EUROPEAN PEASANTS AND THEIR MARKETS European Peasants and Their Markets Essays in Agrarian Economic History Edited by WILLIAM N PARKER AND ERIC L JONES Princeton University Press, Princeton, NewJersey Copyright © 1975 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, Princeton and London All Rights Reserved Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data will be found on the last printed page of this book This book has been composed in linotype Baskerville Printed in the United States of America by Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey Acknowledgments The authors of the essays in this volume are all teachers of economics or of history and stand within roughly ten years of the receipt of their Ph.D.'s from North American institutions They have many acknowledgments to make, and many left un said, to colleagues, wives, dissertation advisers, students, and to European scholars who have helped them The two editors, being scholars of a somewhat earlier vintage, feel obligations largely to the foundations and institutions that have supported the work and the collection of it into this form A grant from the National Science Foundation helped to turn the individual papers into a joint effort, and the Council on Western European studies at Yale University added its support for a seminar and conference in April 1972, which drew things together Our obligation to two anonymous readers at the Princeton University Press and especially to Sanford Thatcher, the Social Science editor, is obvious not only in the fact that the book has appeared, but in the technical quality of its production Eric and Sylvia Jones prepared the index and earned the relieved thanks of each of the authors, of the Press itself, and of the senior editor Contents Introduction William N Parker, Yale University Part One Communal Agriculture in the Village Medieval Origins oi the Common Fields Richard C Hoffmann, York University The Persistence of English Common Fields Donald N McCloskey, University of Chi cago 23 73 Part Two Private Property and Enclosure The Economics of Enclosure: A Market Analysis Donald N McCloskey, University of Chicago Enclosures and Depopulation: A Marxian Analysis Jon S Cohen, University of Toronto; Martin L Weitzman, Massa chusetts Institute of Technology 123 161 Part Three Peasants and Industrialization Agriculture and Peasant Industry in Eigh- 179 teenth-Century Flanders Franklin F Mendels, University of Maryland, Balti more County Peasant Demand Patterns and Economic 205 Development: Friesland, 1550-1750 Jan deVries, University of California at Berke ley viii Contents Part Four Agriculture in the World Economy Organization and Change in Productivity in Eastern Prussia Robert A Dickler, Universitat Bremen Scale and Organization in French Farming, 1840-1880 George W Grantham, McGill University Afterword Eric L Jones, Northwestern Uni versity Index 269 293 327 361 - - - - -·- -··- - ·- - - Part One EUROPEAN PEASANTS AND THEIR MARKETS 354 Jones The suggestion has been made that cereal and pulse-based diets in the Middle Ages tended to produce a sluggish metabo lism, due to a high consumption of carbohydrates with too little protein There are technical arguments that such a diet may have been sufficient when it did in tact contain plenty of grain, even without additional protein, just as the Italian diets at the end of the sixteenth century, which Professor Cipolla regards as unsatisfactory, may have been adequate because, though scanty, they were balanced/' It remains true, however, that medieval and later diets may often have been simply too small for popu lations to maintain mechanical efficiency A decrease in activity would have been quick to follow If this happened in the seasons of the year when farm work was at a minimum, it is still possible to argue that damage to the economy may have been slight, yet resistance to disease was surely impaired, and some effects would carry over to the busy seasons We cannot escape the implica tion that improvements in the volume, makeup, and regularity of diets must account for some part of Europe's economic advance In medieval Europe much of the population may have had mild scurvy, or at least have been in a subscorbutic condition, during late winter and early spring because of the shortage of fresh food In agricultural terms, there was a hungry gap for men as well as beasts For men this meant a vitamin C deficiency, with blackened gums, loss of teeth, haemorrhages ultimately into most body tissue, and progressively incapacitated victims The incidence of scurvy among seamen separated from fresh food on long voyages was appalling, 52 and may have risen with the in crease of transoceanic trade in the days of slow sailing ships Before Lind's experiments in the mid-eighteenth century—the first to lead to cure and prevention—writings on scurvy show that it was already ceasing to be a winter epidemic among the town dwellers of northern Europe and was being reduced to an occupational disease of sailors 53 Scurvy had been called the tions," in P J Ucko and G W Dirableby, eds., The Domestication and Ex ploitation of Plants and Animals (London, 1969) See P V Sukhatme, "India and the Protein Problem," Ecology of Food and Nutrition (1972), 267-78; C M Cipolla, Cristofano and the Plague (London, 1973), pp 137-38 52 Harriette Chick, "Early Investigations of Scurvy and the Antiscorbutic Vitamin," Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 12 (1953)· 210-19 53 A J Lorenz "Some Pre-Lind Writers on Scurvy," Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 12 (1953), 306-24 Afterword 355 "Disease of London" or the "Dutch Distemper" during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries because it was prevalent among urban populations It was also common in armies and among the rural poor, if they could not maintain a supply of the lowlier herbs, cresses, and scurvy grass in their diets Be sieged garrisons and townsfolk were very hard hit Gibraltar was only saved in 1780 by the chance capture of a Dutch boat with a cargo of lemons, the juice of which was used to treat already hospitalized victims of scurvy, and—mixed with brandy to pre serve it—used as a preventive Even so, when the Great Siege was lifted in 1783, the garrison had lost only 333 men killed in action compared with almost 500 dead of scurvy 51 Sometimes whole populations were affected in peacetime, as in Brabant in 1556 and Holland in 1562, while the disease was endemic in other parts of the Low Countries, Iceland, Greenland, Cronstadt, northern Russia and parts of Germany and Scandinavia Scurvy occurred sporadically in the rest of Germany and the British Isles It was a disease of poverty (and tended to keep its victims poor), and its eradication awaited improvements in farming and distribution that brought down the price of fresh food Most deficiency diseases were associated with poverty This is a complication, because the improvident expenditure of other wise adequate incomes can also give rise to deficiency diseases, and the so-called "malnutrition of affluence." Even what at first sight seems to be increased variety in the food supply may lead to deficiency diseases An example is the introduction of the disease pellagra into Europe in the early eighteenth century following the spread of maize as a staple cereal in the Mediterranean countries Overreliance on maize as a foodstuff means a diet deficient in nicotinic acid and tryptophan, which may lead to pellagra unless maize beer is drunk, too LFnhappily for them, maize eaters in Europe did not change their drinking habits The difficulty in relating nutritional disorders to the per formance of agriculture within Europe itself is indicated by dental caries, the human disease of which there is the longest record Carious lesions have been found in teeth buried for hundreds of thousands of years, since the bacteria causing the lesions cease to work after the death of the sufEerer, while the hard dental tissues are resistant to other forms of decay The extent of caries at the time of death is thus preserved Caries IJohn Masters, The Rock (London, 1971), pp 263, 281 356 Jones is particularly associated with the so-called civilized diet—really the diet of agricultural rather than hunting populations—which reduces mastication and therefore the natural cleansing of the teeth A cereal-based diet contains plenty of quickly fermentable carbohydrates that are broken down by the bacteria on the teeth to form acids that attack the dental tissues By Saxon times in England there is evidence of regional variation in caries rates, though there is much still to be done in standardizing the methods of study 55 As regards caries, the real villain of the piece has been the growing consumption of sugar From the twelth century A.D., England began to import sugar from the eastern Mediterranean, and by the early fifteenth century 100,000 lb per annum were coming in Although this represented an average of only about one-half ounce of sugar per head for a population of three mil lions or thereabouts, consumption was probably far from evenly distributed among the population Conceivably, the rich were identifiable by bad teeth as well as tall stature By the late sixteenth century sugar-blackened teeth were thought to be characteristic of the English Thereafter, West Indian sugar became available Greater caries frequency was due mostly to an increase in occlusal cavities, which occur when food particles are trapped not between the teeth or around their base (where cervical cavities form), but in the fissure patterns on the oc clusal surfaces This suggests that another factor had entered: the generally "softer" diets of the English from the seventeenth century meant that the fissure patterns were not worn off, but remained to trap acidulous food particles on the occlusal surfaces and give rise to cavities there 56 This is one of the rather few areas where bio-archeology has come together with economic history, for the evidence of these shifts comes from skull collec tions From the period from the seventeenth to the early nine teenth centuries, these show up to twice the caries incidence of 55 J L Hardwick, "The Incidence and Distribution of Caries throughout the Ages in Relation to the Englishman's Diet," British Journal of Dentistry 108 (i960), 9-17, and Brothwell, "Dietary Variation," p 537 56 The earlier English pattern occurs today among many Asians, the cusps and fissure patterns of whose teeth are often worn to planed surfaces by a gritty diet, and who have fewer occlusal cavities than Europeans or North Americans Information supplied by Mr J Greenwood, B.D.S., L.D.S., of Tadley, Hampshire, and Dr David Stone of Newbury, Berkshire, and Northwestern University Afterword 357 Anglo-Saxon times, when occlusal cavities were few because the fissure patterns on the occlusal surfaces were worn off by a coarse diet including fibrous matter not washed free of grit 57 Nutritional history must thus take account of agricultural pro duction in the entire area from which a population draws its food, as well as considering a multiplicity of other factors such as income levels, health provision, and dietary habits On nutritionally-important changes that seem to have had their origin in home agricultures and strictly European phenomena, we need to discover more about subfamine conditions and European food prejudices 58 It would be interesting to examine the reward system that produced margarine, food-bottling and canning, and the spread of beet sugar production in Napoleonic Europe, as marking a break with an older resignation to nature's ways Similarly it would be useful to see codified the scattered data on the changing availability of fish and feral animals that bulked so large among medieval sources of protein The histories of river fisheries, fishponds, dovecots, duck decoys, orchards, market gardens, and the hunting of wild game for the pot, all have specialist, antiquarian literatures, which, pieced together, might be illuminating Students of the transfer of property rights from communal to private hands have not dealt with rights in anything except cropland and pasture They should be encour aged to take an interest in changes in title to these individually minor but together major sources of protein The Future of Agrarian History In Alvin Toffler's book, Future Shock, there is a remark about "students so ignorant of the past that they see nothing unusual about the present." We are all in some way guilty here One of the defects of the most accessible literature of economic history is that the problems studied and debated show more cerebral 57 D Brothwell, "Teeth in earlier human populations," Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 18 (1959), 59-65; Warren Harvey, "Some Denial and Social Conditions of 1696-1852 Connected with St Bride's Church, Fleet Street, London," Medical History 12 (1968), 62-75 See also Calvin Wells, Bones, Bodies and Disease: Evidence of Disease and Abnormahty in Early Man (New York, 1964), figure 19 58 See R U Sayce, "Need Years and Need Foods," Montgomeryshire Col lections 53 (1953), no pagination; Frederick J Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances in the Old World (Madison, Wise., 1967) Jones 358 ingenuity than true curiosity about the world Many economic historians who were trained as economists seem so persuaded of the power and scope of existing theory that they not on principle act as one anthropologist claims to do: "curiosity also impels me to study whatever seems significant, even though I not see its immediate relation to the problem." 59 This is not the road to the quick kill, but it is the path of the poacher who finds new game One result of the modern methodology of economic history is that the industries about which most material is published are essentially modern If this were not so, there would be almost as big a literature about ship-building, fishing, tanning, or lumber ing as about cotton, iron, pottery, or coal Agriculture is a fortunate half-exception Despite its shrinking role in western economies, economic historians have not neglected it—though it would be fair to say that they have partly shunted it into the siding of agrarian history But agriculture's extensive use of one factor of production, land, guarantees its visibility So does the fact that agriculture attracted earlier scholars, say Tawney and Gonner and Slater and Gray in the first years of this century, and historians tend to poke in the bushes along the paths their teachers frequented Yet the thought remains: we study the big conventional themes and accumulate knowledge round and about them, but not venture far off the beaten track How may students be convinced that dusty technologies and obscure products were once of vital economic significance? How may they be sensitized to spot the importance of things now neglected? One way may be to humble ourselves and encourage observation of little things No economic historian should think it beneath his dignity to visit the reconstructed buildings of the open-air museums that are growing in numbers and excellence in all the western countries Even better may be the "living farms" that have been proposed in several countries, where antique methods of husbandry are to be reenacted The obsolescent breeds of livestock being kept as "gene banks" in zoos and game parks would repay inspection—after all, some breeds that have lingered obscurely, as virtual curiosities, like Jacob's Sheep and Warwickshire Longhorns, have made unexpected comebacks 59 Hortense Powdermaker, Stranger Anthropologist (London, 1967), p 369 and Friend: The Way of an Afterword 359 Surviving examples of the open fields should be visited if pos sible: the most famous in England is Laxton, Nottinghamshire 60 Experience at archeological excavations will help students to sense the immediacy of the past No chance of talking with farmers or agriculturists should be passed up Best of all for scholars from northwest Europe, the United States, or Australasia, is to visit and probe into the problems of less specialized agricul tures than their own Without a "feel" for older ways of doing things there is a tendency to substitute the known for the un known, and to overplay the importance in the past of what is important today Economic analysis has its own beauty Its cunning is to appear independent of cultural setting Its power comes from its gen erality and abstractness, but its durability in historical explana tion can only come from the closeness of its fit with the evidence The evidence promises a second kind of beauty: the beauty of restoration and reconstruction The mark of the economist is a dexterity with logical tools, an ability to select the common ele ments from a number of situations Selection is unavoidable, and it is a blessing that economics does offer the historian one efficient scheme for choosing what to study The mark of the historian, on the other hand, is a desire to get behind generaliza tions to the textured reality on which they rest, to find sense in the individual truth To some degree the historian may be right to object to economic models that discard everything they not explain, as mere "noise" in the system However, the economist's numeracy is now so formidable that few historians can really inhabit the same universe and offer unsolicited advice with much conviction The increase in quantitative studies in departments of history in American universities fortunately shows that some historians are, however, willing to acquire numerical skills in addition to their traditional subtleties Are economists coming to meet them halfway? Deep immersion in the broadest subject matter is incumbent on the economic historian of agriculture— something of the observational, diagnostic skill of the medical man or motor mechanic approaching complex systems imper fectly giving off signals of their working This open-endedness, plus the fatigue of collecting data from miscellaneous sources, co See J D Chambers, The Last English Open Field Village A Guide (London, 1964) 360 Jones bears as an emotional strain on some formally-minded economists who approach agrarian history But the contributions to this volume show that others can and bear it With their minds roaming free over Europe's ghostly fields, the prospects for agrarian history suddenly look bright Index Abel, Wilhelm, Aereboe, Friederich, 276 Agriculture, and political change: in Europe, - , 332-333, 347-348; in Prussia, 276-285 Alemannic region, 42-44 Alost, Pays d', Flanders, 188, 194, m Alps, 27 Alsace, 50 Anderson, Edgar, - Annals of Agriculture, 156 Aquinas, Thomas, 64 Ardennes, 303 Artois, 44, 189, 324 Ashton, T S., 136, I36n, 137, 343 Asia, 16 Aspley Guise, Bedfordshire, loon Aude, France, 302 Audenarde, Flanders, 188, 195 Ault, Warren O., 82n, 96, g6n Austria, 346 Aveyron, France, 297 Baker, A.R.H., 37, 53, 87~88n, 10911, 111, 113 Balegem, Flanders, 189 Balkans, 1 Bangladesh, 1 Baranowski, Bohdan, 288 Barradeel, Friesland, 1 , 212 Basse-Auvergne, 36, 44, 50 Bates, Marston, 327 Bavaria, 35; Abbey of Kempton, Algau, 90 Beauce, France, 4g, 297 Beauvais, France, 233 Bedfordshire, loon, 147, 148, 149, 217 Belgium, 190, 235 See also Low Countries Binns, Bernard, 103 Bishop, T.A.M., 102-103 Black Forest, 46 Blackstone, William, Blith, Walter, 348 Bloch, Marc, 4, 84, 90, 1 , 114, 123, i67n Blum, Jerome, 34n Board of Agriculture (English), , 140,156 Bodenham, Herefordshire, 133 Boelcke, Willi A., 37 Bohemia, 47 book collections, peasant, 221 Borowski, Stanislaw, 281 m , 282 Boserup, Ester, 10, 1 , 32, 40, 53, 56, 59, 274, m Bowden, P J , 174 Brabant, 333, 355 See also Low Countries Brandenburg, 46, 48n, 272, 283, 289, 292,348 Brittany, 40, 299, 307, 312, 319, , 322 Bromberg, Germany, 282 Bruges, 180, 200 Buchanan, R H., i52n Buckinghamshire, 131 Buckley, William, 12 Index 62 Burgundy, 38, 233 Butlin, R A., 37, 53, 87-88n Castor, Northamptonshire, 81 Celtic clans, 117 Chambers, J, D., 124, i36n, i37n, 175 !75 n Champagne, France, 299, 307, 322 Charentes, France, 323 Cheshire, 130 Chiltern Hills, 46, 86n Chisholm, Michael, 88 Cipolla, C M., 354 Ciriacy-Wantrup, Siegfried von, 27511 clocks, 221 Cobbelt, "William, 227 Cohen, Jon, 5, 7, 9, 13 common fields, function, 27-33, 75®; medieval, 23, 60-62; origins, 33-45; persistence, 5511, 58, 73-160; spread of, 45, 52 — scattering of holdings in, 76-83, 129; in Africa, gi-g2n; in America, 91, 92; in Latin America, 91, 92; as insurance against risk, 113-119, 148 Court of Chancery, 130, 131, 13m Courtrai, 180, 188, 190 Crichton, Michael, 341 Cronstadt, 355 Cumberland, 59 Czechoslovakia, 91 Dalton, George, 330 Delft, Netherlands, 230 delftware, 221 Delord, Jeanne-Marie, 31111 Denmark, 19, 48, 338 See also individual place names Deprez, Paul, 194 De Rammelaere, G., 188 De Vries, Jan Dickler, Robert, diet, 199-200, 201, 204, 225~226n, East Anglia, 46, 117 Easterlin, Richard, 10 economic history of agriculture, study of, 3If, 327-330, 357-360 Emmison, F G., 147 enclosure, English, costs of, 127-142, 335-337; and depopulation, i6iff; equity effects, 126-127, 142-151, i ^ f f , 335-33 ; extent,, 123-125; Parliamentary, 73, 82, 123-125, 163, 172-173, 335-337; productivity ef- fects, 151—160, 163ft; voluntary, 73* 124, 163, 335-337; and wool trade, 73-174 enclosure, Flemish, 19m enclosure, Prussian, 276-278, 286 England, 7, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 27, 33, 34, 36, 44, 45, 46 5° , 64, 73-160, 190, 192, 287, 315, 332-360; eastern, 118; southeastern, 104, 114; Welsh border, 135; West of, 135; East Anglia, 46, 117; Midlands, 60, 86, 104, 117, 118, 135, 171-172, 337, 339 See also individual localities and place names Ernie, Lord (Rowland Prothero), 3, 96 Ertvelde, Flanders, 182 Erzgebirge, Germany, 340 Escaut, Flanders, 190 Essex, 104 Estonia, 284 Ethiopia, 103, 114 Europe, physical environment, 19, 20, 339-341 Eversholt, Bedfordshire, 77 Faith, Rosamund, 100, io4n farm accounts, Dutch, 239 farm buildings, 216-218, 336-337 farm equipment, in France, 300, 303- 306, 317-318; in Friesland, 240-243, 259-261, 264 353—357; in Prussia, 289-292; and malnutrition, 115, 353-357 Dijonnais, 44 Domesday Book, 45 Dovring, Folke, 4, 88, 91, 103 DuBoulay, F.R.H., io6n, 113 Duby, Georges, Dunkirk, 190 Durham, 130 farm size (acreage), England, 149150; France, 293-326; Flanders 197199; Prussia, 278-279 Faucher, Daniel, 38, 308 Fenland, English, 60 Finberg, H.P.R., Finckenstein, H W Graf Finck von, Eakring, Nottinghamshire, 85 Eitzherbert, John, i56n farm household goods, in Friesland, 244-258, 260-261, 264-265, 266 275-27611, 278 Index Flandeis, 7, 27, 44, 179-204, 301, 333 See also Low Countries and individual place names flooding, 114, 115, 211, 346n Fournier, Gabriel, 44, 50 Fowler, George, 98, 149 France, 7, 9, 15, 17, 18, 19, 27, 35, 38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 50, 92, 106, 1 , 1 , 183, 190, 206, 293-326, 332- 333, 345, 346, 347' 348-349 349"; east, 299, 307, 322; northeast, 299, 3°4, 3°7 322; southeast, 299, 307, 322; southwest, 299, 306, 307, 312, 322; west, 299, 305, 307, 318, 322 See also Gaul and individual place names Francoma, 44 Frankenwald, 340 Friesland, 205-266 See also individ- ual place names Furnes, Flanders, 186, 188, 190, 19 J Gascony, 324 Gaul, 33, 42 Gay, Edwin, 125 Germany, 15, 17, 18, 19, 27, 33, 36, 37, 38, 42, 45, 46, 91, 93, 103, 271, 340- 34i 343- 349 355' S e e a l s individual place names Ghent, 42, 180, 184, 185, 186, 195 Gibraltar, 355 Gillingham, Kent, 111 Goldington, Bedfordshire, 80 Goltz, Th von der, 280 Conner, C K., 89, 124, 13911, 146, 358 Goubert, Pierre, 233 Grantham, George, Gray, H L„ 93, 124, 358 Greece, 91, 112 See also individual place names Greenland, 355 hailstorms, 114, 115, 345-346n Hammonds, B., 75, 126, 146 Hammonds, J L., 75, 126, 146 Hardenburg, Baron, 276 Hasbach, Wilhelin, 126, 143 Havinden, M A., 89 Hayami, Y„ 285 Hegel, Georg, 21 Hennaarderadeel, Friesland, 211, 212, 214, 215, 217 Hesse, 44 Higounet, Charles, 50 363 Hirschman, Albert O., 146, 335n Hoffman, Richard, 5, 7, Homans, George C., 36, 74, 97, 10410 n Homer, Henry, i39n, 140-141^ 154, i 6-i57n Hopi Indians, 114 Horse-hoeing Husbandry, 302 Hoskins, W G., 126, 171, 216 Hungary, 15 Hunt, H G., 135m 14m Hytner, Stephen, 208, 236 Iceland, 355 Idaarderadeel, Friesland, 211, 212 Ilesic, Sventozar, 55 Indre, France, 323 industry, rural, 179-203, 208, 228230, 233-234, 262, 308, 310, 337344; urban, 203, 228-230, 309-310, 340-344 inheritance, partible, 102-113 insurance devices, 117, 345-347 See also common fields, scattering of holdings in Ipsen, G., 275~276n Ireland, 27, 40, 46, 47, 47n, 91, 92, 345 Italy, 18, 331 Janichen, Hans, 49 Japan,285 John of Salisbury, 64 Jones, Eric L., 4, 10, i27n, i46n Juillard, Etienne, 35 Jutland, 339 Karugu, of Tanzania, 114 Kent, 90, 113, 129 Kerridge, Eric, 125, 171, i72n, 174 175 Keynes, J M., 3, 22 Knapp, W F., 280, 285 Kosminsky, E., 169 Kotelmann, Alfred, 291 Krug, Leopold, 275n Kuhn, Thomas, 329 Kulisher, J., 291 Labrousee, Ernest, 294, 295 Ladurie, E Le Roy, Lancashire, 130, 342 Landes, France, 312 Languedoc, 306 Index 364 Laxton, Nottinghamshire, 36, 76, 77, 77n, 8in, 82n, 111, 359 Leclerc-Thouin, O., 32a Lede, Flanders, 182 190, 195, 200, 201 193, 194, Lee, Joseph, Leeuwarderadeel, Friesland, 211, 212, 214, 216, 217 Leicestershire, 131, 1350 Leiden, 230 Leijonhufvucl, Axel, i,52n, i55n Lemberge, Flanders, 189 Lenin, V., 28 m Levy, Hermann, 126, 315 Lille, 180, 190 Limousin, 344 Lincolnshire, parts of: Holland, 86; Isle of Axholme, 86; Kesteven, 86 Lind, James, 354 Lithuania, 48n livestock, breeding, 85, 349-350; Charollais breed, 350; disease, 85, 211; Jacob's sheep, 358; overstocking and stinting, 85, 95, 100-101; Warwickshire Longhorns, 358 Llancadle, Glamorganshire, 76 Loire, 299, 307, 322 Lokeren, Flanders, 189 Lombardy, 331 London, 118, 333, 355 Lorraine, 4g Low Countries, 15, 331, 332, 333, 343, 355, See also Belgium; Brabant; Flanders; Netherlands Lower Saxony, 36 Liitge, Friedrich, 3, 280 Lyon, 318 Maine, France, 321 Maitland, F W „ 74, 83, 96, 97, 139140, i6gn malnutrition, 115, 353-357 See also diet Malthus, Thomas, Mandeville, Bernard de, 12 Marden, Herefordshire, 133 market demand and agrarian change, 20, 2gn, 51, i n , 52, 6on, 636 99 _ I °i, 116-117, 127, 225, 269292 3!4-32i, 336 Marshall, William, 156 Martin, J M., 140, 141, m , n > 159 Marx, Karl, 6, 13, 75, 170 145, Massif Central, 299, 307, 321, 322 Mathias, Peter, i27n McCloskey, Donald, 5, 7, 9, 13 McNeill, W H., 353 ' mechanical butter churn, 215-216 Mecklenburg, 346 Meigem, Flanders, 194, 200 Mendels, Franklin, 4, Mendras, Henri, 313 Midi, France, 304, 307 Midlands, England, 60, 86, 104, 117, 118, 135, 171-172, 337, 339 Mingay, G E „ i36n, ^ 149, 175, i75n Monceau, Duhamel de, 302 Moore, Barrington, Jr., 16 More, Sir Thomas, 170 Napoleonic wars, and English agriculture, 124, 137, 140, 141, 153, 157-158, 227, 272; and European agriculture, 357 natural hazards; birds, 115, 347, 351; flooding, 114, 115, 211, 346n; hailstorms, 114, 115, - ^ harvest failures, 309-310, 342; insects, 115, 34gn; livestock disease, 85, 211, 347-348; mammals, 115, 347; pests, 81, 344-349, 34gn; plant disease, " , " a 345» 34 -349; weather, 114, 34gn Netherlands, 7, 17, 18, 19, 92, 93, 190, 192, 205ft, 235, 332, 348, 355 See also Low Countries and individual place names Niemeier, Georg, 36 Norfolk, 346 Normandy, 50, 299, 307 Norway, 27, 40 Nottinghamshire, 124, i24n, 141, 217 See also individual place names Oakley, Bedfordshire, 149 Ooststellingwerf, Friesland, 211, 212, 233 Orwin, C S., l o i n , i29n Osnabriick, 50 Overijssel, Netherlands, 231, 233, 234 Oxfordshire, 35, 104 Palatinate, 49, 49n Parain, Charles, 94 Paris, 332, 333, 344; region of, 44, 298, 301 Index peasant consumption, in Friesland, 205-266 peasant economy, in Europe, 27-64; in Flanders, 192-203; in France, 293-326; in Friesland, 205-266 Perigord, 312 Picardy, 324 Piers Plowman, 81 plant breeding, 350-351 plant diseases, 114, 115, 345, 348-349 Pocock, Ernest A., 35 Poitevine, France, 312 Poitu, France, 320 Poland, 15, 40, 46, 47, 91, 281, 288, 349 Pollock, F., 83n, i6gn Pomerania, 279, 282, 283, 289 population growth and agrarian change, 10-n, 32, 32n, 42, 43, 50, 51, 52-65, 83, 87-88n, 105-111, 189203, 274, 280-285, 311-313 Posen, 279, 281, 282-283, 28g, 292 Postan, M M., 4, 77, 96, 99, 100, 2i8n Powdermaker, Hortense, 358 Prussia, 7, 14; East Prussia, g, 15, 269-292; West Prussia, 283, 28g Ramsey, Peter, 173 Resnick, Stephen, 208, 236, 237-238 Rhine-Hesse, 4g Rhineland, 35, 291 Ricardo, David, 157 Roberts, B K., 80 Roden, David, 86n, 104 Rogers, Thorold, 126 Rothamsted, 302 rural exodus, 30911, 310, 3ion, 336, 342 344 Rural Rides, 227 Russia, 15, 16, 18, 19, 98, 112, 348, 349 355 Ruttan, V., 285 Saint-Gilles, Flanders, 193, 194, 200 Saint-Jacob, P de, 233 Saint-Nicholas, Flanders, 188 Salland, Netherlands, 232, 233 Saxony, 283, 289, 292; Lower Saxony, 36 Scandinavia, 15, 39, 339, 355 Schiller, Otto, 109 Schultz, T W„ 2i8n Schumpeter, Joseph, 365 Scotland, 40, 80, 98, g8n, 112, 135, 334 346 347 scythes, 3o6n, 351 Seebohm, Frederic, 95, 96, 98 Silesia, 46, 272, 283, 289 Slater, Gilbert, 85, go, 124, 12411, 358 Slicher van Bath, B H., 4, 8, 232, 233, 269, 270ft, 287 Slovenia, 55 Smith, Adam, 9, 157 Sologne, France, 349 South America, 91, 92, 183 Spain, 91, 183 Statute of Merton, 128 Statute of Westminster, 128 Stein, Freiherr von, 276 Steinbach, Franz, 37 Stone, Lawrence, 172 Stubs, Peter, 343 Suffolk, 34gn Sussex, 90, 217 Swabia, 49; Kornwestheim, 42 Sweden, 27, 39, 48, 92, 348 Switzerland, 114, 342 Tacitus, 37 Tarn, France, 302, 308, 323 Tate, W E„ 138-139^ 141, 145, 146 Tawney, R H„ 75, 125, 358 Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 21 Termonde, Pays de, Flanders, 188, 194 textiles, linen, 180-189; woolen, 180 Thabault, Roger, 312, 320 Thaer, Albrecht, 291 Thirsk, Joan, 3, 50, son, 8m, 86, 89, 90, 91, 94n, 103, 104, io5n, i62n, 17m Thompson, E P., 142 Thompson, Kenneth, g2n, 112 Thiinen, J H von, 19, 88 Tliuringia, 35, 39, 340 tithes, Church of England, 140 Toffler, Alvin, 357 Toynbee, Arnold, 126 Tull, Jethro, 302 Twente, Netherlands, 230, 232, 233, 236 valuables, peasant gold and silver, 222-224, 235 Vandenbroeke, Chr., igg Vasilika, Boeotia, 112 Veluwve, Netherlands, 33g 366 Vendee, 31a Versailles, 332 Vieuxbourg, 180, x88 Vinogradoff, Paul, 74, 96, 9611, 97, 99" Vollenhove, Netherlands, 232 Vosges, 318, 319 Waas, Pays de, Flanders, 188, 194, 198 Wales, 27, 347 See also individual place names and England Warwickshire, 47, 80, 140; Forest of Arden, 47, 4711 Wasquehall, Flanders, 186 Weald of Kent, 60 See also Kent Weber, Max, 6, 27on, 290, 291 Index weeds, weeding, 78, 81, 302n, 303, ° n 3°4> 3o6, 344 Weitzman, Martin, 5, 7, 9, 13 Westmoreland, 59 Weststellingwerf, Friesland, 231, 233 White, Llyn, 331 Whittington, G„ 80, g8n Wigston Magna, Leicestershire, 126, 171, 172 Wilson, Woodrow, 3, 22 Wonseradeel, Friesland, 212 Wiirttemburg, 37 Yorkshire, 35, 45, 60, 102 Young, Arthur, 87, 142 Ypres, 188 Yver, Jean, 54~55n Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: European peasants and their markets Includes index i Agriculture—Economic aspect,?—Europe—History—Addresses, essays, lectures Peasantry— Europe—Addresses, essays, lectures Land tenure—Europe—History—Addresses, essays, lectures I Parker, William Nelson II Jones, Eric L HD1917.E86 338.1^194 75-15281 .. .EUROPEAN PEASANTS AND THEIR MARKETS European Peasants and Their Markets Essays in Agrarian Economic History Edited by WILLIAM N PARKER AND ERIC L JONES Princeton University Press, Princeton,... their data are drawn, and only indirectly to a general European history Franklin Mendels and Jan de Vries study peasant demand and rural industry in Belgium and Holland respectively (essays and. .. another and one crop to another, its use in innovation and experiment, and its movement into the hands of owners interested in extracting a maximum of revenue from it by in telligent use were increased