53 spice trade 2, 31, 45–47 Spini, Giorgio 131 Sri Lanka 82 Stevin, Simon 56 stock market 15 Stokley, William Strumberg 214 Strickland, William 173, 174, 211, 219–220n9 Suez Canal 67 sugar 1, 17, 31, 32, 33, 35, 59 Sulawesi 81, 86–87 Sumatra 47, 53, 98 sumptuary codes 56, 57, 58 suq (market) 123, 156–158, 159, 160, 162 Swahili coast: Indian merchants’ influential presence 123–125, 126n20; interregional trade within domestic sphere 115, 117–119, 122, Index 123; marketplaces, seasonal use 116–117, 117; merchant elites’ houses 119, 119–120, 120–121, 122 Syria 62, 63 Tacony Iron and Metal Company 216 Taiwan 47 Tasso, Giovan Battista di Marco del 130, 132–134, 133, 140n35 tea 21, 23–24, 32 Temple, Richard, Sir 199 Tennessee State Capitol 168, 174 Thailand 95, 101 Thomas, Thomas 183 Timbuktu tobacco 31, 32 tortoise shells 83 Tower of Belem, Lisbon 2–3, 47 Triangle Trade 28, 31 Tribolo, Niccolò 132, 140n35 Twain, Mark 13 United States (US): Boston Merchants Exchange 170, 172, 173, 174–177, 182, 182–183, 187; Federal building designs, post-1840 169, 169–170, 171–172, 172, 188n5–6; iron roof structures, earliest 173–174; neoliberalism trend 36; Savannah Custom House, Georgia 168–170, 169, 177–187, 180, 182, 185–186; tallest buildings, erection of 215, 221n28 Ur 62 urbanization: displacement and migration 28, 35; England’s industrialization 28–30; first cities 62, 71n1 Uruk 62 229 Varchi, Benedetto 128 Vasari, Giorgio 132, 133, 135, 135, 136, 140n36 Veblen, Thorstein 13–14 Veen, Henk van 134 Venice 15, 45–46, 47 Vietnam 93–94, 95, 97, 101 Vinoly, Rafael 71 Vintema da Pimenta Vries, Jan de 31–32 Walker, H Wilfrid 83 Walker, William 84, 86, 107n40 Walrus, Leon 12–13 Walter, Thomas Ustick: architectural influence 210–211, 221n25; Capitol Dome and Expansion, Washington 211, 219–220n9; church design 177; Philadelphia City Hall, contributions to 215, 216, 220n10, 220n12; sculptural decoration 222n37 Wanamaker, John 213, 220–221n18 Washington D.C 70, 177, 216 Washington Monument 215 wa-ungwana (merchant elite) 119–120 Wells, J.C 177 West Africa Whyte, Ian 28 Wicks, Robert S 98, 110n59 Wilmington 177, 178 Wirth, Eugen 157 Wolters, O.H 96 wool 28, 29, 30, 131, 132, 146, 150 Wyatt, Charles 24, 25 Yemen 62, 63, 123 Young, Ammi B 169, 170, 171, 172, 188n6 Zabala 62 Zein, Abdul Hamid 117 ... city of Savannah, Georgia Patrick Haughey is a Professor of Architectural History at Savannah College of Art and Design, Georgia, USA, where he teaches Modern, Urban and Global Architecture History, ... Milano as a Teaching Assistant and in various Architectural Design Studios as an architect and urban designer Fumagalli also collaborates with international organizations in many restoration and. .. The Architecture of Medieval Churches Theology of Love in Practice John A. H Lewis A History of Architecture and Trade Patrick Haughey A History of Architecture and Trade Edited by Patrick Haughey