European integration and the atlantic community in the 1980s

European Integration and the Atlantic Community in the 1980s This unique collection of essays lays the groundwork for the study of the intersection of European integration and transatlantic relations in the 1980s With archives for this period only recently opened, scholars are beginning to analyze and understand what some have called an apogee of the European project and others have called the second Cold War How these moments intersect and relate to one another? These essays, by prominent scholars from Europe and the United States, examine this and related questions while challenging conventional chronologies Kiran Klaus Patel is Professor of European and Global History at Maastricht University He is the author, among other works, of Soldiers of Labor: Labor Service in Nazi Germany and New Deal America (Cambridge 2005) and coeditor of The United States and Germany During the 20th Century: Competition and Convergence (Cambridge 2010) and of Europeanization in the Twentieth Century: Historical Approaches (2010) Kenneth Weisbrode is Assistant Professor of History at Bilkent University He is the author of On Ambivalence (2012) and The Atlantic Century (2009), and coeditor of The Paradox of a Global USA (2007) European Integration and the Atlantic Community in the 1980s Edited by KIRAN KLAUS PATEL Maastricht University KENNETH WEISBRODE Bilkent University 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, ny 10013-2473, usa Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107031562 © Cambridge University Press 2013 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2013 Printed in the United States of America A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data European integration and the Atlantic community in the 1980s / [edited by] Kiran Klaus Patel, Kenneth Weisbrode pages cm Includes bibliographical references isbn 978-1-107-03156-2 (hardback) Europe – Relations – United States United States – Relations – Europe European federation – History – 20th century European Economic Community countries – History – 20th century United States – Foreign relations – 1981–1989 United States – Economic policy – 1981–1993 Europe – Politics and government – 20th century Europe – Economic conditions – 20th century National security – United States – History – 20th century 10 National security – Europe – History – 20th century I Patel, Kiran Klaus II Weisbrode, Kenneth d1065.u5e974 2013 2013015871 327.091820 109048–dc23 isbn 978-1-107-03156-2 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents List of contributors page vii Editors’ Note ix Introduction: Old Barriers, New Openings Kiran Klaus Patel and Kenneth Weisbrode The Unnoticed Apogee of Atlanticism? U.S.–Western European Relations during the Early Reagan Era N Piers Ludlow More Cohesive, Still Divergent: Western Europe, the United States, and the Madrid CSCE Follow-Up Meeting Angela Romano The Deal of the Century: The Reagan Administration and the Soviet Pipeline Ksenia Demidova Poland’s Solidarity as a Contested Symbol of the Cold War: Transatlantic Debates after the Polish Crisis Robert Brier The European Community and the Paradoxes of U.S Economic Diplomacy: The Case of the IT and Telecommunications Sectors Arthe Van Laer The European Community and International Reaganomics, 1981–1985 Duccio Basosi v 17 39 59 83 105 133 vi Contents Did Transatlantic Drift Help European Integration? The Euromissiles Crisis, the Strategic Defense Initiative, and the Quest for Political Cooperation Philipp Gassert A Transatlantic Security Crisis? Transnational Relations between the West German and the U.S Peace Movements, 1977–1985 Holger Nehring 10 Reviving the Transatlantic Community? The Successor Generation Concept in U.S Foreign Affairs, 1960s–1980s Giles Scott-Smith 11 The Relaunching of Europe in the Mid-1980s Antonio Varsori 12 A Shift in Mood: The 1992 Initiative and Changing U.S Perceptions of the European Community, 1988–1989 Mark Gilbert 13 France, the United States, and NATO: Between Europeanization and Re-Atlanticization, 1990–1991 Frédéric Bozo 154 177 201 226 243 265 14 Afterword Kenneth Weisbrode and Kiran Klaus Patel 285 Index 291 Contributors Duccio Basosi is Assistant Professor of the History of International Relations and History of North America at Ca’ Foscari University Frédéric Bozo is Professor at the Sorbonne Nouvelle (University of Paris III), where he teaches contemporary history and international relations Robert Brier is a research fellow at the German Historical Institute in Warsaw Ksenia Demidova holds a Ph.D in contemporary history from the European University Institute in Florence and presently is a full-time MBA participant at Vlerick Business School Philipp Gassert is Professor of Transatlantic Cultural History at the University of Augsburg Mark Gilbert is Resident Professor of History and International Studies at the Johns Hopkins School for Advanced International Studies, Bologna N Piers Ludlow is a reader in international history at the London School of Economics Holger Nehring is a reader in contemporary European history at the University of Sheffield Kiran Klaus Patel is Professor of European and Global History at Maastricht University Angela Romano is affiliated with the International History Department at the London School of Economics, where she has been Marie Curie Fellow since 2011 vii viii List of contributors Giles Scott-Smith is Professor of Diplomatic History of Atlantic Cooperation at Leiden University Arthe Van Laer is a lecturer in the History Department of the University of Louvain-la-Neuve and in the Faculty of Economics, Social Sciences, and Business Administration of the University of Namur as well as a teacher at the college SC Charleroi Antonio Varsori is Professor of History of International Relations and head of the Department of Politics, Law, and International Studies at the University of Padua Kenneth Weisbrode is Assistant Professor of History at Bilkent University 296 Index European Community (EC) (cont.) New Trade Policy Instrument (NTPI), 121–22 vs OECD, 249 and Polish martial law, 31–32 progressive goal of, 151 relations with U.S., 48–49, 73–81, 105–32, 243–64, 255f–56f as super power, 152–53, 250–51, 258, 262 telecommunications policy, 106, 109, 119–20 trade policy, 121–22 trade relations, 3, 18–19, 106–10 unemployment rate, 140 war of Spanish accession, 245 world perceptions of, 251–61 European Community: Issues Raised by 1992 Integration (CRS), 256 European Community: Its Structure and Development (Elling), 256 European Council, 18 Council of Ministers, 47 creation of, 246 Maastricht summit (December 1991), 266, 283 Milan summit (June 1985), 134, 235–41 European Court of Justice (ECJ), 246 European Defense Community (EDC), 265 European Economic Community (EEC), 175–76, 245 see also Common Market European Free Trade Agreement (EFTA), 29 European integration, 2–3, 9, 15, 245–46, 267 early 1980s, 17–38 flaws of, 286 and German reunification, 244, 244n4 as goal, 232–33 relaunch of, 134 support for, 288 transatlantic drift and, 154–76 U.S support for, 5, 258–59 Europeanism, 11–14, 247–48, 266–67, 282–84 European Monetary System (EMS), 31, 141–42, 147–51, 158 European Nuclear Disarmament (END), 166 European Parliament (EP), 3, 232–35 “Draft Treaty” (1984), 147 elections, 5, 232–35 European Political Cooperation (EPC), 40, 54 early Reagan era, 25–29, 31 failed revival of, 168–71 institutionalization of, 240 legal status, 170 support for, 155, 159, 170, 175 European Research Coordination Agency (EUREKA), 156, 174–75, 238 European Security Initiative, 238 European Strategic Programme for Research and Development in Information Technologies (ESPRIT), 108, 119–20, 175 European Union (EU) Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), 154, 156, 246, 266, 279–80 creation of, 3, 226, 266 enlargement of, 246, 288 questionable decline of, 246–51 European Union Visitors Program, 223n75 “European Youth and Young Leaders” conference, 213–14 “A Europe Whole and Free” (Bush), 258–59 Eurosclerosis, Euro-Soviet pipeline see Siberian Natural Gas Pipeline (SNGP) Ewig, Klaus, 123 Exchange programs, 215–16, 220–22, 289 see also specific programs Export Administration Act (EAA) (U.S.), 59n2, 70–71, 110, 112–16, 124 Export Control Act (U.S.), 59–60, 59n2, 110 Export controls, 59–60, 63–64, 75–77 limitations, 112 pipeline-related sanctions, 47–51, 58, 66–82, 86, 97, 110–13 sanctions on technology exports, 64, 66–70, 74–77 Export credits, 33 Export licenses, 68–69, 114–15 Export subsidies, 245 Extraterritoriality, 110–11, 111n14, 113–15 Fabius, Laurent, 141, 232 Falklands War, 11, 28, 230 Farnesina memorandum, 239–40 Fascism, 100 FDP see Free Democratic Party Fiat Allies, 67, 69 Fillon, Franỗois, 221 Index Financialization, 134 Financial Times, 143, 146 Finland, 59n3 Finsider, 80n100 Fischer, Joschka, 169 Fischer, Uli, 102 Fishman, William, 126 Fontainebleau Summit (June 1984), 134, 150, 233 Ford, Gerald, 21, 30–31 Ford Foundation, 209–14 as transatlantic facilitator, 213–15 Foreign Affairs, 248, 254–55 Foreign Leader grants, 209 Foreign policy see also specific countries Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), 154, 156, 246, 266, 279–80 coordination of, 27–28 Foreign Policy, 248 Foreign Relations of the United States, 248 Forlani, Arnaldo, 165–66 Forsberg, Randall, 190, 198 France, 50, 109, 144, 265–84 Alliance policy, 273 anti-totalitarian movement, 95–96 Cold War tactics, 20 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), 59n3 economy, 140–42 energy imports, 61 European projects, 280–81 exchange programs, 221 foreign policy, 28, 30–31 G-7 global summitry, 34–35 interpretation of Luxembourg Compromise, 18 NATO policy, 272–73 political stabilization of, 231–32 “quad” format meetings, 274–75 relations with Germany, 232–35, 243–44, 266–67, 279–80, 280n42 relations with Italy, 239–40 relations with NATO, 266, 276, 283–84 relations with Poland, 31–32 relations with U.S., 73–80, 113, 173, 234, 238, 265–84 relaunch of Europe, 236 sanctions against, 71–72 and Siberian Natural Gas Pipeline (SNGP), 61–62 and Soviet arms buildup, 162–63 297 Soviet gas agreement, 78–79 support for Solidarity, 95–96, 100 trade policy, 121–22 trade with Eastern bloc, 23–24, 25t U.S technology transfer, 113 withdrawal from Germany, 272n18 Free Democratic Party (FDP), 139–41, 168–69 Freedom, 179 Free Trade Union World, 100 Free University of Berlin, 211 Freeze (Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign), 190–98 French Left, 95–96, 100 Friedman, Milton, 137 Friendship pipeline, 60 Fulbright commissions, 205 Fulbright Program, 220, 222 Functionalism, 11n20 Fund for Youth and Student Affairs, 210 G-5 (Group of 5), 30 G-6 (Group of 6), 30 G-7 (Group of 7), 30, 34–37 GAO see General Accounting Office GATT see General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Gaullism, 12, 14 GDP see Gross domestic product Gedjenson, Sam, 258 General Accounting Office (GAO), 123 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 29, 109, 124 Agreement on Public Procurement, 117 European overrepresentation in, 35 and high-tech products trade, 129–30 and telecommunication services, 128 Uruguay Round, 35, 152 General Electric (GE), 67, 67n30, 69, 81, 189 Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 32–33, 79, 168–69 Genscher-Colombo Plan, 165, 168–70, 175, 236 German Social Democrats, 229 see also SDP Germany, 2–3, 11–12, 144 see also East Germany West Germany economy, 286 NATO status, 270 “quad” format meetings, 274–75 298 Index Germany, (cont.) relations with France, 266–67, 279–80, 280n42 relations with U.S., 258–59 reunification of, 153, 243–44 Gibbons, John H., 65–66 Gibbons, Samuel M., 256–57 Ginzburg, Aleksandr, 68n35 Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry, 20, 22, 137, 162, 267 Glennon, Ed, 194 Goldberg, Arthur, 44 Gompert, David, 274 Gonzalez, Felipe, 236 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 7–8, 10, 22, 192, 235, 267–69 Grain exports, 7, 11, 78, 80–81, 111 Great Britain see United Kingdom Greece, 2–3, 45, 133n2, 170 Athens CSCE meeting, 42n5 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), 59n3 economy, 139–40, 285 security concerns, 12 Greenham Common camp, 197 Greenhouse, Steven, 253 Greenland, Green Party, 93, 102, 166 Grenada, 36–37 Gross domestic product (GDP), 131 Gulag Archipelago (Solzhenitsyn), 95 Habermas, Jürgen, 84, 185 Haferkamp, Wilhelm, 107 Haig, Alexander, 27–28, 31–33, 66, 72, 187, 248 Hannover European Council (June 1988), 245, 251 Hansen, Karl-Heinz, 194 Harmel Report, 164, 181, 201–2 Harned, Joseph, 224 Havel, Vaclàv, 99 Hawkins, Paula, 70 Healey, Denis, 171 Helms, Jesse, 245 Helsinki Final Act (CSCE), 9, 41, 41n4, 157 Helsinki process, 39–40, 43 Helsinki Watch Groups, 9, 45n24, 46 HER or neutron bomb (Enhanced Radiation Weapon), 157 Herz, Martin F., 216 High Level Group (HLG) (NATO), 163–64 High-technologies group, 122–24 Hogebrink, Laurens, 196–97 Hopper, Robert, 221 Horácek, Milan, 102–3 Hormats, Robert, 64 Howe, Geoffrey, 144, 173 Hughes Tool Company, 67 l’Humanité, 143 Human rights, 10–11 as concept, 99 concern for, 97–103 Helsinki provisions, 45–46 Ottawa CSCE meeting, 42n5 Human rights violations, 44–45, 51–52, 58 Huntington, Samuel P., 254–55 Huntley, James, 213 Hutchings, Robert, 280, 281n44 IAYC see Inter-Agency Committee on Youth Affairs IBM, 107–8, 112, 115, 131 ICFTU see International Confederation of Free Trade Unions IGC see Intergovernmental Conference IISS see International Institute for Strategic Studies ILO see International Labor Organization Industrial policy, 105–12, 120 see also specific countries conflicting interests and strategies, 106–10 industrial targeting, 119–20 for new information technologies, 129 INF see Intermediate Nuclear Forces Information technology (IT), 105–32 common market for information products, 129 export limits, 112 as focus of public diplomacy, 223 Helsinki provisions, 46 industrial strategies in, 129 Institute for Defense and Disarmament Studies, 190 Institut Franỗais des Relations Internationales, 220 Integrated Services Digital Network, 109 Inter-Agency Committee on Youth Affairs (IAYC), 206–7, 214 Index Interagency Working Group on Public Diplomacy (U.S State Department), 217 Inter-Church Peace Council (Interkerkelijk Vredesberaad, Dutch IKV), 196–97 Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), 247 Interkerkelijk Vredesberaad (Inter-Church Peace Council, Dutch IKV), 196–97 Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF), 215, 221–22 International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), 88, 100–1 International Energy Agency, 82 International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), 155–56, 159–62 International Labor Organization (ILO), 32 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 29, 32, 35 International Student Conference, 210 International Trade Commission, 119–20 International Visitor Program (IVP) (U.S State Department), 220, 221n69 IOs see Intergovernmental organizations Iranian hostage crisis, 11 Ireland, 59n3, 285 Israel, 26–27 IT (information technology), 46, 105–32, 223 Italy conservatism in, 165–66 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), 59n3 economy, 139–42, 285 energy imports, 61 and European relaunch, 235–41 foreign policy, 28 G-7 global summit, 34–35 growth rate, 140 inflation rate, 139–40 international affairs, 235–36 Milan summit (June 1985), 134, 235–41 and NATO dual-track decision, 164, 235–36 Pentapartito government, 140 political stabilization of, 230–31 and Reaganomics, 149 relations with France, 239–40 relations with Poland, 31–32 relations with U.S., 73–79, 144 and Soviet arms buildup, 163 and Soviet pipeline, 61–62, 71–79 trade with Eastern bloc, 23–24, 25t 299 unemployment rate, 139–40 IVP see International Visitor Program Jackson, Henry “Scoop,” 182 Jacoviello, Alberto, 247–48 Japan, 7, 38, 144 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), 59n3 economic growth, 17 G-7 global summitry, 35 gross domestic product (GDP), 131 relations with France, 234 trade relations, 107–9 trade restrictions, 113–14 Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 32, 46–47, 66, 100 Jenkins, Roy, 18 JFK Institute, 211 Jobert, Michel, 11 John Brown Engineering, 80n100, 81 John Paul II (Pope), 228 Johnson, Lyndon B., 260 Joinet, Louis, 126 Joxe, Pierre, 281n44 Judt, Tony, 95 Kampelman, Max M., 44–45 Kehler, Randall, 198 Kelly, Petra, 83–85, 93–94, 102, 194–96, 199 Kennedy, Edward, 191 Kennedy, Paul, 250–51, 253–54, 260, 262, 267 Kennedy, Robert, 206 Kennedy Administration, 206–7 Keyserling, Leon, 182 Kiesinger, Kurt Georg, 160 Kirby, Michael, 125–26 Kirkland, Lane, 90, 101, 103–4 Kirkpatrick, Jeane, 83 Kissinger, Henry, 11, 14, 25–31, 43 Policy Analysis and Resource Allocation Study on Youth, 214 Year of Europe initiative, 26, 260 Kloeckner, 80n100 Kohl, Helmut, 15, 52n48, 267 as conservative, 165–66 on détente, 166 and Euro, 286 and European relaunching, 226, 232–35, 239–42 foreign policy, 233 300 Index Kohl, Helmut, (cont.) and France, 232–35 public perception of, 231 and Reagan, 141, 145–46, 146n51, 171–72 reunification plan, 244 and U.S., 33–34, 79, 81, 199 Konrád, György, 99 Kovalev, Anatoly, 52 Krefeld Appeal, 178, 186 Kundera, Milan, 98 Kurón, Jacek, 98–99 Labor party (Netherlands), 221–22 Labour party (UK), 165, 229 Lafontaine, Oskar, 184 Lambsdorff, Otto Graf, 114 Lanxade, Jacques, 273–74, 278–79, 281n44 Latin America, 1, 138 Lawrence, Robert Z., 120 League of Nations, 30 Lebanon, 236 Lefort, Claude, 99 Leftists, 95–96, 100, 165 Leinen, Jo, 91–92 Le Monde, 95, 243 Leopard II tanks, 162 Lesher, Richard, 69–70 Les Temps Modernes, 96 Liberal Party (Italy), 140 Libya, 36–37 Lockheed, 216 London Declaration on a Transformed Atlantic Alliance, 272–73 London Report, 168–70 London Summit, 145–46 “Loyal ally” thesis, 222n72 Lubbers, Ruud, 141 Ludlow, Peter, 251–52 Lundestad, Geir, 134 Luxembourg, 59n3 Luxembourg Compromise, 18, 246 Maastricht European Council (December 1991), 266, 283 Maastricht Treaty, 3, 226 MAD (“mutually assured destruction”), 172 Madrid CSCE Follow-up Meeting (1980–1983), 9–10, 39–58 assessment of results, 41–43 concluding document, 41–42 transatlantic disputes, 47–52 Western common front, 43–47, 58 Mannesmann Anlagenbau, 80n100 Markey, Ed, 197 Markham, James M., 253 Marshall Fund, 205 Martens, Wilfred, 143–44 Mathias, Charles, 123 Mauroy, Pierre, 232 MBFR see Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions McCloy, John, 211 McGuire, Steven, 134 MFO see Multinational Force and Observers Michel, Bob, 68 Michnik, Adam, 97, 99–103 Milan summit (June 1985), 134, 235–41 Missiles cruise missiles, 20–21, 162, 167, 180–81, 232–33 Euromissiles, 11, 154–76, 198–99, 228 medium-range, 84–85 MX missiles, 167 nuclear, 20–21 Pershing II missiles, 20–21, 163–64, 167, 180–83, 232–33 Mitterrand, Franỗois, 15, 267 and Bush, 27071, 27879 economic policy, 232 and European relaunching, 226, 229, 231–36, 238–42, 244 foreign policy, 32–33 and Germany, 232–35 and Gorbachev, 235, 268–69 and London Declaration on a Transformed Atlantic Alliance, 272–73 and NATO, 273 and Reagan, 20, 22, 33–34, 143–45, 148–49, 238 and Reaganomics, 139, 141, 143–47, 150–51 Mobilization for Survival, 189 Moen, Harlan, 209 Molander, Roger, 191 Mondale, Walter, 120 Monnet, Jean, 211–12, 251, 253 Mosca, Gaetano, 213 Multinational Force and Observers (MFO), 26–28 Murphy, James M., Jr., 256–57 Index Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions (MBFR), 49–50 “Mutually assured destruction” (MAD), 172 MX missiles, 167 National Association of Manufacturers, 69–70 National Endowment for Democracy, 87 National Freeze Campaign, 167–68 NATO see North Atlantic Treaty Organization Natural gas, 75, 78–79 see also Siberian Natural Gas Pipeline (SNGP) Nau, Henry, 133, 138n16 Nelligan, James L., 64 Neoconservativism, 85, 99, 99n51, 139 Neo-functionalism, 262 Neoliberalism, 85, 137, 139–41 Netherlands, 141 conservatism, 165–66 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), 59n3 foreign policy, 222n72 growth rate, 140 and NATO dual-track decision, 214–15 trade policy, 121–22 youth exchanges, 222–23 Netherlands America Commission for Educational Exchange, 222–23 Neutral and nonaligned countries (NNA), 43, 49–50 Neutron bomb, 23–24, 157, 162, 182–83 New Atlanticism, 261, 268 New Left, 85, 204 New Trade Policy Instrument (NTPI) (EC), 121–22 New Yorker, 196 The New York Times, 146, 254–55, 255f–56f New Zealand, 59n3, 113–14 NGOs see Nongovernmental organizations Nitze, Paul H., 182 Nixon, Richard M., 14, 214, 260 Nixon shock, 158 NNA see Neutral and nonaligned countries Nobel Peace Prize, 100 Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), North Atlantic Assembly, 216 North Atlantic Foundation, 216 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 11, 29, 265–84 301 Able Archer exercise, 229 air forces, 162 convergences, 273–78 criticism of, 92–93 and CSCE, 40 demonstrations against, 84–85 energy supply studies, 81–82 enlargement of, 288 flexible response, 161 and France, 265–66, 272–73, 276, 283–84 and Germany, 270 ground forces, 162 High Level Group (HLG), 163–64 intermediate-range missiles, 20–21 London summit (July 1990), 272–73 Martinique summit (1991), 278–79, 282 Military Committee, 275 military structure, 275–79, 281n44 as nuclear power, 162–64 and Poland, 31–32, 46–47 political role, 272 “quad” meetings, 274–77 rapid reaction corps (RRC), 282 rearmament (dual-track decision), 20–24, 155–56, 161–64, 180–83, 214–15, 235–36 reform of, 282 Rome Summit (November 1991), 266, 282–83 sixtieth anniversary, 284 stationing countries, 164 transformation of, 280 and U.S., 287 North-South Dialogue see Conference on International Economic Cooperation (CIEC) Norway, 59n3, 75 NTT, 118 Nuclear weapons, 93, 136, 180–83, 199–200 demonstrations against, 177–78 END (European Nuclear Disarmament), 166 Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF), 215, 221–22 missiles, 20–21 NATO rearmament (dual-track), 20–24, 155–56, 161–64, 180–83, 214–15, 235–36 302 Index Nuclear weapons, (cont.) support for, 189 Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign (Freeze), 190–92, 194–98 Nunn, Sam, 70–71 Nuovo Pignone, 80n100, 81 Obama, Barack, 286–87 OECD see Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Oil crises, 135, 138–39 Oil prices, 141, 156–57 Olmer, Lionel H., 71 Olympic Games, 6–7 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 29, 249 Code on Services, 126 data flows, 125–26, 129 energy supply, 81–82 European overrepresentation in, 35 “Guidelines on the protection of privacy and transborder flows of personal data,” 125–26 high-tech products trade, 129 telecommunications, 114–15, 128, 130 Telecommunications: Pressures and Policies for Change, 130 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), 43 Orlov, Yuri, 45 OSCE see Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Ostpolitik, 21–22, 73, 159, 182, 184, 201–2 Ottawa CSCE human rights meeting, 42n5 Ottawa G-7 summit (July 1981), 22–23, 74, 144 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 236 Papandreou, Andreas, 170 Pasti, Nino, 194 Peace movement, 101–2 in Europe, 156, 162, 166–68, 170 transatlantic, 167, 177–200 transnational, 193–98 in U.S., 168, 177–200 in Western Europe, 167 in West Germany, 91–94, 177–200 Peace Movement Coordinating Committee, 186 Percy, Charles, 68 Perestroika, 254 Perle, Richard, 65 Pershing II missiles, 20–21, 163–64, 167, 180–83, 232–33 Personal relationships, 11, 19, 22–23, 33–34, 37 Phan Van Phi, Raymond, 113–14 Philips, 112, 174 Physicians for Social Responsibility, 190 Pignon, Dominique, 96 Pinochet, Augusto, 100 Platt, Alan, 218–21 Plaza Hotel (New York City, NY), 152 Plowshares Eight, 189 Poland comparison to Chile, 100–1 democratization of, 98 martial law (crisis of 1980-1981), 9–11, 27, 31–32, 39, 46–48, 58, 79, 86–92, 228 post-Communist, 103–4 sanctions against, 47–48, 66, 86 Solidarity, 83–104 Policy Analysis and Resource Allocation Study on Youth, 214 Polish dissidents, 45n24, 86, 97 Polish intellectuals, 97–103 Portugal, 2–3, 133n2, 236–37, 245 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), 59n3 debt crisis, 285 security concerns, 12 Postal administrations, 108–9, 125–27 Poster art, 187–88 Potential Leaders Biographic Reporting List (Youth Committee), 209 Powell, Charles, 14 Privatization, 134, 141 Program for Development of Rising Young Leaders, 213 Project democracy, 87 Protectionism, 110–12, 116, 124–25, 132 Protection of Trading Interests Act, 78 Protestant Church (Germany), 186–87 Protestant Church (U.S.), 190 Protests, non-violent see Demonstrations Psychiatric science, 45n24 Public diplomacy, 217, 219–20, 223, 225 Public procurement markets, 109–10 Pym, Francis, 172 Index QMV see Qualified majority voting “Quad” meetings, 274–75, 274n24, 276–77 Quaker American Friends Service Committee, 190 Qualified majority voting (QMV), 18 Quinlan, Michael, 161–62 RACE (Research and Development in Advanced Communications Technologies for Europe), 110, 175 RAND Corporation, 218–23 “The Successor Generation and the Atlantic Alliance: What does the future hold?” conference, 218–21 “US Relations with Friends and Adversaries in the 1980s and 1990s” research, 220 Rand Graduate Institute, 218 Rasmussen, Anders Fogh, 221 Reagan, Ronald, 33–34, 135–36 “Address to the Nation About Christmas and the Situation in Poland,” 47–48 anti-Reagan movement, 92, 94 budgetary policy, 142–43 “carrot and stick” approach, 53–54, 58 as cowboy, 188 criticism of détente, 21 deficit spending, 136–37 demonstrations against, 92–93 economic policy, 247 export controls, 71, 81 foreign policy, 86–88 and Gorbachev, 192, 241 industrial policy, 120 and Kohl, 146n51 and Mitterrand, 144–45 movement against, 187 and nuclear weapons, 172–73, 183–84, 201 opposition to CSCE, 44 Pacificism, 140 personal relationships, 19, 22–23, 33–34 and Poland, 66, 86, 98 presidential election of, 165 Project Democracy speech, 217 public image, 19, 22–23, 53, 90, 92–94, 97, 165, 187 relations with Europe, 247 sanctions against Soviets, 47–49, 51, 66–82, 86, 97, 110–11 303 Soviet policy, 50, 52–53, 58, 60–61, 64, 74–75 Strategic Defense Initiative (“Star Wars”), 36–37, 171–75, 234–35 support for, 97 support for Solidarity, 91 and Thatcher, 147 on totalitarianism, 87–88 trade restrictions, 69 in West Berlin, 177–78 Reaganomics criticisms of, 14, 147–51 as domesticism, 138n16 international, 133–53 microeconomic features of, 134 results of, 137 Schmidt on, 142–43 in Western Europe, 138–51 Rearmament see also Disarmament NATO decision (dual-track decision), 20–24, 155–56, 161–64, 180–83, 214–15, 235–36 Red Army Faction, 160n23 Red Brigades, 230–31 Reich, Robert B., 120 “Report on European Union” (Tindemans), 153–54, 175 La Repubblica, 147 Republican Party (Italy), 140 Research and Development in Advanced Communications Technologies for Europe (RACE), 110, 175 Rice, John, 208 Richardson, Jo, 194 Richardson, John, Jr., 216–17, 216n52 Rigoulot, Pierre, 96 Robin, Gabriel, 274–75, 275n25, 276–79 Rockefeller Foundation, 210 Rockwell, 216 Rolls Royce, 73 Roman Catholic Church, 100, 190 Romania, Rostow, Eugene, 182 Rumsfeld, Donald, 157 Rusk, Dean, 207, 211 Sakharov, 45 Salzgitter AG, 80n100 Sanctions see Economic sanctions SANE (Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy), 189 304 Index Sarkozy, Nicolas, 221, 283–84 Scandinavian trade unions, 89 Schadler, Robert, 224 Scharansky, Anatoly, 68n35 Scharansky sanctions, 68, 68n35 Schell, Jonathan, 196 Schengen Agreement, 5, 240 Schmidt, Helmut, 11, 78, 187 “The 1977 Alastair Buchan Memorial Lecture” (October 1977), 155–56, 159–62 and Carter, 160, 183–84, 260 and European relaunching, 228, 267 and nuclear missiles, 183–84 and Reagan, 20–24, 33–34, 141–45, 148–49 and Soviet pipeline, 76–79 Schröder, Gerhard, 221 Schuman Plan, 212 Scowcroft, Brent, 14, 273–74, 281n44 SEA see Single European Act Sectorial trade reciprocity, 116–19 Seitz, Raymond, 277 Seneca Falls, New York, 197 SHAPE, 276 Shore, Chris, 251n14 Shultz, George P., 81–82, 248, 248n9 Siberian Natural Gas Pipeline (SNGP) (Yamal natural gas pipeline), 7, 23–24, 48–49, 59–82 American objections to, 62–67 annual capacity, 61 as “deal of the century,” 61 large-diameter pipes, 67 sanctions against Soviet Union for, 47–49, 51, 66–82, 86, 97, 110–11 security implications, 65 total length, 61 Siemens, 174 Single European Act (SEA), 3, 10, 151–53, 155, 170, 215, 226, 242, 246–47 SIPRI see Stockholm Peace Research Institute Smith, Dan, 219 Smith, Michael, 134 Smith International (North Sea) Limited, 80n100 SNGP see Siberian Natural Gas Pipeline Social Democratic Left, 166 Social-Democratic movement, 95 Social Democratic Party (Germany) (SPD), 139–41, 184 Social Democrat Party (Italy), 140 Social Europe, 150, 153 Socialism, 91–92, 95–96, 139, 231 Socialist Party (France), 141 Socialist Party (Italy), 140–41 Social market economy, 139–40 Solemn Declaration on European Union (Stuttgart), 147 Solidarity (Polish trade union), 41, 83–104 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksander, 95 Somalia, 160n23 South Africa, 101 Soviet Union see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Spadolini, Giovanni, 144, 165–66, 236 Spain, 2–3, 12, 133n2, 236–37 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), 59n3 debt crisis, 285 Madrid CSCE Follow-up Meeting (1980–1983), 9–10, 39–58 as member of EC, 245 war of Spanish accession, 245 Spinelli, Altiero, 232 Spinelli, Barbara, 146 SS-20s, 20–21, 164 Stammheim prison, 160n23 Star Wars see Strategic Defense Initiative Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, 220 Stockholm Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), 190 Stone, Shepard, 211 Strasbourg European Council (1989), 244 Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT), 162 Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I), 161 Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT II), 160–61 Strategic Defense Initiative (“Star Wars”), 10, 36–37, 136, 154–76, 229 as challenge to Western Europe, 171–75 European response to, 156, 170–71, 175–76, 234–35, 238 Stuttgart declaration, 168–70 Successor generation, 201–25 see also specific projects concerns that drove, 203 Index definition of, 202–5 relevance of, 202–5 reviving, 214–17 “The Successor Generation and the Atlantic Alliance: What does the future hold?” conference, 218–21 Sweden, 46–47, 59n3 Switzerland, 42n5, 46–47, 59n3 Szabo, Stephen, 203–4, 219–20 Taft, Robert IV, 274 Taylor, John, 208 Technip, 80n100 Technology conflicting interests and strategies, 106–10 as focus of public diplomacy, 223 IT (information technology) sector, 105–32 nuclear, 93 trade relations, 106–10 Technology trade, 60, 66–67, 67n30, 69–70 Technology transfer, 112–13 Telecommunications, 105–32 export limitations, 112 liberalization of, 124–30 trade, 116, 118–19, 130 Telecommunications: Pressures and Policies for Change (OECD), 130 Telecommunications Act (UK), 110 Telecommunications administrations, 108–9, 125–27 Telecommunications monopolies, 126 Telecommunications policy, 106, 223 Telecommunications Trade Act (U.S.), 118–19 Teltschik, Horst, 14 Terrorism, 157, 160n23 TEU see Treaty on European Union Thatcher, Margaret, 10, 187, 252–53, 258–59 as conservative, 165–66 and European relaunching, 230, 244 and German reunification, 244 and Gorbachev, 235 and Reagan, 22–23, 147, 149 and Reaganomics, 137, 139, 141, 144, 146, 150–51 and Reagan’s SDI, 171–72 on SEA, 153 “super-state” idea, 264 305 support for liberalized internal market, 285–86 support for White Book, 237 and U.S., 18–19, 22, 33–34, 80 Theobald, Thomas, 90 “The Successor Generation and the Atlantic Alliance:What does the future hold?” conference, 218–19 Third Basket (Helsinki Final Act), 41 Thorn, Gaston, 18, 246–47 Three Mile Island, 189 Thurow, Lester, 120 Tindemans, Leo, 153–54, 170, 175 Tornado bombers, 162 Tories (UK), 137, 141 Totalitarianism, 87–88, 99, 101–3 anti-totalitarian movement, 95–96 Trade and Tariff Act (U.S.), 120 Trade policy, 121–22 Trade relations early Reagan era disputes, 18–19 with Eastern bloc, 23–24, 25t EC-U.S., 106–10 high-tech products trade, 129 negotiations, 234 protectionism, 110–12 reciprocity, 116–19 restrictions, 69–70, 107, 112 technology trade, 60 U.S.-European, 20 world, Trades Union Congress (TUC), 89 Trade unions, 51, 88–91, 100, 103–4 Transatlantic relations, 288 see also Atlantic Community European Community (EC) Baker vision of cooperation, 259 community norm, 205 crisis of, 180–85 disputes, 47–52 early Reagan era, 17–38 and European integration, 5, 154–76 misunderstandings, 278–84 as multilayered, 29–34 1970s, 156–59 after Polish crisis, 83–104 revival, 201–25 tension over East-West conflict, 20–25 Treaty on European Union, 263–64 Truman, Harry, 59 TUC see Trades Union Congress 306 Index Tuch, Hans, 221 Turkey, 59n3 Turmoil and Triumph (Shultz), 248 Tyler, William R., 207–8 UNCTAD see United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Ungerer, Horst, 158 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) arms buildup, 162–63 collapse of, 153 dissidents, 99 energy exports, 61 and Europe, 8–9 as “evil empire,” 136 expansionism, 83 French gas agreement, 78–79 grain imports, 7, 11, 78, 81 hard currency earnings, 61–62, 66, 81 human rights violations, 58 invasion of Afghanistan, 1, 7, 39, 44, 58, 157, 165, 180–81 invasion of Czechoslovakia, 227–28 loans to, 75–77 nuclear weapons, 20–21, 180–81 policy toward, 39 sanctions against, 47–49, 51, 66–82, 86, 97, 110–11 Siberian Natural Gas Pipeline (SNGP), 7, 23–24, 48–49, 59–82 withdrawal from East Germany, 268–69 United Kingdom, 12, 137, 144 Cold War tactics, 20 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), 59n3 data flows, 129 economy, 141–42 and European relaunching, 244 foreign policy, 28, 30–31 G-7 global summitry, 34–35 and German reunification, 244 growth rate, 140 House of Commons, 77–78 interpretation of Luxembourg Compromise, 18 and Polish martial law, 31–32 political stabilization of, 230 “quad” format meetings, 274–75 and Reagan’s SDI, 173 reorientation of, 10–11 sanctions against, 71–72 and Siberian Natural Gas Pipeline (SNGP), 61–62 and Soviet arms buildup, 162–63 Telecommunications Act, 110 telecommunications policy, 127 trade policy, 121–22 trade with Eastern bloc, 23–24, 25t unemployment rate, 140 and U.S sanctions against Soviets, 73–78, 113 United Nations Emergency Force, 26–27 European overrepresentation in, 35 and Polish martial law, 32 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 30 United Nations Security Council, 35 United States, 265–84 anti-Americanisms, 92–94 anti-Communism, 170 approach to CSCE, 58 and Asian financial crisis (1998), 287 budget deficit, 146 Bush administration, 257, 261, 287 Carter administration, 20–21, 31, 60, 68, 158, 160–62, 165, 260 Clinton administration, 287 Cold War tactics, 20 Communications Act, 116 conservatism, 165 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), 59n3 debate over EC-1992, 256–58 Department of Commerce, 115, 117–18 Department of Defense, 115–16, 120 Department of State, 206–8, 210–11, 213, 217, 220 Eastern European policy, 39 economic diplomacy, 105–32 economy, 17, 107, 159 Eisenhower administration, 60 and European debt crisis, 287 and European integration, 5, 245–46, 249–50 Export Administration Act, 110, 112–16 Export Control Act, 110 export controls, 59–60, 63–64, 68–70 financial sector, 135 Ford administration, 30–31, 60 foreign affairs, 201–25 Index foreign policy, 21, 30–31, 77, 183, 187, 206–7, 210, 248, 258–60 G-7 global summitry, 34–35 grain exports, 78, 80–81, 111 gross domestic product (GDP), 131 high-technologies group, 122–24 high-tech products trade, 129–30 House of Representatives, 256–58 and human rights violations, 45–46, 51–52, 58 industrial policy, 120 interest rates, 138, 140, 143–47 IT industry, 107–8 Johnson administration, 260 Kennedy administration, 60, 206–7 Madrid CSCE Follow-up Meeting, 39–58 Middle Eastern diplomacy, 26–28 military presence in Europe, 269 National Security Council, 62–64, 74–76, 81–82, 215–16 National Security Strategy, 61 Nixon administration, 43, 58, 60, 214, 260 nuclear weapons, 189, 199–200 Obama administration, 286–87 occupation of West Germany, 186–87 Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), 69–70 oil crises, 135 opposition to autonomous Europe, 281 Peace movement, 168, 177–200 public diplomacy strategy, 219–20, 223, 225 public image, 77, 202–3 “quad” format meetings, 274–75 Reagan administration, 15, 17–38, 49–53, 59–82, 136, 186–87, 229, 237–38, 249, 260–61 relations with EC, 48–49, 243–64 relations with Europe, 205, 265n1, 280, 288 relations with France, 234, 265–84 relations with Germany, 258–59 relations with Great Britain, 258–59 relations with Soviets, 62–63 relations with Western Europe, 6–7, 9, 11, 17–38, 57–58, 234 relations with West Germany, 185–86 sanctions against Poland, 47–48, 66–67, 79–82, 86 307 sanctions against Soviet Union, 47–49, 51, 66–82, 86, 97, 110–11 Scharansky sanctions, 68 security interests, 25 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee, 124 and Soviet pipeline, 59–82 Soviet policy, 39, 52–53 Strategic Defense Initiative (“Star Wars”), 10, 154–76, 229 support for Solidarity, 88, 90–91 technology exports, 64, 66–67, 74–77 telecommunications industry, 107–8, 118 Telecommunications Trade Act, 119 Trade and Tariff Act, 120 trade policy, 62–63, 107 trade protectionism, 110–12 trade relations, 18–19, 106–10 trade restrictions, 69, 107, 112 trade sanctions, 116 trade with Cuba, 114 trade with Eastern bloc, 23–24, 25t trade with Europe, 20 transatlantic relations, Truman administration, 59–60 unilateralism of, 165 Very High Speed Integrated Circuits (VHSIC) program, 113–14 United States Army Europe, 159 United States Chamber of Commerce, 69–70 United States Federal Reserve, 136 United States Information Agency (USIA), 220–21 Office of International Visitors, 224 Office of Policy, 206 Youth and Student Affairs officer, 206 United States International Communication Agency, 220 United States Trade Representative (USTR), 118 Uri, Pierre, 212 Uruguay Round, 35, 152, 263 USIA see United States Information Agency USSR see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) USTR see United States Trade Representative Value change, 157 Vance, Cyrus, 191 Van Staden, Alfred, 222–23 308 Index Védrine, Hubert, 238 Venice CSCE seminar (Italy), 42n5 Versailles summit, 76 Very High Speed Integrated Circuits (VHSIC) program (U.S.), 115–16, 120 Vietnam War, 204, 260 Voigt, Karsten, 184, 194 Voluntary Visitor Program, 222 Von Hayek, Friedrich, 137 Vredeling directive, 114–15 Wałe˛ sa, Lech, 51, 83, 100 Wall Street Journal, 90 Warnke, Paul, 191 War of Spanish accession, 245 Warsaw Pact, 46 Warsaw Pact Organization, 160 Washington Post, 254–55, 255f–56f Washington Quarterly, 248 “We and They” (Kirkpatrick), 83 Weber, Elisabeth, 102–3 Weinberger, Caspar, 63–64, 72–74, 186, 191 Weinrod, Bruce, 219 West Berlin, West Germany, 177–78 Western Electric, 109 Western Europe see also European Community (EC) specific countries assertive attitude, 54–55 Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), 154, 156, 246, 266, 279–80 demonstrations against NATO, 84–85 Eastern European policy, 39 as EC member states, 40 and Gorbachev, and Madrid CSCE Follow-up Meeting, 39–58 and Reaganomics, 138–42, 147–51 rearmament, 23–24 SDI challenge to, 171–75 as single entity, 40 Soviet policy, 39 U.S relations, 6–7, 9, 11–12, 17–38, 73–77 Western European Union (WEU), 156, 277n34 move toward, 168–71, 176 reawakening of, 267 support for, 170–71 West Germany anti-Americanism, 92–93 Basic Law, 186 Cold War tactics, 20 conservatism, 165–66 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), 59n3 data flows, 129 economy, 140–41, 159 energy imports, 61 export controls, 60 foreign policy, 28, 30–31, 187–88 Fulbright Program contributions, 220 G-7 global summitry, 34–35 growth rate, 140 industrial strategy, 109 inflation rate, 139–40 peace movement, 91–94, 177–200 political stabilization of, 231 reaction to SDI, 173 rearmament, 23–24 relations with France, 232–35 relations with Poland, 31–32, 91–94 relations with U.S., 73–74, 78–79, 139–40, 185–87 sanctions against, 71–72 and Siberian Natural Gas Pipeline (SNGP), 61–62 and Soviet arms buildup, 162–63 telecommunications policy, 127 trade policy, 121–22 trade with Eastern bloc, 23–24, 25t unemployment rate, 139 White Book, 237 Williamsburg Summit, 82, 144–45 WILPF see Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom Wilsonianism, Wirth Bill (U.S.), 116–18 Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF), 189, 197 Women Strike for Peace campaign, 195 World Bank, 29 Wörner, Manfred, 183, 243 Yamal natural gas pipeline see Siberian Natural Gas Pipeline (SNGP) Year of Europe, 260, 265 see also Kissinger Index Young Leader program (Atlantic Institute), 212, 216 Young Republicans National Federation, 214 Youth Emphasis on Youth program, 206–9 exchange programs for, 215–16, 220–24 focus on, 223–25 Potential Leaders Biographic Reporting List (Youth Committee), 209 student movement, 209 as successor generation, 201–25 309 “The Successor Generation and the Atlantic Alliance: What does the future hold?” conference, 218–19 Youth Atlantic Treaty Association, 225, 225n79 Youth Committee, 209 Youth Exchange program, 205 Yugoslavia, 261, 288 Zimmerman, Hubert, 158 ... European Integration and the Atlantic Community in the 1980s This unique collection of essays lays the groundwork for the study of the intersection of European integration and transatlantic... took into account the EC per se, whereas Romano demonstrates the indirect effect such differences had 10 European Integration and the Atlantic Community in the 1980s on European cohesion within the. .. Schwartz, The Strained Alliance, 307 12 European Integration and the Atlantic Community in the 1980s enlargement, for which old alliances such as in the case of Britain (1973) and security concerns in