Entrepreneurial Learning This book addresses the burgeoning interest in organizational learning and entrepreneurship, bringing together for the first time a collection of new papers dealing explicitly with entrepreneurial learning Where past books have examined learning in a corporate context, Harrison and Leitch instead focus on the learning process within entrepreneurship and the small business Areas covered include: • • • • A review of the concept of entrepreneurial learning and the relationship between entrepreneurial learning and the wider literatures on management and organizational learning, A review and development of a number of conceptual models of the process of learning in entrepreneurial contexts, An illustration of the applications of the concept of the entrepreneurial learning in a range of contexts, An international perspective on entrepreneurial learning This book will be of great interest to students and researchers engaged with entrepreneurship, management learning, organizational learning and adult education Richard T Harrison is Professor of Management and Head of Queen’s University Management School, Belfast, and is Visiting Professor in Entrepreneurship and Innovation at Edinburgh University Management School Claire M Leitch is Senior Lecturer and Director of Education (Postgraduate Studies and Executive Education) at Queen’s University Management School, Belfast, and is Visiting Professor at the Centre for Organizational Renewal and Evolution, University of Aarhus Routledge Studies in Entrepreneurship Edited by Jay Mitra (Essex University, UK) & Zoltan Acs (George Mason University, USA) Entrepreneurial Learning Conceptual Frameworks and Applications Edited by Richard T Harrison and Claire M Leitch Entrepreneurial Learning Conceptual frameworks and applications Edited by Richard T Harrison and Claire M Leitch First published 2008 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 2008 selection and editorial matter, Richard T Harrison and Claire M Leitch; selection and editorial matter; individual chapters, the contributors All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Entrepreneurial learning: conceptual frameworks and applications/edited by Richard T Harrison and Claire M Leitch p cm (Routledge advances in management and business studies) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-415-39416-1 ( hbk.) ISBN 978-0-203-93192-9 (ebk) Entrepreneurship Organizational learning I Harrison, Richard T., 1955- II Leitch, Claire M HB615.E59745 2008 658.3’124 dc22 2007032091 ISBN 0-203-93192-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 10: 0-415-39416-3 (hbk) ISBN 10: 0-203-93192-0 (ebk) ISBN 13: 978-0-415-39416-1 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-203-93192-9 (ebk) Contents List of figures List of tables List of contributors Acknowledgements Preface: a conversation between entrepreneurship and organizational learning viii ix xi xviii xix MARK EASTERBY-SMITH SECTION I Introduction 1 Entrepreneurial learning: a review and research agenda CLAIRE M LEITCH AND RICHARD T HARRISON SECTION II Conceptual approaches 25 27 Enhancing entrepreneurial learning through peripheral vision ROBERT CHIA The process of entrepreneurial learning: a conceptual framework 44 DIAMANTO POLITIS The role and management of learning from experience in an entrepreneurial context JOYCE McHENRY 72 vi Contents SECTION III Intra-organizational learning The role of organizational learning in the opportunity recognition process 93 95 BENYAMIN B LICHTENSTEIN AND G T LUMPKIN Experiential learning within the process of opportunity identification and exploitation 120 ANDREW C CORBETT An exploration of knowledge management processes in start-up firms in the high-technology sector 141 OLUKEMI O SAWYERR AND JEANETTE W GILSDORF Investment decision-making in small manufacturing firms: a learning approach 168 IGNATIUS EKANEM AND DAVID SMALLBONE Sharing of tacit knowledge within top management teams in civic entrepreneurship 188 PATRICIA A ROWE AND MICHAEL J CHRISTIE SECTION IV Inter-organisational learning 203 10 Entrepreneurial knowledge flows and new venture creation 205 PAUL N FRIGA 11 Strategy making, organizational learning and performance in SMEs 228 EDWARD GONSALVES AND COLIN GRAY 12 Absorptive capacity of knowledge-intensive business services: the case of architectural and engineering SMEs 249 JAN WAALKENS, RENÉ J JORNA AND THEO POSTMA 13 The emergent nature of learning networks JOAKIM TELL 272 Contents vii SECTION V Learning, education and development 289 14 Being differently abled: learning lessons from dyslexic entrepreneurs 291 ROBERT SMITH 15 Starting from scratch: understanding the learning outcomes of undergraduate entrepreneurship education 313 SANDRA L FISHER, MARY E GRAHAM AND MARC COMPEAU Index 341 Figures 1.1 Mapping the organizational learning landscape 3.1 A conceptual framework of entrepreneurial learning as an experiential process 4.1 Constructive development cycle 4.2 Four views on learning, knowledge and competence 5.1 Creativity-based model of entrepreneurial opportunity recognition 6.1 Creativity-based model of opportunity recognition 6.2 Kolb’s model of experiential learning 6.3 Kolb’s learning styles 6.4 Creativity-based experiential learning model of opportunity recognition 6.5 Learning styles matched with action needed in each stage of opportunity identification and exploitation 7.1 Research model 9.1 Congeneric one-factor model for leadership support 10.1 The entrepreneurial knowledge flows model 11.1 Levels and processes of organizational learning 12.1 Conceptual model of absorptive capacity in architectural and engineering SMEs 13.1 A network according to Herbst 13.2 The learning process in a network 14.1 Learning from a conceptual framework/mapping approach 47 75 78 103 125 127 128 131 131 145 196 211 235 262 273 285 310 Tables 5.1 6.1 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 13.1 13.2 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Modes of learning that generate opportunities in entrepreneurial firms Tasks and environment of different types of learning Description of sample Integration and socialization mechanisms Incentivizing knowledge management-related activities Actual and expected outcomes of knowledge processes Summary profile of sample companies Description of sample Parameter estimates for leadership support Model goodness-of-fit statistics for leadership support Final measurement items and factor score regressions for leadership support Mean, SE, t-value and % variance at both member and organizational levels for fitted two-level variance components model in MLwiN Regression analysis: explication of tacit knowledge as dependent variable Entrepreneurial experience testing Entrepreneurial assistance program testing Descriptive statistics Correlations pearson correlation (sig.), tailed test; bold denotes sig (0.05/0.01) Logistic regression results Summary of results A summary of the three learning phases in the learning networks University and small enterprises meeting halfway in interdependent relations in learning networks Common signs of specific learning disorders Individual strengths manifested as traits List of entrepreneurs/investors/chief executive officers who have self-reported dyslexia or other learning difficulties Specific communicational strategies adopted by entrepreneurs 112 129 143 152 155 160 174 194 195 196 197 198 199 213 215 219 221 222 222 283 284 294 295 304 307 332 Sandra L Fisher et al educators are able to address learning content deficiencies with curriculum re-design and learning type deficiencies with different instructional approaches For example, student learning in financial analysis was relatively low across both cognitive (M = 3.63, SD = 0.99) and skill-based (M = 3.34, SD = 1.20) learning types, suggesting that additional or new forms of information on financial analysis are needed in these courses If only the skill-based learning had been found to be low, future iterations of the course might have focused on more skill-creating instructional methods such as opportunities to model effective teamwork behaviors, peer assessment of teamwork behaviors, and performance planning to improve these behaviors Finally, results confirm that it is possible to teach knowledge and skills related to entrepreneurship, as well as enhance interest in the topic (Timmons 1995; Baron and Markman 2000) This is consistent with the findings of Peterman and Kennedy (2003) suggesting that entrepreneurial education can increase participants’ perceptions of the desirability of entrepreneurship At the same time, our findings indicate that particular individual differences are correlated with the amount of learning and intent to transfer this learning (see Table 15.3) Students high in selfesteem and entrepreneurial spirit reported experiencing greater entrepreneurial and skill-based learning and substantially higher intentions to transfer their learning This finding suggests that students with higher self-esteem were better able to take advantage of the educational experience and develop their entrepreneurshiprelated skills If so, individuals with high self-esteem and entrepreneurial spirit may learn and transfer more than others, which has implications for entrepreneurship education program design and the selection of students for entrepreneurship courses Clearly, there appears to be a relationship between individual differences and entrepreneurship learning that remains to be more fully specified Limitations and future research We acknowledge several limitations of our chapter that would be important to redress in future research First, while we believe that our examination of entrepreneur and academic expert views on entrepreneurship resulted in a representative list of learning outcomes, future work in this area should rely on a more systematic survey of these sources For example, it is possible that the experienced entrepreneurs included in our review may have been biased in their reports of attributes and skills needed for entrepreneurial success, focusing only on those individual differences that were present or absent in their own experiences rather than considering the field of entrepreneurship more broadly Thus, the learning outcomes in this study should be looked upon as an initial specification of learning outcomes particular to experiential undergraduate entrepreneurship courses, as a first step toward identifying ideal mixes of content areas and learning types in entrepreneurship education (Garavan and O Cinneide 1994a) Second, our results may not be generalizable to all entrepreneurship courses because they reflect the undergraduate experiences in entrepreneurship courses at one university Some aspects of the course design in this situation may limit Starting from scratch 333 generalizability to other entrepreneurial situations For example, students were divided into teams of 20–25 people to start their companies We suspect it is rare for start-ups in the real world to involve such a large team The findings are most effectively generalized to other undergraduate entrepreneurship courses at the far end of the experiential spectrum, or classes with a similar course design We encourage future research on graduate-level entrepreneurship education, as well as entrepreneurship courses utilizing a range of learning methods Additionally, we encourage research that explicitly examines learning outcomes relevant to novice entrepreneurs We anticipate that the overall framework would still be generalizable to other audiences, although the specific outcomes may need to be adjusted depending on the knowledge, skills and experience individuals bring to the table We acknowledge as well that the use of other learning outcomes frameworks (e.g the more detailed framework of Gagne et al 1992) may have resulted in somewhat different results than our study Future research may wish to further validate and compare models of training and learning outcomes in entrepreneurial education contexts We would have preferred to use a more complete research design (Schwab 1999), but pre-test data did not exist and there were no additional business students at this university to serve as a comparison group for members of the first-year class Future research should employ as rigorous a design as is feasible in a field setting Additionally, our student data were self-reported, so we obtained only one perspective regarding each student’s learning outcomes While we addressed this somewhat with two data collection methods over a period of several months, future research could gather data from other sources such as peer and instructor evaluations of student learning outcomes Finally, because it is more difficult for students to assess attitudinal learning via self-reports (versus the two other types of learning), we were less able to distinguish actual learning versus individual differences in the affective area, with the exception of the entrepreneurial learning measure At a minimum we were able to generate preliminary benchmarking and correlational data on entrepreneurial attitudes We also encourage future research on the dynamics behind student learning, particularly the skill development process A question particularly relevant to the topic of entrepreneurship pertains to the timing of learning In our study we regarded learning as a semester-long event, but it is possible that what students learned in the courses will be fully realized only as they learn more or gain life and work experience It would be interesting to conduct follow-up studies with students to determine the extent to which they actually transfer their learning to other courses, business ventures and career opportunities To illustrate, we could envision the declaration of one second-year student that ‘I learned that I will never again work in an organization with so many politics’ evolving into a different learning outcome in the future; perhaps ‘I learned that most organizations have politics.’ Finally, the debate regarding what business content and interpersonal/personal content can be taught and which abilities and individual differences are less malleable appears active Thus, the entrepreneurship community would welcome further systematic research on this topic We encourage future researchers of 334 Sandra L Fisher et al learning outcomes to rely on the Kraiger et al and similar learning typologies as means of organization and to enhance generalizability across contexts Additional studies specifying and documenting learning outcomes are needed, and this effort would be quite useful to the many entrepreneurship courses in existence Conclusion The goal of this chapter was to provide a coherent structure for organizing student learning in entrepreneurship to facilitate curriculum design, course and program evaluation, and continuous improvement The Kraiger et al (1993) learning typology provides a parsimonious framework grounded in learning theory and cognition that can be used effectively for these purposes Categorization of undergraduate student learning outcomes from two experiential learning courses using this learning typology revealed substantial cognitive, behavioral and affective learning on many topics central to entrepreneurship Thus, while undergraduate students may be ‘starting from scratch’ in entrepreneurship courses, these experiences can be designed to provide them with a solid foundation of the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to be an entrepreneur or to apply entrepreneurial principles within organizations Acknowledgment The authors gratefully acknowledge research assistance by Kristen Clauss on this project We thank Amy Beekman and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on earlier versions of this chapter We also thank the Shipley Center for support in completing the project Note: The first two authors contributed equally to the chapter References References marked with as asterisk indicates sources used to develop the preliminary framework in Table 15.1 Ackerman, P L (1987) Individual differences in skill learning: an integration of psychometric and information processing perspectives Psychological Bulletin, 102: 3–27 Anderson, J R (1982) Acquisition of a cognitive skill Psychological Review, 89: 369–406 Babson College Academic Programs in 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Please circle the response that best describes your level of factual learning in each of these areas Gained extensive knowledge of this topic Learned a moderate amount Learned some basic facts about it Was exposed to the topic Learned nothing Leadership tools Teamwork Principles of written communication Principles of oral communication 5 Process for conflict management Persuasion and sales techniques Financial analysis Market analysis Value of diversity 10 Business ethics 11 Entrepreneurial career options 12 Adapting to change 13 Developing and implementing a business plan 14 Problem solving metthods 15 Using personal contacts to get things done 16 Organizational structure 17 Goal setting 18 Motivation 19 Risk analysis 20 Project management 21 Other Starting from scratch Section II Skills and abilities In this section, we are interested in how this course has Can now perform this almost effortlessly impacted your behavior – can you things now that Made substantial improvements you couldn’t at the beginning of the course? Made some improvements Please circle the response that best describes your level of behavioral improvement in the skills and abilities described below Made one or two minor improvements No improvement 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 Write clearly and effectively Resolve conflict between people Deal with uncertainty 10 Manage my own stress 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 11 Conduct a financial analysis for a company 12 Conduct a market analysis 5 13 Choose a career that will be right for me 14 Sell a product or service 15 Approach activities confidently 1 2 3 3 4 5 Listen to what others are really saying Use personal contacts to get things done Motivate myself to get work done 1 2 4 5 Identify and analyze risk 3 3 3 5 5 16 17 18 19 Contribute to a team Lead a group a team Manage my own time and responsibilites Persuade others of my point of view Make effective decisions Make effective oral presentations 20 Set realistic goals 21 Adapt to changing situations 22 Work with others who are different from me 23 Conduct business ethically 1 2 4 24 Solve new or difficult problems 25 Work across teams and functions 26 Other 339 340 Sandra L Fisher et al Section III: Attitudes and feelings In this last section, you will see questions about your attitudes and feelings toward several issues Please indicate the extent to which you agree with the following statements by circling the appropriate number Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree nor Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree I am confident in my ability to start a new business I plan to use the concepts and skills I learned in SB113/114 in future coursework I would like to start my own business someday I plan to use the concepts and skills I learned in SB113/114 in future business pursuits I enjoy facing challenges I plan to use the concepts and skills I learned in SB113/114 in my future career 5 1 2 3 4 5 Risk-taking is exciting I am confident in my ability to play a leadership role in team activities The risk involved in starting a company is too stressful for me 5 5 1 2 3 4 5 5 17 I certainly feel useless at times 18 I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal basis with others 19 I wish I could have more respect for myself 2 3 4 5 20 All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure 21 I take a positive attitude toward myself 1 2 3 4 5 22 The SB113/114 experience has made me want to start my own business someday 23 The SB113/114 experience has shown me that I can handle the risk involved in starting a business 24 The SB113/114 experience has shown me that I have good ideas that can be sucessful in the marketplace 25 The SB113/114 experience has made me more interested in business 26 Goals are defined by managers at higher levels 27 Work methods and procedures are clearly specified 28 Top management makes the important decesions 29 My career is pretty well planned out for me 30 My length of service is almost as important as my level of performance 31 Management is able to provide the information I need to my job well 10 I can handle the risk involved in starting a business 11 I have good ideas that will be successful in the marketplace 12 On the whole, I am satisfied with myself 13 At times I think I am no good at all 14 I feel that I have a number of good qualities 15 I am able to things as well as most people 16 I feel I not have much to be proud of I prefer to work in an organization where: Index Note: Page numbers for figures and tables appear in italics absorptive capacity (AC) 15, 216, 249–69 accommodative learning 128, 131, 133, 136 action learning 11, 79, 99–101, 108–9, 111, 112 actors in firms 256, 259–60 Adam and Eve 31–2 ADD 295 ADHD 295 affective learning types 319, 320, 321, 326, 327, 330, 331 ambiguity, deliberate 41 Anderson, A R 316 Anderson, J R 318 aphasia 295 architectural SMEs 260–9 Ardichvili et al 122–3 Argyris, C 236–7 art students 38–9 Asperger’s syndrome 295 assimilative learning 128, 132, 136 assistance programs 215–16, 217, 219–20, 222, 223 attention, scattered 37–9 attitude, managerial 191 attitudinal learning types 319 autistic spectrum disorder 295 awareness, subsidiary 36–7, 38–40 Barney, J 124, 157 Baron, R 123–4, 126, 316 Baum, J R 316 behavioural learning 11, 97–8, 101–2, 107–8, 110, 112, 129, 169–70; dyslexics 307–8 behaviourism 73–4, 77 Berger, John 31–2 Blumer, H 82 Boekhoff, T 253 Bogle, John 97 boundary spanners 260 boys and dyslexia 298–9 Bramming, P 81 Branson, Sir Richard 299, 300, 307 Brigham, K H 124 Brousseau et al 61 Brush, et al 316 Bryson, Norman 32–3 Burgoyne, J 183 Busenitz, L 124 business opportunities 48–9 business-specific content 319, 326, 327 CallMeModem 143, 146–7, 150, 151, 152, 155, 157, 159, 160, 163 career experience 50–2 career motivations 61 career orientation 60–2 Casson, M 299 Castells, M causal reasoning 59–60 cerebral palsy 295 chess 40 Chia, Robert Chief Innovation Officer (CIO) 260, 262, 267 childhood 298–300 Chinese painting 32–3 choice of alternatives 178–81 Christie, Michael 13 civic entrepreneurship 188–200 ClientBank 143, 146, 150, 151, 152, 155, 157, 158, 159, 160–1 closed-loop learning 171, 181–2; see also double-loop learning clothing companies 175, 181, 182 codification of knowledge 154, 157 coffee drinking 98–9 cognitive learning 11, 98–9, 101–2, 106–7, 109–10, 112, 121, 123–5, 129, 307–8, 325–6, 328, 329; Kraiger typology 319, 320–1, 327, 330; theories 74, 78–9 342 Index Cohen, W M 254–5 collective meaning and sharing 180–1 combination games 40 communication techniques 16, 293, 306–9 communities of interaction 151 communities of practice 80 Compeau, Marc 17 competences 4, 79, 80–1, 84, 85–6, 87 complex-loop learning 171, 181–2; see also double-loop learning conceptual framework 46–7 conceptual umbrella 148–9 cone cells 29 Conner, K R 231, 232 context, definition 167 convergent learning 128, 131–2, 136 Cook, S D N 238 cooperation 263, 266, 268, 269, 272–86 COP 80 Corbett, Andrew 11–12, 124 corridor principle 123 creativity 124–6 crime 301–2 crime novels 41 Crossan, M 234, 240 crossword puzzles 40 Csikszentmihalyi, M 125, 133 curriculum design 331–2 customers, role 181 Daly, S P 316 data 253 Davies, C 300 Day, D L Day, George 33, 34 DeCastro, J O 124 decision-making 168–85, 173–81 deliberate ambiguity 41 Dess, G G 31 Dewey, J 76 Discovery phase 102, 103–4, 106–7, 108–9, 125 divergent learning 128, 131, 133, 136 Docherty, P 80 double-loop learning 100, 108, 111, 182–3, 192, 274, 285, 286 dreams 37 Dreyfus, H L 79 Dreyfus, S E 79 dyscalculia 295 dyslexia 16, 291, 292–310 dyspraxia 294–5 Easterby-Smith, M 3, 6, Echols, A E 317 E-Consult 143, 146, 147–8, 151, 152, 155, 157, 159, 161 Edison, Thomas 299, 300 Edmondson, A 237 education 65, 137, 214–15, 217, 218–19, 220, 299–300, 313–40 EF skills 301 effectiveness measures 159, 160–2 effectual reasoning 59, 60 Eggers, J H 316 Ehrenzweig, Anton 38, 39 Ekanem, Ignatius 12 elaboration stage 104–5, 126, 131, 133 Eliasson, G ELT 121, 126–30 e-mail surveys 324, 325–6 employees, key 178–81 engineering SMEs 259, 260–9 entrepreneur, definition 27, 28 Entrepreneurial Learning scale 324–5 entrepreneurial spirit 322, 327, 328, 331, 332 Entrepreneurial Spirit scale 324 entrepreneurship education 17, 313–40 Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice (Harrison and Leitch) 3–4 equipment suppliers, role 178 evaluation of alternatives 177 evaluation stage 104, 125, 131, 133 Eve, and Adam 31–2 executive functioning skills 301 EXKBP 263, 264, 267 experience 10, 12, 44–5, 46–7, 212–14; career 50–2; prior 49, 57; as variable 217, 218, 219 experiential learning 10, 82, 120–37 experiential learning theory 53–4, 121, 126–30 experimenter managers expert career 61 explicit knowledge 318 exploitation 37–8, 54, 55, 56 exploration 54–5, 56 External Knowledge Base 263–4 External Knowledge Base Personal 263, 264, 267 External Knowledge Base Total 264, 266, 268 external linkages 157–8 EXTKBT 264, 266, 268 eyes 29–30 eye-wander 38 failures, effect 58–9 fans 110 FCOOP 263, 266, 268, 269 finance 176–7 firms, opportunities 109–12; reasons for failure 49; small manufacturing 168–85, 275–86 Index 343 first-order learning 257–8 Fisher, Sandra 17 focal awareness 36–7 Formal Cooperation 263, 266, 268, 269 Formation phase 102, 103, 104–5, 108–9, 125–6 framework, conceptual 46–7 frequency 149, 150 Freud, S 37 Friga, Paul 13–14 Gagne et al 318 games, combination 40 Garavan, T N 316 Garvin, D 105 gatekeepers 260 Gaze 32, 33 gender differences 298–9 general knowledge 205, 206, 210–11, 212–15, 216, 217 George, G 250 Gibb, A 170, 316 Gilsdorf, Jeannette 12 Glance 33, 34 Go (game) 40–1 Gonsalves, Edward 14–15 government, local 193–4, 200 Graham, Mary 17 Grant, R 141, 149 grasping information 127 Gray, Colin 14–15 Greeno et al 128–9 Gustavsen, B 273 hard incentives 154, 155–6 Harrison R T 3–4 Hart, S L 230–1 Helmersson, H 74, 75 HELP 219–20 Herbst, P 273 Hess, H 301–2 heuristics 121 higher-level learning 274 Hlava, M M K 306 Hodgson, V 183 Holt Larsen, H 81 hormones, male 309 Hornsby, B 298, 306 HR benefits 99 Hulland, J 234 human resources 99, 147, 158 ICL 239–40 idea validation 158 identification of needs 173, 176–7 I-Mage 143, 146, 148, 151, 153, 156, 157, 159, 161 implicit knowledge 318, 331 incentives 153–4, 155–6 incentivize, definition 167 inclusiveness 150 INCOOP 265, 269 incubation stage 104, 125, 131, 132 index, research network 264 industry-specific experience 52 information, definition 253 innovation 252, 254 insider accounts 171–2, 184, 185 insight stage 104, 125 institutional constitutive learning 239–40 integration mechanisms 149–53 intelligence 300 intelligent failures 58 intent to transfer learning 327, 328, 331, 332 intention 210, 327, 331 Internal Cooperation 265, 268–9 Internal Knowledge Base 259, 261–3, 268 Internet data 302–5 inter-organizational learning 13–16 interpersonal/personal content 319–20, 321, 326, 327, 330 Interpretation of Dreams (Freud) 37 INTKB 259, 261–3, 268 intra-organizational learning 10–13 investment decision-making 168–85 IQ 300 Jack, S L 316 Jorna, René 15 Jung, C 128 KBV/OL 206, 208, 210, 216, 249 Keh et al 124 Kets de Vries, M F R 297 Kindlon, D 298–9, 300, 301 KM 6, 12, 141–64, 165 know-how 79–80 knowledge 6–7, 253–4, 256; and cognition 124–5; definition 165; explicit 318; general 205, 206, 210–11, 212–15, 216, 217; implicit 318, 331; new 205, 210–11; 216; and opportunity recognition 122–3; organizational 189; prior related 258; specific 206, 210–11, 215–16, 217; tacit 170; 189–200, 254, 268, 318; transfer 327 knowledge, codification 154, 157 knowledge-based view 206, 208, 210, 216, 249 knowledge flows 205–24 knowledge management 6, 12, 141–64, 165 Kolb, D A 53–4, 126–8, 129, 133 Kraiger et al framework 318–22, 330–2 Krueger, N F 124 344 Index Lane et al 249 Lave, J 80 leadership 279–80 leadership support 13, 191–2, 194–200 learning, accommodative 128, 131, 133, 136; action 11, 79, 99–101, 108–9, 111, 112; assimilative 128, 132, 136; behavioural 11, 97–8, 101–2, 107–8, 110, 112, 129, 169–70, 307–8; cognitive 11, 98–9, 101–2, 106–7, 109–10, 112, 121, 123–5, 129, 307–8, 325–6, 328, 329 (Kraiger typology 319, 320–1, 327, 330; theories 74, 78–9); convergent 128, 131–2, 136; definition 6–7; divergent 128, 131, 133, 136; doubleloop 100, 108, 111, 182–3, 192, 274, 285, 286; first-order 257–8; higher-level 274; institutional constitutive 239–40; inter-organizational 13–16; intra-organizational 10–13; lower-level 274; managing 10; second-order 257–8; single-loop 100, 170, 181–2, 274, 285, 286; situative 130; social-cultural 76–7, 80–1, 130; see also organizational learning learning assessment 324, 338 learning asymmetries 134 learning behaviour 254–8 learning content deficiencies 332 learning difficulties 16–17, 291–311 learning networks 15–16, 272–86 learning organization 8; definition 166 learning outcomes 17, 315–21, 322, 325–7, 330, 331 learning styles 128, 131–4 learning theories 73–82 learning views, influence 83–6 left-handedness 295 Leitch, C M 3–4 Levinthal, D A 254–5 liabilities of newness 49–50, 56 Lichenstein, Benyamin Bergmann 11 linear career 61 line-of-work experience 212–14 linkages, external 157–8 literature, entrepreneurial 206–10 local government 193–4, 200 Locke, E A 316 Logan, Julie 296 logics, predominant 59–60 logistic regression 218, 220, 222 Long Range Planning 33–4 loop learning, closed- 171, 181–2; see also loop learning, doubleloop learning, complex- 171, 181–2; see also loop learning, doubleloop learning, double- 100, 108, 111, 182–3, 192, 274, 285, 286 loop learning, open- 182–3; see also loop learning, doublelower-level learning 274 Lumpkin et al 125, 130–1, 132, 133 Lumpkin, Tom 11, 31 Lyles, M Mafia 301–2 Magritte, René 29–30 Mahoney, J T 233 male hormones 309 management experience 51 management teams, top 189–90, 193–4, 197, 199, 214–15 managerial attitude 191 managerial support 191 managers: experimenter 4; senior 232–3 manufacturing firms 168–85, 275–86 March, J G 54, 55 marginality 298 Marking, C 80 McGrath, R G 58 McHenry, Joyce 10 McKevitt et al 242 McVey, Dominic 300 means-ends relationships 48–9 measures, performance 209 Mediatrix 143, 146–7, 149, 151, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 162 millionaires 300 Mind of the Millionaire 308–9 Mintzberg, H 228 Mitchell et al 124 Model I reasoning processes 236–7 moderate learning difficulties (MLD) 295 morph 142, 143, 167 Morris, B 297, 301, 306–8 motivational outcomes 319 motivations, career 61 music 38 Natural Step, The 111 Neck, C P 317 needs, identification 173, 176–7 negative capability 27–8 Nelson, R R 251 neo-classical theory 169 networks, learning 272–86 new knowledge 205, 210–11, 216 newness, liabilities 49–50, 56 Nobel prizes 297 Nonaka, I 158, 253 Nooteboom, B 253, 257–8 novels, crime 41 nudes 31–2 Index 345 O Cinneide, B 316 O’Reilly, Tony 301 OL see organizational learning open-loop learning 170, 182–3; see also double-loop learning opportunity recognition (OpR) 11, 48–9, 102–111, 112, 122–6 orality 308 Orfalea, Paul 300, 306–7, 308 organizational intelligence, definition 165 organizational knowledge 189 organizational learning 9, 11, 14; 170–1, 183–4, 206, 208, 210; and OpR 95–115; research 3, 5, 6; and strategic management 233–44 organizational routines 251–3 organizational structure preference 322, 327 orientation, career 60–2 Ost, Leo 110 outsider assistance 215 owner-managers 172–3, 176, 177, 178, 179–80, 181, 182, 183–4; of SMEs 252, 260 PACAP 249, 250 PACAP I 261, 266, 267, 268, 269 PACAP II 261, 266, 267, 268, 269 paintings 32–3 Patterson Fan Company 110 PCL 237 performance measures 209 peripheral vision 9, 27, 28–9, 33–42 personal cognitive learning 237 personal content 319–20, 321, 326, 327, 330 Philadelphia Pharmacy 110 Piaget, J 74, 75 pictorial thinking 307–8 Polanyi, Michael 36 Politis, Diamanto 9–10 Pollock, J 292–3, 298, 300, 301, 306 populate, definition 167 Postma, Theo 15 potential absorptive capacity 249, 250 poverty 298, 299, 301–2 pragmatism 74–5, 79, 87–8 predominant logics 59–60 preparation stage 103, 125, 131–2 printing companies 174–5, 181, 182 prior experience 49, 57 prior related knowledge 258 procedural rationality 183 Prusak, L 7–8 put-down 300 R&D 259, 264–5, 267, 268, 269 RACAP 249, 250, 261, 266, 267, 268 Rae, D 315–16 RBT 206, 210, 212, 215, 216–17 RBV 230–2, 233 Read, Sir Hubert 38 reading ability 301 realized absorptive capacity 249, 250, 261, 266, 267, 268 reasoning 59–60 Rebh, Richard 317 recruitment 99, 147, 158 regression, logistic 218, 220, 222 Reid, Zara 299 research, future 63–5, 114–15, 134–6, 164, 223–4, 332–4 research and development 259, 264–5, 267, 268, 269 research network index 264 resource-based theory 206, 210, 212, 215, 216–17 resource-based view 230–2, 233 Revans, R W 79 Reynolds, George 302 rod cells 29 Rokke, Kjell Inge 302 Ronstadt, R C 123 routines, organizational 251–3 Rowe, Patricia 13 Ruskin, John 38 SAL 34 Sarasvathy, S D 59, 60 Sawyerr, Olukemi 12 scales 324–5, 328 scanning, unconscious 37–40 scattered attention 37–9 Schein, E H 61 schooling 299–300 Schultz, Howard 99 SCL 238–9 score 148–9 second-order learning 257–8 selection, adaptation, learning 34 self-esteem 321, 322, 327, 328, 332 semantic pragmatic disorder 295 Senge, P senior managers 232–3 Senker, J 254 Shane, S 120, 123 Shoemaker, Paul 33 34 sight 29–30 simple-loop learning 100, 170, 181–2; see also double-loop learning single-loop learning 100, 170, 181–2, 274, 285, 286; see also double-loop learning single-mindedness 301 Sitkin, S B 58 situative learning 130 346 Index skill development process 79 skill-based learning outcomes 319, 320, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331 skills, transfer 327 small and medium-size enterprises see SMEs Smallbone, David 12 SMEs 228–9, 230, 241, 242, 249–50, 251, 252, 259–69; networks 275, 284, 285–6 Smilor, R W Smith, Easterby M 3, 6, Smith, Robert 16 social backgrounds 297–8, 299, 301–2 social constructive learning 238–9 social-cultural learning 76–7, 80–1, 130 socialization mechanisms 149–53 soft incentives 154, 155–6 software firms 142, 143–4, 145–64 space, definition 167 specific knowledge 206, 210–11, 215–16, 217 spiral career 62 staffing 99, 147, 158 Stanley, T J 300 Starbucks corporation 98–9 start-up companies 146–64, 322–3 start-up experience 50–1 start-up process 208–9 storytelling ability 300–1 strategy 228, 230–2, 240–3 structured learning assessment 324, 325, 326–9, 338–40 students 322–3, 330–2 subsidiary awareness 36–7, 38–40 success, effect 57, 58–9 support, leadership 13, 191–2, 194–200 surveys 324, 325–7, 328, 338–40 Swiss Army 97 Swonk, Diane 306 symbolic interactionism 82 tacit knowledge 170, 189–200, 254, 268, 318 technical appraisals 178–80 technology 35 Teece, D 98 Tell, Joakim 15–16 testosterone 309 Thompson, H 298–9, 300, 301 Thornberry, N E 317 Timmons, J 316 top management teams (TMT) 189–90, 193–4, 197, 199, 214–15 traits 295, 308 transfer intentions 327, 328, 331, 332 transformation of experience 127 transformation process 53–62 transitory careers 62 Uddin, A 297 umbrella, conceptual 148–9 unconscious scanning 37–40 undergraduates 322–3, 330–2 universities in networks 275–6, 282, 284, 285 Vanguard Group 97–8 variety (as variable) 149–50 Venkatraman, N 120, 241, 243 venture creation 205, 207–10, 211, 212–16, 219, 220, 222–3, 224 ventures, opportunities 109–11; reasons for failure 49 Vesper, Karl 123, 212 vision 29–30; peripheral 9, 27, 28–9, 33–42 Vygotsky, L S 76–7 Waalkens, Jan 15 Waller, E 292–3, 298, 300, 301, 306 Waters, J 228 Ways of Seeing (Berger) 31–2 websites for dyslexia 303 Weick, K E 238 Wenger, E 80 West, T G 297, 300 Western paintings 32–3 White et al 309 ‘White Race, The’ (Magritte) 29–30 Winter, Sidney 33–4, 251 Yanow, D 238 Zahra, S A 250 ... University, USA) Entrepreneurial Learning Conceptual Frameworks and Applications Edited by Richard T Harrison and Claire M Leitch Entrepreneurial Learning Conceptual frameworks and applications Edited... three learning phases in the learning networks University and small enterprises meeting halfway in interdependent relations in learning networks Common signs of specific learning disorders Individual... Cataloging -in- Publication Data Entrepreneurial learning: conceptual frameworks and applications/ edited by Richard T Harrison and Claire M Leitch p cm (Routledge advances in management and business studies) Includes