Myers exploring psychology

1869— Francis Galton, Charles Darwin’s cousin, publishes Hereditary Genius, in which he claims that intelligence is inherited In 1876 he coins the expression “nature and nurture” to correspond with “heredity and environment.” 1874— Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist and psychiatrist, shows that damage to a specific area in the left temporal lobe (now called Wernicke’s area) disrupts ability to comprehend or produce spoken or written language 1878— G Stanley Hall receives from Harvard University’s Department of Philosophy the first U.S Ph.D degree based on psychological research 1879— Wilhelm Wundt establishes at the University of Leipzig, Germany, the first psychology laboratory, which becomes a Mecca for psychology students from all over the world 1883— G Stanley Hall, student of Wilhelm Wundt, establishes the first formal U.S psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University 1885— Hermann Ebbinghaus publishes On Memory, summarizing his extensive research on learning and memory, including the “forgetting curve.” 1886— Joseph Jastrow receives from Johns Hopkins University the first Ph.D degree in psychology awarded by a Department of Psychology in the United States 1889— Alfred Binet and Henri Beaunis establish the first psychology laboratory in France at the Sorbonne, and the first International Congress of Psychology meets in Paris 1890— William James, Harvard University philosopher and psychologist, publishes The Principles of Psychology, describing psychology as “the science of mental life.” 1891— James Mark Baldwin establishes the first psychology laboratory in the British Commonwealth at the University of Toronto 1892— G Stanley Hall spearheads the founding of the American Psychological Association (APA) and becomes its first president 1893— Mary Whiton Calkins (pictured) and Christine Ladd-Franklin are the first women elected to membership in the APA 1894— Margaret Floy Washburn is the first woman to receive a Ph.D degree in psychology (Cornell University) — Harvard University denies Mary Whiton Calkins admission to doctoral candidacy because of her gender, despite Hugo Münsterberg’s claim that she was the best student he had ever had there 1896— John Dewey publishes “The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology,” helping to formalize the school of psychology called functionalism 1898— In “Animal Intelligence,” Edward L Thorndike, Columbia University, describes his learning experiments with cats in “puzzle boxes.” In 1905, he proposes the “law of effect.” 1900— Sigmund Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams, his major theoretical work on psychoanalysis 1933— Inez Beverly Prosser becomes the first African-American woman to receive a doctoral degree in psychology from a U.S institution (Ph.D., University of Cincinnati) 1935— Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray introduce the Thematic Apperception Test to elicit fantasies from people undergoing psychoanalysis 1936— Egas Moniz, Portuguese physician, publishes work on the first frontal lobotomies performed on humans 1938— B F Skinner publishes The Behavior of Organisms, which describes operant conditioning of animals — In Primary Mental Abilities, Louis L Thurstone proposes seven such abilities — Ugo Cerletti and Lucino Bini use electroshock treatment with a human patient 1939— David Wechsler publishes the Wechsler-Bellevue intelligence test, forerunner of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) — Mamie Phipps Clark (pictured) receives a master’s degree from Howard University In collaboration with Kenneth B Clark, she later extends her thesis, “The Development of Consciousness of Self in Negro Preschool Children,” providing joint research cited in the U.S Supreme Court’s 1954 decision to end racial segregation in public schools — Edward Alexander Bott helps found the Canadian Psychological Association He becomes its first president in 1940 — World War II provides many opportunities for psychologists to enhance the popularity and influence of psychology, especially in applied areas 1943— Psychologist Starke Hathaway and physician J Charnley McKinley publish the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) 1945— Karen Horney, who criticized Freud’s theory of female sexual development, publishes Our Inner Conflicts 1946— Benjamin Spock’s first edition of The Commonsense Book of Baby and Child Care appears; the book will influence childrearing in North America for several decades 1948— Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues publish Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, and they publish Sexual Behavior in the Human Female in 1953 — B F Skinner’s novel, Walden Two, describes a Utopian community based on positive reinforcement, which becomes a clarion call for applying psychological principles in everyday living, especially communal living — Ernest R Hilgard publishes Theories of Learning, which was required reading for several generations of psychology students in North America 1949— Raymond B Cattell publishes the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) Continued on inside back cover EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY EIGHTH EDITION IN MODULES Credits for timeline photos, inside front and back covers (by date): 1637, Corbis-Bettmann; 1808, Hulton Archive/Getty Images; 1859, Granger Collection; 1878, 1879, 1890, Brown Brothers; 1893, 1894, Wellesley College Archives; 1898, Yale University Library; 1905, Sovfoto; 1913, 1920, 1933, 1939, Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron; 1924, Larsen/Watson Papers, Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron; 1924, Larsen/Watson Papers, Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron; 1938, Bettmann/Corbis; 1945, Corbis; 1951, Courtesy of Carl Rogers Memorial Library; 1954, Ted Polumbaum/Life magazine, © 1968 TimeWarner, Inc.; 1959, Chris Felver/Archive Images; 1963, Courtesy of CUNY Graduate School and University Center; 1966 (Johnson), Bettmann/Corbis; 1966, Courtesy of John Garcia; 1969, Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University; 1974, Russell Fernald, Courtesy of the Stanford University News Service; 1979, Courtesy of Elizabeth Loftus, University of California, Irvine; 1981, Courtesy of the Archives, California Institute of Technology; 1987, Courtesy of Laurel Furumoto; 1993, Chet Snedden/American Airlines Corporate Communications Grateful acknowledgment is given for permission to reprint the following photos: p 1: James Lauritz/Corbis; p 35: Gabe Palmer/Corbis; p 65: moodboard/Corbis; p 107: Bob Jacobson/Corbis; p 141: Ariel Skelley/Corbis; p 187: Royalty-Free/Corbis/Jupiter Images; p 235: Laura Doss/Jupiter Images; p 269: Sam Diephuis/Corbis; p 303: Manchan/Jupiter Images; p 353: AP/Wide World Photos; p 391: Nick Laham/Getty Images; p 437: Paul Barton/Corbis; p 471: Photo Network/Alamy; p 511: Andrea Morini/Jupiter Images; p 543: AP/Wide World Photos Publisher: Catherine Woods Senior Acquisitions Editor: Kevin Feyen Executive Marketing Manager: Katherine Nurre Development Editors: Nancy Fleming, Christine Brune Media and Supplements Editor: Sharon Prevost Associate Managing Editor: Tracey Kuehn Project Editor: Dana Kasowitz Production Manager: Sarah Segal Photo Editor: Bianca Moscatelli Photo Researchers: Julie Tesser Art Director: Babs Reingold Cover Designer: Lyndall Culbertson Interior Designer: Lissi Sigillo Layout Designer: Lee Ann McKevitt Illustration Coordinator: Bill Page Illustrations: TSI Graphics, Keith Kasnot Cover Painting: Laura N James Composition: TSI Graphics Printing and Binding: Worldcolor Versailles Library of Congress Control Number: 2010927413 ISBN-13: 978-1-4292-1636-4 ISBN-10: 1-4292-1636-0 ISBN-13: 978-1-4292-6417-4 ISBN-10: 1-4292-6417-9 (paperback) (paperback) (hardcover) (hardcover) © 2011, 2008, 2004, 2001 by Worth Publishers All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First printing 2010 All royalties from the sale of this book are assigned to the David and Carol Myers Foundation, which exists to receive and distribute funds to other charitable organizations Worth Publishers 41 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10010 www.worthpublishers.com Laura James, Posing in Old San Juan, acrylic on canvas, 2008 Collection of Warren Stein Laura James is a self-taught painter living and working in Brooklyn, New York Posing in Old San Juan is typical of her style—incorporating bright colors, intricate patterns, and sometimes surreal objects to display her unique vision Ms James is a member of the Jamaica Artist Alliance, the Bridgeman Art Library in London, and the National Conference of Black Artists Her paintings are widely exhibited and have reached as far as Japan, Africa, Canada, and the Caribbean This page intentionally left blank For Kate Nurre, with gratitude for her energetic, effective, and enduring support ABOUT THE AUTHOR DAVID MYERS received his psychology Ph.D from the University of Iowa He has spent his career at Hope College, Michigan, where he has taught dozens of introductory psychology sections Hope College students have invited him to be their commencement speaker and voted him “outstanding professor.” Myers’ scientific articles have, with support from National Science Foundation grants, appeared in three dozen scientific periodicals, including Science, American Scientist, Psychological Science, and the American Psychologist In addition to his scholarly writing and his textbooks for introductory and social psychology, he also digests psychological science for the general public His writings have appeared in four dozen magazines, from Today’s Education to Scientific American He also has authored five general audience books, including The Pursuit of Happiness and Intuition: Its Powers and Perils David Myers has chaired his city’s Human Relations Commission, helped found a thriving assistance center for families in poverty, and spoken to hundreds of college and community groups Drawing on his experience, he also has written articles and a book (A Quiet World) about hearing loss, and he is advocating a transformation in American assistive listening technology (see www.hearingloop.org) He bikes to work year-round and plays daily pick-up basketball David and Carol Myers have raised two sons and a daughter For more information visit www.davidmyers.org This page intentionally left blank BRIEF CONTENTS Preface xv Developing Through the Life Span 141 MODULE 10 Developmental Issues, Prenatal Development, and the Newborn 143 Introduction to the History and Science of Psychology MODULE 11 Infancy and Childhood 149 MODULE The History and Scope of Psychology MODULE 12 Adolescence 166 MODULE Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions 14 MODULE 13 Adulthood 175 Sensation and Perception 187 MODULE 14 Basic Concepts and Vision 189 The Biology of Mind 35 MODULE Neural and Hormonal Systems 37 MODULE The Brain 47 Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind MODULE MODULE 15 The Other Senses 203 MODULE 16 Perceptual Organization and Interpretation 217 65 Learning 235 MODULE 17 Classical Conditioning 239 Dual Processing, Sleep, and Dreams 67 MODULE 18 Operant Conditioning 249 MODULE Hypnosis 87 MODULE 19 Learning by Observation 263 MODULE Drugs 92 Memory Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity 107 MODULE Behavior Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology 109 MODULE Environmental Influences on Behavior 123 viii 269 MODULE 20 Information Processing 271 MODULE 21 Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory 292 NAME INDEX | NI-13 Williams, W M., 342 Williamson, D A., 362 Willingham, B., 405 Willis, J., 403 Willis, S L., 180 Willmuth, M E., 376 Wilson, A., 533 Wilson, A E., 320, 468 Wilson, C M., 429 Wilson, G D., 382, 383, 385 Wilson, G T., 95 Wilson, J Q., 169 Wilson, M A., 83 Wilson, R C., 560 Wilson, R S., 114, 150, 180 Wilson, T D., 69, 244, 349 Wilson, W A., 103 Wiltshire, S., 330 Windholz, G., 240, 242 Winfrey, O., 136, 286 Winkielman, P., 399 Winner, E., 338 Winquist, J., 487 Wiseman, R., 231, 232, 297, 455 Wisman, A., 163 Witelson, S F., 56, 384 Wittgenstein, L., 138 Witvliet, C V O., 396, 410 Wixted, J T., 293 Wojtowicz, J M., 536 Wolak, J., 574 Wolfson, A R., 83 Woll, S., 577 Wolpe, J., 517 Wolpert, E A., 81 Wonderlich, S A., 362 Wong, B D., C-7 Wong, D F., 494 Wong, M M., 132 Wood, J M., 295, 444, 445 Wood, J V., 487 Wood, M., 344 Wood, W., 120, 132, 133, 136, 236, 404, 465, 562, B-4 Woodruff, G., 154 Woodruff-Pak, D S., 285 Woods, N F., 167 Woods, T., 348 Woodward, B., 14 Woodward, L G., 483 Woody, E Z., 90 Woodyard, D., 250 Woolcock, N., 554 Woolf, V., 482 Worobey, J., 114 Worthington, E L., Jr., 168, 530 Wortman, C B., 185 Wren, C S., 104 Wright, I C., 495 Wright, J., 176 Wright, M., 384 Wright, P., 495 Wright, P H., 133 Wrosch, C., 421 Wrzesniewski, A., B-1 Wuethrich, B., 95 Wulsin, L R., 422 Wundt, W., 2, 3, 11 Wyatt, J K., 81, 295 Wyatt, R J., 496 Wynne, C D L., 325 X Xu, Y., 5, 283 Xun, W Q E., 320 Y Yach, D., 364 Yamagata, S., 457 Yang, N., 574 Yang, S., 464 Yano, S., 338 Yanof, D S., 172 Yarnell, P R., 282 Yates, A., 362, 479 Yates, W R., 375 Ybarra, O., 467 Yellen, A., 73 Young, T., 199, 200, 201, 202 Youngentob, S L., 146 Youngman, H., 81 Yücel, M., 101 Yufe, J., 112 Yuki, M., 406 Z Zabin, L S., 167 Zaccaro, S J., B-11 Zadra, A., 80 Zadro, L., 388 Zagorsky, J L., 331 Zajonc, R B., 335, 398, 399, 400, 401, 558, 576, 577, A-8 Zammit, S., 493 Zanna, M P., 113, 566 Zauberman, G., 310 Zeidner, M., 334, 346 Zeineh, M M., 284 Zeno, 515 Zhang, H., Zhang, J V., 359 Zigler, E F., 162, 343 Zilbergeld, B., 523, 525 Zillmann, D., 376, 398, 574 Zillmer, E., 446 Zimbardo, P G., 549, 559, 568 Zimmerman, R D., B-5 Zinbarg, R., 502, 503, 504 Zogby, J., 205 Zornberg, G L., 495 Zou, Z., 214 Zubieta, J-K., 209, 211 Zucker, G S., 546 Zucker, K J., 379 Zuckerman, M., 356 Zvolensky, M J., 500 This page intentionally left blank A Absolute thresholds, 190 Abu Ghraib Prison, 549 Abuse hormones and, 162 repressed or constructed memories of, 299–301 Academic self-concept, 466 Acceptance in client-centered therapy, 515 in Rogers’ person-centered perspective, 448 Accidents selective attention and, 69–70 sleep deprivation and, 77–78 Accommodation in Piaget’s theory, 152 visual, 194 Acetylcholine (ACh), 39–40 Achievement motivation, B–6–B–7 Acquisition, in classical conditioning, 241–242 Action(s) attitudes and, 547–550 inappropriate, in schizophrenia, 493 Action potentials, 37–38, 39 Activation-synthesis theory of sleep, 83, 84 Active listening, in client-centered therapy, 515–516 Activity level, obesity and, 368 Adaptation in evolutionary psychology, 116–117 perceptual, 226 sensory, 192–193 Adaptation-level phenomenon, 412, 413–414 Addiction, 92–93 ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder), 474 Adolescence, 166–174 cognitive development in, 168–170 physical development in, 166–168 sexuality in, 377–379 social development in, 170–175 Adoption studies, of intelligence, 340–341 Adrenal glands, 44 Adrenaline, 44 Adulthood, 175–186 ages and stages of, 180–181 cognitive development in, 178–180 commitments in, 181–182 death and dying and, 184–185 emerging, 173 physical development in, 175–178 social development in, 180–185 Aerobic exercise, stress management and, 430–431 Afterimages, 200 Aggression, 569–575 biology of, 569–571 biopsychosocial approach to, 575 gender and, 131–132 observational learning and, 572–575 psychological factors in, 571 social-cultural factors in, 572 Aging, biopsychosocial influences on, 184 Agonist molecules, 40 Agoraphobia, 500 Agreeableness, 456–457 AIDS, stress and, 424–425 Alarm reaction, 419–420 Alcohol use, 94–95, 102 aggression and, 571 during pregnancy, 146 teen pregnancy and, 377 Algorithms, 306 All-or-none response, 38 Alpha waves, 73 Alternative therapies, 526–527 Altruism, 581–583 bystander intervention and, 581–583 Alzheimer’s disease, 281 Ames illusion, 211 Amnesia, 283–285 See also Forgetting infantile, 150, 285 source, 298–299 Amphetamines, 96 Amplitude, of sound waves, 203 Amygdala, 50–51 Anal stage, 441 Analytical intelligence, 332 Anger, 408–410 heart and, 421–422 Angular gyrus, 57 Animals as research subjects, 29–30 same-sex attraction in, 382 thinking and language in, 323–326 Anorexia nervosa, 362, 363 Antagonist molecules, 40 Anterior cingulate cortex, 504 Antianxiety drugs, 535 Antidepressant drugs, 536–537 Antipsychotic drugs, 535 Antisocial observational learning, 266–267 Antisocial personality disorders, 506, 507–509 Anvil (bone), 204, 205 Anxiety free-floating, 499 stranger, 158 Anxiety disorders, 499–504 antianxiety drugs and, 535 biological perspective on, 503–504 generalized anxiety disorder, 499 learning perspective on, 503 neurotransmitters and, 504, 535 obsessive-compulsive disorder, 499, 500–501 panic disorder, 499–500 phobias, 499, 500 post-traumatic stress disorder, 499, 500, 501–502 Aphasia, 56 Applied research, Arousal, optimum, 356 Assimilation, in Piaget’s theory, 152 Association, language development and, 318 Association areas, 55–56 Associative learning, 236–237, 239 See also Classical conditioning; Operant conditioning Astrologers, 455–456 Attachment, 158–162 adult relationships and, 161 deprivation of, 162 differences in, 160–162 origins of, 158–160 Attention, selective, 69–71, 90, 492 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 474 Attitudes actions and, 547–550 cognitive dissonance and, 550 role-playing and, 548–549 scientific, 16–17 Attraction, 575–581 physical attractiveness and, 577–579 proximity and, 575–577 reward theory of, 579 romantic love and, 579–581 similarity and, 579 Attractiveness, physical, attraction and, 577–579 Attributional style, 462–464 Attribution theory, 545–546 Atypical antipsychotics, 535 Audition See also Hearing definition of, 203 Auditory cortex, 204, 205 Auditory nerve, 204, 205 SUBJECT INDEX Authoritarian parents, 163 Authoritative parents, 163 Autism, 156–157 Automatic prejudice, 565 Automatic processing, 273 Autonomic nervous system, 41, 42 emotions and, 395 shyness and, 453–454 Autonomy vs shame and doubt stage, 170 Availability heuristic, 309 Aversive conditioning, 518, 519 Aversive events, aggression and, 571 Axons, 37 B Babbling stage, 317 Bachelor’s degree, for careers in psychology, C–1––C–3 Back-to-sleep position, 150 Barbiturates, 95 Basal metabolic rate, 360 Basic research, Basic trust, 161 Basilar membrane, 204, 205 Behavior, reciprocal determinism and, 459–460 Behavioral neuroscientists, 37 Behavioral perspective, Behavior control, 249 Behavior feedback phenomenon, 407 Behavior geneticists, 37 Behavior genetics, 109–116 of aggression, 569 of anxiety disorders, 503–504 of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, 474 biopsychological approach to psychological disorders and, 475 of depth perception, 219 of Down syndrome, 338–339 of drives, instincts, and incentives, 355–356 of drug use and dependence, 103 of eating disorders, 362 gene-environment interactions and, 114–116 genes and, 109–110 of happiness, 415 of hunger and taste preference, 361 of intelligence, 338–339, 340–341 intergenerational transmission of abuse and, 266 of language, 318 of learning, 243–245, 256–257 of mood disorders, 484–485 of motor development, 150 of obesity and weight control, 367 of perception, 225 of personality disorders, 508–509 of personality traits, 455–456 of romantic love, 181 of schizophrenia, 496–497 of sexuality, 373 of sexual orientation, 380, 383 of smell sense, 214 temperament and personality and, 114 of traits, 453–454, 457 twin and adoption studies of, 110–114 Behavior genetics perspective, Behaviorism, 239 Behaviorists, Behavior modeling, 263, 265 See also Observational learning SI-1 SI-2 | SUBJECT INDEX Behavior modification, 519 Behavior rating scales, for performance appraisal, B–6 Behavior therapies, 516–519, 523 classical conditioning techniques in, 517–518 operant conditioning techniques in, 519 Belief(s) catastrophizing, cognitive therapy for, 520–521 prejudice and, 564 Belief perseverance, 311–312 Belonging, need for, 386–388 pain of ostracism and, 388 survival and, 386 sustaining relationships and, 387 Bias confirmation, 306–307 hindsight, 14–15, 298 ingroup, 567 in intelligence testing, 348–350 self-serving, 467–469 Big Five factors, 456–457 Bilingual advantage, 321 Binge-eating disorder, 362, 363 Binocular cues, 219–220 Biochemical influences, on aggression, 570–571 Biological influences, 36–63 See also Biopsychosocial approach; specific influences on aggression, 569–571 brain and See Brain on drug use, 103 endocrine system and, 43–44 nervous system and, 40–43 neural communication and, 37–40 on pain, 209–210 on sexual behavior, 373–375 on sexual orientation, 382–385 on taste preferences, 361 Biological perspective on anxiety disorders, 503–504 on mood disorders, 484–486 Biological predispositions classical conditioning and, 243–245 operant conditioning and, 256–257 Biological psychologists, Biological psychology, 37 Biological rhythms, sleep and, 72–75 Biomedical therapies, 512, 534–542 brain stimulation, 538–540 drug therapies, 534–537 psychosurgery, 540 therapeutic life-style change, 541 Biopsychologists, 37 Biopsychosocial approach, See also Biological influences; Psychological influences; Socialcultural influences to aggression, 575 to aging, 184 to depression, 486, 487 to development, 137 to emotion, 406 to learning, 245 to pain, 211 to perception, 229 to personality, 460 to psychological disorders, 475 to sexual motivation, 375–376 to stress, 427 Bipolar cells, 195 Bipolar disorder, 481–482 Birth order, sexual orientation and, 381 Bitter taste, 212 Blindness change, 70, 71 inattentional, 70 Blindsight, 198 Blind spot, 195 B lymphocytes, 423 Body chemistry, hunger and, 359–360 Body contact, attachment and, 158–159 Bottom-up processing, 80, 189 Brain, 47–63 aggression and, 570 aging and, 177–178 alcohol and, 94–95 anxiety and, 504 cerebral cortex of See Cerebral cortex cognitive decline and, 179–180 consciousness and, 67–71 deep brain stimulation and, 539 in depression, 485–486 development of See Brain development dual processing and, 68–69 emotion and, 167–168, 282, 396, 398–400, 404 extraversion and, 453 gender differences in, 134 hemispheres of See Cerebral hemispheres hunger and, 359–360 information storage in, 280–285 lesioning, 48 lower-level structures of, 47, 49–52 memory storage in, 272, 280–285 mirror neurons in, 157, 263–264 neural networks of, 42 plasticity of, 58–59 schizophrenia and, 494–496 selective attention and, 69–71 sexual orientation and, 382 split-brain studies of, 59–61 study of, 48 two-track mind and See Two-track brain Brain development in adolescence, 167–168 experience and, 123–124 in infancy and childhood, 149 sexual differentiation in utero and, 134 Brainstem, 47, 49 Brain stimulation, 538–540 Breathing reflex, 147 Brightness constancy, 224 Broca’s area, 56 Bulimia nervosa, 362, 363 Bystander effect, 583 C Caffeine, 96, 102 Callings, B–1 CAM (complementary and alternative medicine), 426 Cancer, stress and, 425 Cannabinoid receptors, 101 Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, 393, 394 Careers, B–1 Careers in psychology, C–1––C–10 bachelor’s degree and, C–1––C–3 postgraduate degrees and, C–3––C–4, C–9 subfields of psychology and, C–5––C–8 Caring, psychotherapy and, 529–530 Case studies, 18, 19–20 Catastrophes, 420 Catastrophizing beliefs, cognitive therapy for, 520–521 Catatonia, 493 Catatonic schizophrenia, 494 Categorization, prejudice and, 568 Catharsis, 409 Catharsis hypothesis, 573 Causation, correlation and, 22–23 Cell body, of neurons, 37 Central nervous system (CNS), 40, 42–43 See also Brain Central route persuasion, 547 Central tendency measures, A–1––A–2 Cerebellum, 49–50 memory and, 285 Cerebral cortex, 52–59 association areas of, 55–56 language and, 56–58 motor functions of, 53–54 sensory functions of, 54–55 structure of, 53 Cerebral hemispheres, 50 right-left differences in intact brain and, 61–62 split-brain studies of, 59–61 Chameleon effect, 552 Change blindness, 70, 71 Charisma, B–11 Checklists, for performance appraisal, B–6 Child-rearing See also Parenting culture and, 129–130 gender and, 135–136 Children brain development of, 147, 149 cognitive development of, 153–158 eyewitness recall of, 299 families and, 182 memory in, 151 motor development of, 149–150 social development of, 162–163 Chromosomes, 109 Chunking, 276, 277–278 Circadian rhythm, 72 Clairvoyance, 230 Classical conditioning, 237–238, 239–247 acquisition in, 241–242 applications of, 246 behavior therapies using, 517–518 biological predispositions and, 243–245 cognitive processes in, 243 discrimination in, 243 extinction in, 242 of fear, 503 generalization in, 242–243 higher-order, 241–242 operant conditioning contrasted with, 260 Pavlov’s experiments on, 239–243, 245–246 spontaneous recovery in, 242 Client-centered therapy, 515, 523 Clinical neuropsychologists, C–8 Clinical psychologists, 10, 11, 528, C–5 Clinical social workers, 528 Closure, form perception and, 218 CNS (central nervous system), 40, 42–43 See also Brain Cocaine, 96, 98–99, 102 Cochlea, 204, 205 Cocktail party effect, 69 Cognition See also Language; Memory; Socialcognitive perspective; Thinking classical conditioning and, 243 definition of, 151, 305 emotions and, 397–400 operant conditioning and, 256 prejudice and, 568–569 reciprocal determinism and, 459–460 Cognitive-behavioral therapy, 521–522, 523 Cognitive development in adolescence, 168–170 in adulthood, 178–180 dreams and, 83, 84 during infancy and childhood, 151–158 Piaget’s stages of, 152–155 Cognitive dissonance theory, 550 Cognitive maps, 256 Cognitive neuroscience, 5, 67–68 Cognitive perspective, Cognitive psychologists, 9, C–6 SUBJECT INDEX | SI-3 Cognitive revolution, 519 Cognitive therapies of Beck, for depression, 520–521 cognitive-behavioral, 521–522, 523 Cold, receptors for, 208 Collective unconscious, 443 Collectivism, 128–129 Color constancy, 224–225 Color vision, 199–200 Command-and-control management, B–12 Commitments, in adulthood, 181–182 Common sense, 14 Communication conflict resolution and, 587 facilitated, 525 neural, 37–40 See also Neurotransmitters Community psychologists, C–6 Companionate love, 580–581 Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), 426 Concept(s), 305 animal thinking and, 323 Conception, 145 Conciliation, conflict resolution and, 587–588 Concrete operational stage, 153, 155 Conditioned reinforcers, 252, 253 Conditioned response (CR), 240, 241 Conditioned stimulus (CS), 240, 241 Conditioning See also Classical conditioning; Operant conditioning higher-order, 241–242 Cones, 195, 196 Confirmation bias, 306–307 Conflict, 584–588 enemy perceptions and, 585 peacemaking and, 586–588 social traps and, 584–585 Conformity, 552–554, 557 Connectedness, form perception and, 218 Connectionism, 272 Conscience, 440–441 Conscientiousness, 456–457 Consciousness, 66–105 brain and, 67–71 definition of, 66 divided, hypnosis as, 89–90 dreams and, 81–84 drugs and, 92–105 hypnosis and, 87–91 sleep and See Sleep Conscious processing, serial, 69 Conservation, in preoperational stage, 154, 155 Constructed memories of abuse, 299–301 Contact, conflict resolution and, 586 Content validity, 338–339 Context perceptual set and, 228–229 retrieval and, 287–288 social See Social-cognitive perspective Continuity, form perception and, 218 Continuity/stages issue, 142, 143–144 Continuous reinforcement, 253 Control external locus of, 461 internal locus of, 461 perceived, 428 personal, 461–464, 561 social, 561 Control group, 25 Conventional morality, 169 Conversion disorder, 505 Cooperation, 586–587 Coping, with stress, 427–430 Cornea, 194 Coronary heart disease, stress and, 421–422 Corpus callosum, 59, 60 Correlation, 22–24, A–4––A–6 causation and, 22–23 illusory, 22, 23, A–5––A–6 negative, 22 perceived order in random events and, 23–24 positive, 22 reliability and, 337 Correlation coefficients, 22, A–4––A–5 Counseling psychologists, 9–10, C–6 Counselors, 528 Counterconditioning, 516, 517 CR (conditioned response), 240, 241 Crack cocaine, 96 Creative intelligence, 332 Creative thinking, sleep and, 78–79 Creativity, intelligence and, 333–334 Crisis debriefing, 525 Critical periods, 159 language development and, 319 for sensory and perceptual development, 226 Critical thinking, 11, 17 cause and effect and, 24–25 correlation and causation and, 22–23 describing data and, A–1––A–6 illusory correlation and, 23 independent and dependent variables and, 26–27 inferences and, A–6––A–8 intuition and common sense and, 14–15 random assignment and, 25 scientific attitude and, 16–17 scientific method and, 17–27 statistical reasoning and, A–1––A–8 Cross-sectional studies, A–7 Crystallized intelligence, 178, 179 CS (conditioned stimulus), 240, 241 Culture, 126–130 See also Social-cultural influences adolescent development and, 166 adolescent sexuality and, 377–378 adult independence and, 173 aggression and, 509 AIDS and, 313, 424–425 anger and, 409 animal research ethics and, 29 antisocial personality disorder and, 508–509 attachment and, 160–161 attractiveness and, 119 behavior and, 28 body ideal and, 362–363 child-rearing and, 129–130 cognitive development and, 156–157 complementary and alternative medicine and, 426 conformity and, 552, 554 context effects and, 228 corporal punishment and, 255 cultural norms and, 126–127, 134–135, 137, 473 curare and, 40 deaf, 58, 62, 317–319, 325 definition of, 126 depression and, 483, 488 developmental similarities across groups and, 130 dissociative personality disorder and, 506 drug use and effects and, 93, 104 eating disorders and, 362, 475 emotional experience and, 409 emotional expression and, 404, 405–406 emotion-detecting ability and, 402 enemy perceptions and, 585 fear and, 311 Flynn effect and, 339 fundamental attribution error and, 545 gender roles and, 134–135 grief and, 185 happiness and, 414 hindsight bias and, 14 history of psychology and, 2–5 human diversity and, 28, 126–127 individualism vs collectivism and, 128–129 intelligence and, 329, 345–349 kinship and, 28, 126–127 language and, 126, 316, 317, 319, 320–321 leaving the nest and, 173 life satisfaction and, 412–413 life-span and, 183 love and marriage and, 580 marriage and, 181–182 mating preferences and, 119 meditation and, 432–433 memory encoding and, 277–278 mental illness rate and, 472, 478–480 moral development and, 169 motivation and, 357 need to belong and, 386–387 new, adjusting to, 420 nonverbal communication and, 405–406 obesity and, 362–369 observational learning and, 266 optimism and health and, 429 organ donation and, 313 pace of life and, 21, 127 pain perception and, 211 parapsychology and, 230 parent-child relationships and, 172 peacemaking and, 586–588 peer relationships and, 125, 172 perceived control and health and, 428 personal space and, 127 physical attractiveness and, 577–578 political effects of attribution and, 546 prejudice and, 26, 31, 564–566 psychotherapy and, 526, 530 puberty and, 173 racism and, 421 schizophrenia and, 475, 495 self and, 128–129 self-esteem and, 414 self-serving bias and, 467 sex drive and, 118 sexual orientation and, 379–380 similarities and, 117–118 social clock and, 181 social development and, 161 social identity and, 171 social loafing and, 559 social power and, 132 somatoform disorder and, 505 speed-dating and, 576 spirituality and, 433–434 suicide and, 484–485 susto and, 475 taijin-kyofusho and, 475 on taste preferences, 361 taste preferences and, 361 testing bias and, 348–349 variation across cultures and, 126–127 variation over time and, 127 views on homosexuality and, 20 well-being and, 183 Culture shock, 127, 420 Curare, neurotransmitters and, 40 Curiosity, scientific, 16 Curious skepticism, 16 D Daily hassles, 421 Deaf culture, 58, 62, 317–319, 325 Death and dying, 184–185 suicide and, 484–485 SI-4 | SUBJECT INDEX Death and dying (continued) terminal decline and, 185 Declarative memory, 284 Decline effect, A–6 Deep brain stimulation, 539 Defense mechanisms, 442 Defensive self-esteem, 468–469 Deindividuation, 559 Déjà vu, 288 Delayed reinforcers, 252–253 Delay of gratification, 170 Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 101 Delta waves, 74, 75 Delusions, 492, 493 Dendrites, 37 Denial, 442 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 109 Dependence, on psychoactive drugs, 92 Dependent variable, 26–27 Depressants, 94–95 Depression See also Mood disorders antidepressant drugs for, 536–537 Beck’s therapy for, 520–521 biopsychosocial approach to, 486, 487 brain in, 485–486 causes of, 482–489 deep brain stimulation for, 539 electroconvulsive therapy for, 538–539 heart and, 422–423 light exposure therapy for, 527 magnetic stimulation for, 539–540 major depressive disorder, 480–481 neurotransmitters and, 485–486, 536 suicide and, 484–485 therapeutic life-style change for, 541 vicious cycle of, 487–489 Depth cues, 219 Depth perception, 219–221 Descriptive research, 19–24 case study method for, 18, 19–20 naturalistic observation for, 21 survey method for, 20 Descriptive statistics, A–1––A–6 central tendency measures, A–1––A–2 correlation, A–4––A–6 measures of variation, A–3––A–4 Desensitization, violence-viewing effect and, 267 Development, biopsychosocial approach to, 137 Developmental psychologists, 9, C–6––C–7 Developmental psychology, 142–186 major issues in, 143–145 See also Continuity/stages issue; Nature-nurture issue; Stability/change issue Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), 476–477 DID (dissociative identity disorder), 506 Difference thresholds, 190, 191 Difficult babies, 114 Discrimination prejudice and, 564 between stimuli, in classical conditioning, 243 Discriminative stimulus, 250 Disease See Illness Disinhibition, alcohol and, 94 Disorganized schizophrenia, 494 Displacement, 442 Dispositional attributions, 545 Dissociation, hypnosis and, 89–90 Dissociative disorders, 505–507 Dissociative identity disorder (DID), 506 Distributed study time, 274, 301 Distributions normal curve, 337, A–3––A–4 skewed, A–2 Division of labor, 126 Dizygotic twins, 111 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 109 Doctoral degrees, for careers in psychology, C–4 Dopamine, 40 in schizophrenia, 494 Double-blind procedure, 25, 534 Down syndrome, 338, 339 Dreams, 81–84 content of, 81–82, 440 functions of, 82–84 Drive-reduction theory, 356 Drugs neurotransmitters and, 92, 94–100 psychoactive See Psychoactive drugs Drug therapies, 534–537 Dual processing, 68–69 See also Two-track brain E Ear, 204–205 Eardrum, 204 Early adulthood, 175 Early experience, intelligence and, 342 Easy babies, 114 Eating disorders, 362–363 Echoic memory, 279 Eclectic approach, 513 Ecstasy (drug), 96, 99–100, 102 ECT (electroconvulsive therapy), 538–539 Education for careers in psychology, C–1––C–4, C–9 intelligence and, 342–343 operant conditioning and, 258 Educational psychologists, C–7 EEG (electroencephalogram), 48 Effect size, A–8 Effortful processing, 273–276 Ego, 440 Egocentrism, in preoperational stage, 154, 155 Ejaculation, premature, 374 Electra complex, 441 Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), 538–539 Electroconvulsive therapy, neurotransmitters and, 538–539 Electroencephalogram (EEG), 48 Electromagnetic energy, 193 Embryo, 146, 147 EMDR (eye movement desensitization and reprocessing), 526–527 Emerging adulthood, 173 Emotion(s), 392–417 autonomic nervous system and, 395 biopsychosocial approach to, 406 brain and, 167–168, 282, 396, 398–400, 404 Cannon-Bard theory of, 393, 394 culture and, 405–406 definition of, 393 detecting, 344, 402–403 embodied, 395–400 experienced, 408–416 expressed, 402–407 facial expressions and, 407 gender and, 344, 403–405 hormones and, 393–394 inappropriate, in schizophrenia, 493 James-Lange theory of, 393–394 memory and, 288–289 nonverbal behavior and, 403–405 prejudice and, 568 stress and See Stress two-factor theory of, 394 Emotional intelligence, 334–335 Emotion focused coping, 427 Empathy, 170, 404 in client-centered therapy, 515 psychotherapy and, 529–530 in Rogers’ person-centered perspective, 448 Empirical approach, 16 Empirically derived tests, 456 Employee engagement, B–8––B–9 Employee satisfaction, B–7––B–8 Encoding, 272, 273–278 failure of, 292–293 levels of processing and, 273–276 of meaning, 276 organizing information for, 277–278 visual, 277 Endocrine system, 43–44 Endorphins, 40, 95, 209 Enemy perceptions, 585 Energy therapies, 525 Environment definition of, 109 gene interaction with, 114–116 Environmental influences creativity and, 334 on intelligence, 341–343 on obesity, 367–369 reciprocal determinism and, 459–460 Environmental relatives, genetic relatives versus, 113–114 Epinephrine, 44 Equity, 581 Erectile disorder, 75, 374 Erogenous zones, 441 Erotic plasticity, 380 ESP (extrasensory perception), 230–232 Estrogens, sexual behavior and, 374 Ethics of animal research, 29–30 of human research, 30 Ethnicity intelligence test scores and, 346–348 prejudice and See Prejudice Evaluating psychotherapies, 523–530 alternative therapies and, 526–527 commonalities among psychotherapies and, 527–530 culture and values and, 530 effectiveness and, 523–526 Evidence-based practice, 525–526 Evolutionary perspective on anxiety disorders, 577 on biological predispositions in learning, 243–245, 256–257 on brainstem, 47 on consciousness, 67 definition of, on depression, 527, 541 on emotional expression, 406, 407 on emotion-detecting ability, 344 on exercise, 430 on fear, 311 on feature detection, 197 on hearing, 203 on hunger and taste preference, 361 on instincts, 355 on intelligence, 346–348 on language, 316, 318 on love, 181 on math and spatial ability, 345 on mating preferences, 119–120 on need to belong, 386 on obesity, 363 on perceptual adaptation, 226 on pubertal onset, 173 on sensation, 189 on sensory adaptation, 192 on sexual motivation, 373 on sexual orientation, 383 on sleep, 72, 87 on smell sense, 215 on taste sense, 212 SUBJECT INDEX | SI-5 Evolutionary psychology, 116–120 current status of, 118 genetic legacy and, 117–118 human sexuality and, 118–120 instincts and, 355 natural selection and adaptation and, 116–117 Excitatory signals, 38 Excitement phase of sexual response cycle, 373 Exercise aerobic, stress management and, 430–431 health and, 431 mood and, 430–431 neurotransmitters and, 431 Exhaustion phase of general adaptation syndrome, 420 Expectancy effects, of alcohol, 95 Expectations, intelligence testing and, 349–350 Experience brain development and, 123–124 early, intelligence and, 342 peers and, 123–125 prior, happiness and, 413–414 Experiment(s), 24–27 animals as subjects of, 29–30 application to daily life, 27–28 humans as subjects of, 30 independent and dependent variables and, 26–27 random assignment and, 25 Experimental group, 25 Experimental psychologists, C–7 Expertise, creativity and, 333 Explanatory style, 487 Explicit memory, 284 Exposure therapies, 516, 517–518 External locus of control, 461 External stimuli, sexual behavior and, 376 Extinction, in classical conditioning, 242 Extrasensory perception (ESP), 230–232 Extraversion, 456–457 brain and, 453 Eye, 194–196 Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), 526–527 Eyewitness recall, of children, 299 F Face-to-face therapy, 514 Facial expressions, 407 Facial feedback effect, 407 Facilitated communication, 525 Factor analysis, 330, 331, 453 False consensus effect, 446 Familiarity, attachment and, 159–160 Family therapy, 522 FAS (fetal alcohol syndrome), 146, 147 Fat cells, 366 Fathers See also Parent(s); Parenting presence of, sexual restraint in adolescence and, 378 Fear conditioning of, 246, 503 objects of, 310–311 Feature detectors, 196–197 Feel-good, do-good phenomenon, 410 Fermat’s last theorem, 333 Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 146, 147 Fetus, 146, 147 Fight or flight response, 419, 571 Figure-ground relationship, 217 Fissures, of cortex, 53 Fixation, 307, 441 Fixed-interval schedules, 253, 254 Fixed-ratio schedules, 253, 254 Flashbulb memories, 282–283 Flat affect, in schizophrenia, 493 Flow, B–1 Fluid intelligence, 178, 179 Flynn effect, 339 fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 48 Foot-in-the-door phenomenon, 547–548 Forensic psychologists, C–7 Forgetting, 292–296 See also Amnesia encoding failure and, 292–293 motivated, 295–296 retrieval failure and, 293–296 storage decay and, 293 Formal operational stage, 153, 155, 168 Form perception, 217–218 Fovea, 196 Framing, 313–314 Fraternal birth-order effect, 381 Fraternal twins, 111 Free association, 439, 513 Free-floating anxiety, 499 Free radicals, 78 Frequency, of sound waves, 203 Frontal lobes, 53 Frustration-aggression principle, 571 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 48 Fundamental attribution error, 545 G g (general intelligence), 330, 331 Ganglion cells, 195 GAS (general adaptation syndrome), 419–420 Gate-control theory, 209 Gays, 379 See also Sexual orientation Gender, 130–136 adolescent sexuality and, 377–379 aggression and, 131–132, 570–574 alcohol and, 94–95 antisocial personality disorder and, 507 anxiety and, 499 arousal in REM sleep and, 75 attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and, 474 attraction and, 576–579 autism and, 156 behavior and, 28 biological predispositions and, 245 biological sex and, 130, 133–134 bipolar disorder and, 481 body image and, 363 brain and, 134, 376, 384 child-rearing and, 135–136, 362 color vision and, 199 conformity and obedience and, 555 dating and, 575–576 depression and, 422–423, 480–483, 487 development and, 131–136 dream content and, 81 drug use and, 103, 104 eating disorders and, 362–363 emotion and, 403–405 emotion-detecting ability and, 344 empty nest and, 182 evolutionary perspective on, 118–120 father care and, 160–161, 378 Freud’s views on, 441, 443, 445 generic pronoun “he” and, 321 grief and, 184 group polarization and, 560 heart disease and, 421–422 HIV and, 424–425 hormones and, 133–134, 166–168, 374–375, 570 immune system and, 423 intelligence and, 343–349 life expectancy and, 131 marital happiness and, 415 marriage and, 181–182, 429 maturation and, 166–168 menarche and, 167 menopause and, 175–176 midlife crisis and, 180–181 nature-nurture issue and, 134–136 nonverbal communication and, 403–405 obesity and, 364, 365, 367, 368 observational learning and, 266, 267 physical changes in adulthood and, 175–176 pornography and, 376 post-traumatic stress disorder and, 501 prejudice and, 564–566 psychological disorder rates and, 481–482 religious involvement and life expectancy and, 433 romantic love and, 579–580 savant syndrome and, 330 schizophrenia and, 493 sexual abuse and, 118 sexual attraction and, 118–119 sexual behavior and, 374–375 sexual development and, 134, 166–168 sexual disorders and, 374 sexual fantasies and, 376–377 sexuality and, 118–119 sexual orientation and, 379–380 sexual stimuli and, 376 similarities and differences and, 131–133 sleep and, 76 social connectedness and, 132–133 social power and, 132 stereotyping and, 228–229 stress and, 419, 421–425 suicide and, 484 testosterone-replacement therapy and, 375 weight loss and, 369 women in psychology and, 3–4 Gender identity, 135–136, 441 Gender roles, 134–135 Gender schemas, 136 Gender typing, 135–136 Gene(s), 109 See also Genetic influences expressed, 109 interactions with environment, 114–116 self-regulating nature of, 115 General adaptation syndrome (GAS), 419–420 General intelligence (g), 330, 331 Generalization, in classical conditioning, 242–243 Generalized anxiety disorder, 499 General self-concept, 466 Generation Me, 468 Generativity vs stagnation stage, 170 Genetic influences on aggression, 569 on anxiety, 504 on intelligence, 340–341 on mood disorders, 484–485 on obesity, 367 in schizophrenia, 496–497 sexual orientation and, 383 Genetic relatives, environmental relatives versus, 113–114 Genital stage, 441 Genuineness in client-centered therapy, 515 in Rogers’ person-centered perspective, 448 Gestalt, 217 Ghrelin, 359 Giftedness, 338 Glucose, hunger and, 359 Goal setting, leadership and, B–10 Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in TensionReduction (GRIT), 587–588 Graduate study, for careers in psychology, C–3––C–4, C–9 SI-6 | SUBJECT INDEX Graphic rating scales, for performance appraisal, B–6 Gratification, delay of, 170 Gray matter, 134 Great person theory of leadership, B–11 GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction), 587–588 Group influence, 558–561 deindividuation and, 559 group polarization and, 560 groupthink and, 560–561 power of individuals and, 561–562 social facilitation and, 558, 559 social loafing and, 558–559 Grouping definition of, 219 form perception and, 217–218 Group polarization, 560 Group pressure, conformity and, 553–554 Group therapy, 522 Groupthink, 560–561 Growth, sleep and, 79 Guide to psychotherapists, for consumers, 528 Guilt, teen pregnancy and, 377 Guilty knowledge test, 397 H Habituation, 376 Hair cells, 204, 205 Hallucinations, 74, 75 in schizophrenia, 492, 493 Hallucinogens, 100–101 Hammer (bone), 204, 205 Happiness, 410–416 adaptation-level phenomenon and, 412, 413–414 increasing, 416 others’ attainments and, 414 predictors of, 414–415 Health See also Illness in adulthood, 177–178 exercise and, 431 mental See Psychological disorders spirituality and, 433–434 Health promotion, 427–434 coping with stress and, 427–430 stress management and, 430–434 Health psychologists, C–7 Hearing, 203–206 ear and, 204–205 loudness perception and, 206 sound location and, 206 sound waves and, 203–204 tinnitus and, 210 Heart, stress and, 421–422 Helping behavior, 583 Helplessness, learned, 461–462, 487 Heritability of intelligence, 343 of personality traits, 457 Heroin, 102 Heterosexual orientation, 379 See also Sexual orientation Heuristics, 306, 307–309 Hierarchies of needs, 356, 357 organizing information into, 278 Higher-order conditioning, 241–242 Hindsight bias, 14–15, 298 Hippocampus, 50 memory and, 284–285 stress and, 486 Hollow face illusion, 68 Homeostasis, 356 Homosexual orientation, 379 See also Sexual orientation Hope, psychotherapy and, 528–529 Horizontal-vertical illusion, 220 Hormones, 43–44 abuse and, 162 aggression and, 570 development and, 133–134, 166–168 emotion and, 393–394 gender and, 133–134 memory and, 282–283 prenatal, sexual orientation and, 383–385 sex, 176 sexual behavior and, 374–375 stress, 282–283, 395, 419, 423–424, 428 weight control and, 359–360 Hue, 193 Human factors psychology, B–2, B–12––B–14 Humanistic perspective, 447–450 evaluation of, 449–450 of Maslow, 448 of Rogers, 448–449 self and, 449 Humanistic psychology, Humanistic therapies, 515–516 Human research subjects, 30 Humility, 16 Hunger, 357–370 obesity and weight control and, 362–370 physiology of, 358–360 psychology of, 360–361 Hypnagogic sensations, 74 Hypnosis, 87–91 definition of, 87 as divided consciousness, 89–90 inducement to act against one’s will and, 88 for pain relief, 88–89 recall of forgotten events and, 87–88 as social phenomenon, 89 susceptibility to, 87 therapeutic use of, 88–89 Hypnotherapists, 88 Hypnotic induction, 87 Hypochondriasis, 505 Hypothalamus, 50, 51–52 hunger and, 359 Hypotheses, 18 I Iconic memory, 279 Id, 440 Identical twins, 110–111 Identification, 441 Identity gender, 135–136, 441 social, 170–171 Ignorance, teen pregnancy and, 377 I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon, 14–15 Illness psychophysiological, 423 stress and, 418–423 susceptibility to, stress and, 423–427 Illusory correlation, A–5––A–6 Image(s), thinking in, 321–323 Imagery, 277 Imagination, creativity and, 333 Imagination effect, 297–298 Imagined stimuli, sexual behavior and, 376–377 Imitation language development and, 318 violence-viewing effect and, 266–267 Immediate reinforcers, 252–253 Immune system, stress and, 423–424 Implementation intentions, B–10 Implicit learning, 446 Implicit memory, 284 Impotence, 75, 374 Imprinting, 159–160 Inattention, selective, 70–71 Inattentional blindness, 70 Incentives, 356 Independent variable, 26–27 Individualism, 128, 129, 169 humanistic perspective and, 450 Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists, 9, C–8 Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology, B–2––B–15 human factors psychology, B–2, B–12––B–14 organizational psychology, B–2, B–6––B–12 personnel psychology, B–2, B–3––B–6 Industry vs inferiority stage, 170 Infant(s) brain development of, 147, 149 cognitive development of, 151–153 memory in, 150–151 motor development of, 149–150 social development of, 158–163 stranger anxiety in, 158 Infantile amnesia, 150, 285 Inferential statistics, A–6––A–8 Inferiority complex, 443 Influence See Group influence; Social influence Informational social influence, 554 Information processing automatic, 273 bottom-up, 189 dreams as, 82–83, 83, 84 dual, 68–69 See also Two-track brain effortful, 273–276 top-down, 189 visual, 196–199 Information-processing models, of memory, 272–273 Ingroup, 567–568 Ingroup bias, 567 Inhibitory signals, 38 Initiative vs guilt stage, 170 Inner ear, 204, 205 Innovation, preservation of, 126 Insanity defense, 479 Insecure attachment, 160 Insight, 306 animal thinking and, 323 Insight therapies, 495 Insomnia, 79 Instincts, 355 Insulin, 359 Integrity vs despair stage, 170 Intellectual disability, 338–339 Intelligence, 329–351 aging and, 179–180 analytical, 332 assessment of See Intelligence tests creative, 332 creativity and, 333–334 crystallized, 178, 179 definition of, 329 emotional, 334–335 environmental influences on, 341–343 ethnicity and, 346–348 extremes of, 338–339 fluid, 178, 179 gender and, 343–346 general (g), 330, 331 genetic influences on, 340–341 heritability of, 343 multiple, 330–333 practical, 332 sexual restraint in adolescence and, 378 Intelligence quotient (IQ), 336, 337 Intelligence tests, 335–339 bias and, 348–350 construction of, 337–339 SUBJECT INDEX | SI-7 Flynn effect and, 339 group differences in scores on, 343–350 origins of, 335–336 reliability of, 337 standardization of, 337 validity of, 338–339 Intensity, of light, 194 Interaction of genes and environment, 114–116 See also Environmental influences; Genetic influences; Nature-nurture issue sensory, 213 Interference, 294–295 Intermittent reinforcement, 253, 254 Internal locus of control, 461 Interneurons, 41 Interposition, as depth cue, 221 Interpretation, in psychoanalysis, 513–514 Interview(s), B–4––B–5 interviewer illusion and, B–4––B–5 predicting performance using, B–4 structured, B–5 unstructured, B–5 Interviewer illusion, B–4––B–5 Intimacy, 171 in adulthood, 181 Intimacy vs role confusion stage, 170 Intrinsic motivation, creativity and, 333 Intuition, 14–15, 312–313 I/O See Industrial-organizational entries IQ (intelligence quotient), 336, 337 Iris, 194 J James-Lange theory of emotion, 393–394 Jobs, B–1 See also Career entries; Industrialorganizational (I/O) psychology Joint-vision process, B–12 Just noticeable difference (jnd), 191 Just-world phenomenon, 566 K Kinesthesis, 206–207 Knowledge work, B–2 L Labeling, of psychological disorders, 477–478 Labor, division of, 126 Language, 316–327 animal thinking and, 323–326 brain and, 56–58 definition of, 316 development of, 316–319 influence on thinking, 320–321 productive, development of, 317–318 receptive, development of, 316–317 thinking in images and, 321–323 Language acquisition device, 318 Late adulthood, 175 physical changes in, 176–178 Latency, 441 Latent content, 82, 83, 440 Latent learning, 256 Lateral hypothalamus, hunger and, 359 Law of effect, 249 Leadership, B–9––B–12 choosing appropriate style of, B–11––B–12 goal setting for, B–10 harnessing job-relevant skills and, B–9––B–10 Learned helplessness, 461–462, 487 Learning, 236–268 See also Education associative, 236–237, 239 See also Classical conditioning; Operant conditioning biopsychosocial approach to, 245 definition of, 236, 239 implicit, 446 latent, 256 observational See Observational learning rehearsal and, 273–274 Learning perspective, on anxiety disorders, 503 Lens (of eye), 194 Leptin, 359 Lesbians, 379 See also Sexual orientation Lesioning, of brain, 48 Levels of analysis, 7–8 See also Biopsychosocial approach Levels of processing, encoding and, 273–276 Lie detection, 397 Life changes, significant, 420–421 Life events, stressful, 420–421 Life span, well-being across, 183–184 Life-span perspective, 166 Light and shadow, as depth cue, 221 Light energy, 193–194 Light exposure therapy, 527 Lightness constancy, 224 Limbic system, 50–52 Linear perspective, as depth cue, 221 Linguistic determinism, 320 Listening, active, in client-centered therapy, 515–516 Lithium, 537 Lobes, of cortex, 53 Lobotomy, 540 Longitudinal studies, A–7 Long-term memory, 272, 280 Long-term potentiation (LTP), 281–282 Loudness, 203 perception of, 206 Love in adulthood, 181–182 romantic, 579–581 LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), 100 LTP (long-term potentiation), 281–282 Lymphocytes, 423 M Macrophages, 423 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 48 Magnetic stimulation, 539–540 Mainstreaming, 338–339 Major depressive disorder, 480–481 Mania, 481 Manifest content, 82, 83, 440 Marijuana, 101, 102 Marriage, 181 Masking stimuli, 191 Massed practice, 274, 301 Mass media, teen pregnancy and, 377–378 Master’s degree, for careers in psychology, C–3––C–4 Math ability, gender and, 344–345 Mating preferences, natural selection and, 119– 120 Maturation, 149 infant memory and, 150–151 MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine), 96, 99–100 Mean, A–1––A–2 regression toward, A–6 Meaning, encoding, 276 Meaningfulness, aging and, 179 Median, A–1––A–2 Medical model, of psychological disorders, 474–475 Meditation, stress management and, 432–433 Medulla, 47, 49 Melatonin, 72 Memory, 270–302 of abuse, repressed or constructed, 299–301 aging and, 178–179 alcohol and, 94–95 construction of, 296–301 definition of, 271 dreams and, 82–83 echoic, 279 encoding and, 272, 273–278 explicit (declarative), 284 flashbulb, 282–283 forgetting and, 292–296 hormones and, 282–283 hypnosis and, 87–88 iconic, 279 imagination effect and, 297–298 implicit (nondeclarative), 284 improving, 301 during infancy and childhood, 150–151 information-processing models of, 272–273 long-term, 272, 280 misinformation effect and, 296, 297 moods and, 288–289 nonverbal, gender and, 344 of pain, 210 retrieval and, 272, 286–289 sensory, 272, 279 sleep and, 78 state-dependent, 288 storage in brain, 272, 280–285 stress hormones and, 282–283 three-stage processing model of, 272 working/short-term, 272, 273, 279 Memory construction, 296–301 Memory traces, 280 Menarche, 167 Menopause, 175 Mental age, 335 Mental health See Psychological disorders Mental retardation, 338–339 Mental set, 307 Mere exposure effect, 160, 576–577 Metabolism, obesity and, 366–367 Methamphetamine, 96, 102 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 96, 99–100 Middle adulthood, 175 physical changes in, 175–176 Middle ear, 204, 205 Midlife transition, 180, 181 Mild cognitive impairment, 281 Mind theory of, 154–155, 264 two-track See Two-track brain unconscious See Unconscious Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 455–456 Mirror-image perceptions, 585 Mirror neurons, 157, 263–264 Misattribution, source, 298–299 Misinformation effect, 296, 297 MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory), 455–456 Mnemonics, 277 Mode, A–1––A–2 Modeling, 263, 265 See also Observational learning Monocular cues, 220–221 Monozygotic twins, 110–111 Mood(s) changing levels of, 411–412 exercise and, 430–431 memories and, 288–289 Mood-congruent memories, 288–289 Mood disorders biological perspective on, 484–486 SI-8 | SUBJECT INDEX Mood disorders (continued) biopsychosocial perspective on, 486, 487 bipolar disorder, 481–482 causes of, 482–489 drug therapy for, 537 major depressive disorder, 480–481 social-cognitive perspective on, 486–489 Mood-stabilizing drugs, 537 Moon illusion, 223 Moral development, 168–170 Moral reasoning, 168–169 Mothers See Parent(s); Parenting; Pregnancy Motivated forgetting, 295–296 Motivation, 354–389 achievement, B–7 drives and incentives and, 356 hierarchy of needs and, 356, 357 hunger and, 357–370 instincts and, 355 intrinsic, creativity and, 333 need to belong and, 386–388 optimum arousal and, 356 sexual, 373–389 in workplace See Organizational psychology; Personnel psychology Motor cortex, 54, 55 Motor development, during infancy and childhood, 149–150 Motor neurons, 41 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 48 Multicultural experience See Culture Multiple intelligences, 330–333 Mutations, 117 Myelin sheath, 37 N Narcissism, 468 Narcolepsy, 79–80 Naturalistic observation, 21 Natural killer cells, 423 Natural selection, 116 anxiety and, 503–504 mating preferences and, 119–120 Nature-nurture issue, 6, 134–138, 142, 143 See also Behavior genetics; Culture; Environmental influences; Evolutionary psychology; Gender; Genetic influences; Parent(s); Peers gender and, 134–136 interaction of genes and environment and, 114–116 puberty and, 167 Near-death experiences, 100 Needs, hierarchy of, 356, 357 Negative reinforcement, 251–252 Negative symptoms, of schizophrenia, 493 Neo-Freudian perspective, 442–443 Neophobia, 361 Nerves, 40–41 Nervous system, 40–43 autonomic, 41, 42 central, 40, 42–43 See also Brain parasympathetic, 41 peripheral, 40–41 somatic, 41 sympathetic, 41 Neural communication, 37–40 neurons and, 37–38 neurotransmitters and, 38–40, 39 Neural influences, on aggression, 570 Neural networks, 42 Neural pathways dreams and, 83, 84 pruning process and, 124 Neural processing, alcohol and, 94 Neurogenesis, 59 Neurons, 37–38 communication by, 38, 39 See also Neurotransmitters interneurons, 41 mirror, 157, 263–264 motor, 41 sensory, 41 Neuropsychologists, 37, C–8 Neuroscience See also Brain; Hormones; Nervous system; Neural entries; Neurotransmitters of aggression, 570 of aging, physical exercise, and brain, 178 of antisocial personality disorder, 508–509 of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, 474 of autism, 156–157 of automatic prejudice, 565 cognitive, 5, 67–68 of creativity, 333 of drug dependence, 103 of emotional intelligence and brain damage, 334–335 of emotion and cognition, 398–400 of extrasensory perception and fMRI testing, 232 of fetal alcohol syndrome and brain abnormalities, 146 of hallucinogens, 100 of hunger, 359–360 of hypnotized brain, 89–90 of insight, 306 of intelligence, 333, 340–341 of language, 318–319, 322–323 of learning of fear, 504 of light exposure therapy and brain scans, 322–323 of lobotomy, 540 of meditation, 432–433 of memory, 78, 82, 280–285 of near-death experiences, 100 of neurostimulation therapy, 539–540 of obsessive-compulsive disorder, 541 of optimum arousal and rewards, 356 of orgasm, 373 of pain, 209–210 of parallel vs serial processing, 198 of perception, 193–200 of perceptual organization, 217–225 of personality and brain imaging, 453 of post-traumatic stress disorder, 502 of schizophrenia, 494–495, 497 of sensation, 192, 203–208, 212–215 of sexual orientation, 382–385 of sleep, 76, 78, 82 of smell and emotion, 214–215 of statistical learning, 318–319 of thinking in images, 322–323 of unconscious mind, 446 Neuroscience perspective, Neuroticism, 456–457 Neurotransmitters, 38–40, 39 anxiety disorders and, 504, 535 biomedical therapy and, 485–486, 494–495, 535, 536, 538–539 child abuse and, 162 cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessivecompulsive disorder and, 521–522 curare and, 40 depression and, 485–486, 536 drugs and, 92, 94–100 exercise and, 431 mood disorders and, 486 in schizophrenia, 494 schizophrenia and, 494–495, 497 Neutral stimulus (NS), 239–240 Newborns, 146–147 New Lanark Mills, B–8 Nicotine, 96–98, 102 Night terrors, 80, 81 Nociceptors, 209 Nondeclarative memory, 284 Nondirective therapy, 515 Nonverbal communication, 402–407 culture and, 405–406 detecting emotion and, 402–403 facial expressions and, 407 gender and, 403–405 Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), 40, 44, 486 Normal curve, 337, A–3––A–4 Normative social influence, 554 NS (neutral stimulus), 239–240 Numerical ability, of animals, 323–324 O Obedience, 554–557 Obesity, 362–370 environmental influences on, 367–369 physiology of, 366–367 sleep deprivation and, 77 social effects of, 365 weight loss and, 369–370 Obestatin, 359 Object permanence, 152–153 Observation, naturalistic, 21 Observational learning, 238, 263–268 of aggression, 572–575 antisocial, 266–267 anxiety and, 503 applications of, 265–268 Bandura’s experiments on, 264–265 mirror neurons and, 263–264 prosocial, 265–266 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 499, 500–501 Occam’s razor, 138 Occipital lobes, 53 OCD (obsessive-compulsive disorder), 499, 500–501 Oedipus complex, 441 Olfaction, 213–215 One-word stage, 317 Online matchmaking, 576 Openness, 456–457 Operant behavior, 249 Operant chambers, 250 Operant conditioning, 237–238, 249–261 applications of, 257–259 behavior therapies using, 519 biological predispositions and, 256–257 classical conditioning contrasted with, 260 cognition and, 256 language development and, 318 punishment and, 254–255 reinforcement schedules and, 253–254 reinforcers and, 251–253 shaping behavior and, 250–251 Skinner’s experiments in, 249–255, 257 Operational definitions, 18, 19 Opiates, 95–96 Opponent-process theory, 200 Optic nerve, 195 Optimism attribution and, 462–464 health and, 428–429 Oral stage, 441 Order, perceived in random events, 23–24 Orexin, 359 Organization concepts and, 305 of information, for encoding, 277–278 SUBJECT INDEX | SI-9 Organizational psychology, B–2, B–6––B–12 employee satisfaction and engagement and, B–7––B–9 managing and, B–9––B–12 Orgasm, 373 Orgasmic dysfunction, 374 Ostracism, 388 Other-race effect, 568 Outcome research, on psychotherapies, 524–525 Outer ear, 204 Outgroup, 567 Outsourcing, B–2 Oval window, 204, 205 Overconfidence, 15, 309–311 Overlearning, 11, 274 Oxytocin, 419 P Pain, 208–212 biological influences on, 209–210 biopsychosocial approach to, 211 controlling, 211–212 hypnosis for relief of, 88–89 psychological influences on, 210 receptors for, 208 social-cultural influences on, 211 Palm readers, 455–456 Panic disorder, 499–500 Paradoxical sleep, 75 Parallel processing, 198–199 unconscious, 69 Paranoid schizophrenia, 494 Parapsychology, 230 Parasympathetic nervous system, 41 emotions and, 395 Parent(s) adolescents and, 171 early experiences and, 123–125 infant attachment and, 158–161 Parenting See also Child-rearing operant conditioning and, 259 parenting styles and, 162–163 Parietal lobes, 53 Partial reinforcement, 253, 254 Passionate love, 579–580 Passwords, retrieving, 295 Peacemaking, 586–588 Peak experiences, 448 Peers in adolescence, 171 experience and, 125 Perception(s) See also specific senses biopsychosocial approach to, 229 brain damage and, 198 definition of, 188, 189 depth, 219–221 disturbed, in schizophrenia, 492 of facial expressions, 407 form, 217–218 of others, conflict and, 585 perceptual constancy and, 222–225 Perceptual adaptation, 226, 227 Perceptual constancy, 222–225 Perceptual interpretation, 225–229 extrasensory perception and, 230–232 perceptual adaptation and, 226, 227 perceptual set and, 227–229 sensory deprivation and, 225–226 Perceptual organization, 217–225 depth perception and, 219–221 form perception and, 217–218 perceptual constancy and, 222–225 Perceptual set, 227–229 Performance appraisal, B–5––B–6 Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 40–41 Peripheral route persuasion, 547 Permissive parents, 163 Personal control, 461–464, 561 Personality, 438–469 biopsychosocial approach to, 460 definition of, 439 development of, 441–442 humanistic perspective on, 447–450 psychoanalytic perspective on, 439–447 self and, 466–469 social-cognitive perspective on, 459–465 structure of, 440–441 temperament and, 114 trait perspective on, 453–459 Types A and B, 421–422 Personality disorders, antisocial, 506, 507–509 Personality inventories, 455–456 Personal space, 127 Person-centered perspective, 448–449 Personnel psychology, B–2, B–3––B–6 discovering strengths and, B–3 interviews and, B–4––B–5 performance appraisal and, B–5––B–6 Personnel selection, B–3––B–5 interviews for, B–4––B–5 Person-situation controversy, 457–459 Persuasion, central and peripheral route, 547 Pessimism attribution and, 462–464 heart and, 422 Pets, coping with stress and, 430 PET (positron-emission tomography) scans, 48 Phallic stage, 441 Phantom limb sensations, 209–210 Phobias, 499, 500 agoraphobia, 500 social, 500 specific, 500 Physical aggression, gender and, 131–132 Physical attractiveness, attraction and, 577–579 Physical changes, in adulthood, 175–178 Physical dependence, on psychoactive drugs, 92 Physical development in adolescence, 166–168 in adulthood, 175–178 in infancy and childhood, 149–151 Physiological psychologists, 37 Pitch, 203 Pituitary gland, 44 PK (psychokinesis), 230 Placebo effect, 25, 426, 534 Placenta, 146 Plasticity of brain, 58–59 erotic, 380 Plateau phase of sexual response cycle, 373 Pleasure principle, 440 PNS (peripheral nervous system), 40–41 Polygraphs, 397 Ponzo illusion, 211, 223 Pop-out, 71 Population, 20 Positive psychology, 463 Positive reinforcement, 251–252 Positive symptoms, of schizophrenia, 493 Positive transfer, 295 Positron-emission tomography (PET) scans, 48 Postconventional morality, 169 Postgraduate degrees for careers in psychology, C–3––C–4, C–9 preparing for, C–9 Posthypnotic suggestions, 88, 89 Post-traumatic growth, 502, 503 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 499, 500, 501–502 Postural sway, 87 Power, of individuals, 561–562 Practical intelligence, 332 Precognition, 230 Preconscious area, 439 Preconventional morality, 169 Predictive validity, 339 Pregnancy, 145–146 in adolescence, 377–378 maternal virus during, schizophrenia and, 495–496 Prejudice, 564–569 automatic, 565 cognitive roots of, 568–569 definition of, 564, 566 degree of, 564, 566 emotional roots of, 568 social roots of, 566–568 Premature ejaculation, 374 Prenatal development, 145–146 Preoperational stage, 153–155 Preservation of innovation, 126 Pressure sense, 208 Primacy effect, 276 Primary reinforcers, 252, 253 Primary sex characteristics, 166, 167 Priming, 68, 190, 191, 287 Proactive interference, 294, 295 Problem-focused coping, 427 Problem solving, 306–307 Productive language, development of, 317–318 Progressive relaxation, 517–518 Projection, 442 Projective tests, 443–445 Prosocial behavior, 264, 265–266 Prosocial observational learning, 265–266 Prosopagnosia, 188 Prosthetics, 54 Protective effects, of sleep, 78 Protein molecules, 109 Prototypes, 305 Proximity and attraction, 575–577 form perception and, 218 Pruning process, 124 Psychiatric social workers, 528 Psychiatrists, 10, 11, 528 Psychoactive drugs, 92–102 addiction to, 92–93 dependence on, 92 influences on use of, 103–105 tolerance to, 92 withdrawal from, 92 Psychoanalysis, 439–440, 513–515 Psychoanalytic perspective, 439–447 evaluation of, 445–447 Freudian, 439–442, 445–447 neo-Freudian, 442–443 projective tests and, 443–445 psychodynamic, 443 unconscious and, 439–442 Psychodynamic perspective, Psychodynamic theory, 443 Psychodynamic therapy, 514–515, 523 Psychokinesis (PK), 230 Psychological contracts, B–2 Psychological dependence, on psychoactive drugs, 92 Psychological disorders, 472–509 anxiety disorders, 499–504 attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, 474 biopsychosocial approach to, 475 classification of, 476–477 definition of, 473–474 dissociative disorders, 505–507 labeling of, 477–478 medical model of, 474–475 SI-10 | SUBJECT INDEX Psychological disorders (continued) mood disorders, 480–481 personality disorders, 507–509 prevention of, 531 rates of, 478–480 schizophrenia, 492–498 somatoform disorders, 505 Psychological influences See also Biopsychosocial approach; specific influences on aggression, 571 on drug use, 103–105 on pain, 210 on schizophrenia, 497 on sexual behavior, 375–377 Psychology contemporary, 6–10 definition of, frequently asked questions about, 27–31 globalization of, levels of analysis of See levels of analysis of men and women See Gender questions of, reasons to study, 2, 14–17 roots of, 3–5 as science, studying, 10–12 subfields of, 8–10 value judgments in, 30–31 Psychometric psychologists, C–8 Psychopathy, 507 Psychopharmacology, 534–537 Psychophysics, 190 Psychophysiological illnesses, 423 Psychosexual stages, 441 Psychosocial stages, 170–171 Psychosurgery, 540 Psychotherapists, consumer’s guide to, 528 Psychotherapy(ies), 513–532 behavior therapies, 516–519 cognitive therapies, 519–522 evaluation of See Evaluating psychotherapies group and family therapies, 522 humanistic, 515–516 integration of, 513 psychoanalysis, 513–515 psychodynamic, 514–515, 523 therapists providing, 528 Psychotic disorders, 492 See also Schizophrenia antipsychotic drugs for, 535 PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder), 499, 500, 501–502 Puberty, 166–167 Punishers, 254 Punishment, 254–255 Pupil (of eye), 194 PYY, 359 Q Quantitative psychologists, C–8 R Random assignment, 25 Random events, perceived order in, 23–24 Randomized clinical trials, 524 Random samples, 20 Range, A–3 Rationalization, 442 Reaction formation, 442 Reality principle, 440 Reasoning development of, 168 moral, 168–169 statistical See Statistics Rebirthing therapies, 525 Recall, 286, 287 eyewitness, of children, 299 hypnosis and, 87–88 Recency effect, 276 Receptive language, development of, 316–317 Reciprocal determinism, 459–460 Reciprocity norm, 583 Recognition, 286, 287 aging and, 179 Recovered-memory therapies, 525 Recuperation, sleep and, 78 Reflexes, 42–43 in newborn, 146–147 Refractory period, 374 Regression toward the mean, A–6 Rehabilitation psychologists, C–8 Rehearsal, 272, 273–274, 322 Reinforcement anxiety and, 503 continuous, 253 language development and, 318 negative, 251–252 partial (intermittent), 253, 254 positive, 251–252 Reinforcement schedules, 253–254 Reinforcers, 251–253 conditioned (secondary), 252, 253 delayed, 252–253 immediate, 252–253 primary, 252, 253 Relational aggression, gender and, 131–132 Relative deprivation aggression and, 572 happiness and, 414 Relative height, as depth cue, 221 Relative luminance, 224 Relative motion, as depth cue, 221 Relative size, as depth cue, 221 Relaxation progressive, 517–518 stress management and, 432–433 Relearning, 286, 287 Reliability of intelligence tests, 337 of projective tests, 444 Religious engagement, sexual restraint in adolescence and, 378 REM rebound, 83 REM sleep, 73, 74–75, 81, 82–83 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), 539–540 Replication, 18, 19 Representativeness heuristic, 308, 309 Repression, 296, 439, 442, 445–446 of memories of abuse, 299–301 Research animals as subjects for, 29–30 applied, basic, descriptive, 19–24 experimental, 24–27 human subjects for, 30 outcome, on psychotherapies, 524–525 scientific attitude and, 16–17 scientific method and, 17–27 statistics and, A–1––A–9 Residual schizophrenia, 494 Resistance, in psychoanalysis, 513 Resistance phase of general adaptation syndrome, 420 Resolution phase of sexual response cycle, 374 Respondent behavior, 249 Responses conditioned, 240, 241 unconditioned, 240, 241 Reticular formation, 49 Retina, 194–196 Retinal disparity, 219–220 Retrieval, 272, 286–289 failure of, 293–296 of passwords, 295 Retrieval cues, 286–289 Retroactive interference, 294–295 Reuptake, 38, 39 Reward centers, 51–52 Reward deficiency syndrome, 52 Reward theory of attraction, 579 Rites of passage, 173 Rods, 195, 196 Role(s), 134–135, 548–549 gender, 134–135 Role-playing, attitudes and, 548–549 Romantic love, 579–581 Rorschach inkblot test, 444, 445 rTMS (repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation), 539–540 Rubber-hand illusion, 208 S Salty taste, 212 Sampling, random, 20 Savant syndrome, 330, 331 Scapegoat theory of prejudice, 568 Scatterplots, A–4, A–5 Schedules of reinforcement, 253–254 Schemas, 136, 152 gender, 136 perceptual set and, 228 Schizophrenia, 492–498, 497 acute (reactive), 494 causes of, 494–497 chronic (process), 493 neurotransmitters and, 494–495, 535 onset and development of, 493–494 symptoms of, 492–493 types of, 494 School psychologists, C–8 Scientific attitude, 16–17 Scientific method, 17–27 SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus), 72 Secondary reinforcers, 252, 253 Secondary sex characteristics, 166–167 Second-order conditioning, 241–242 Secure attachment, 160 Secure self-esteem, 469 Selection effect, 116 Selective attention, 69–71 disorganized thinking and, 492 hypnotic pain relief and, 90 Selective inattention, 70–71 Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 536 Self, 466–469 culture and, 128–129 Self-actualization, 448, 449 Self-awareness, alcohol and, 95 Self-concept academic, 466 general, 466 humanistic perspective on, 449 Self-control, alcohol and, 95 Self-disclosure, 581 Self-esteem, 466–469 benefits of, 466–467 defensive, 468–469 secure, 469 self-serving bias and, 467–469 Self-serving bias, 467–469 Self-transcendence, 448 Semicircular canals, 206 Sensation, 189–193 See also specific senses definition of, 188, 189 SUBJECT INDEX | SI-11 gender and, 344 sensory adaptation and, 192–193 thresholds and, 190–191 Sensorimotor stage, 152–153 Sensory abilities, in adulthood, 176–177 Sensory adaptation, 192–193 Sensory cortex, 54–55 Sensory interaction, 213 Sensory memory, 272, 279 Sensory neurons, 41 Separated twins, 111–113 Serial conscious processing, 69 Serial position effect, 274, 275 Serotonin, 40, 281 mood disorders and, 486 Service learning, sexual restraint in adolescence and, 378 Set point, 359–360, 366–367 Settling point, 360 Sex gender versus, 130 psychology of men and women and See Gender Sex chromosomes, 133–134 Sex hormones, 176 Sexual behavior, 373–389 in adolescence, 377–379 alcohol and, 95 external stimuli and, 376 hormones and, 374–375 imagined stimuli and, 376–377 sexual orientation and, 379–385 sexual response cycle and, 373–374 values and, 385 Sexual disorders, 374 Sexuality evolutionary explanation of, 118–120 gender differences in, 118–119 natural selection and mating preferences and, 119–120 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), in adolescence, 377, 378–379 Sexual motivation, biopsychosocial approach to, 375–376 Sexual orientation, 379–385 in animals, 382 brain and, 382 genes and, 383 origins of, 380–385 prenatal hormones and, 383–385 statistics on, 379–380 Sexual response cycle, 373–374 Shape constancy, 222 Shaping, 250–251 Short-term memory, 272 Similarity and attraction, 579 form perception and, 218 Situational attributions, 545 Size constancy, 222 Size-distance relationship, 222–223 Skepticism, curious, 16 Skewed distributions, A–2 Skinner box, 250 Sleep, 71–80 biological rhythms and, 72–75 disorders of, 79–80 dreams and, 81–84 functions of, 76–79 loss of, 76–78 paradoxical, 75 REM, 73, 74–75, 81, 82–83 stages of, 73–74 theories of, 78–79 Sleep apnea, 80, 81 Sleep loss, obesity and, 368 Sleep spindles, 74 Sleeptalking, 80 Sleepwalking, 80 Slow-to-warm-up infants, 114 Smell sense, 213–215 Social bonds See Attachment; Belonging, need for Social clock, 180, 181 Social-cognitive perspective, 8, 459–465 assessing behavior in situations and, 465 evaluation of, 465 on mood disorders, 486–489 personal control and, 461–464 reciprocal influences and, 459–460 Social connectedness, gender and, 132–133 Social control, 561 Social-cultural influences See also Biopsychosocial approach; Culture; specific influences on aggression, 572 on drug use, 103–105 on pain, 211 Social-cultural perspective, Social development in adolescence, 170–175 in adulthood, 180–185 during infancy and childhood, 158–163 Social exchange theory, 583 Social facilitation, 558, 559 Social factors, in prejudice, 566–568 Social identity, 170–171 Social inequalities, prejudice and, 566 Social influence, 552–562 conformity and obedience and, 552–557 group influence and, 558–561 hypnosis and, 89 informational, 554 normative, 554 on obesity, 368 Social leadership, B–11 Social learning theory, gender typing and, 135–136 Social loafing, 558–559 Social phobias, 500 Social power, gender and, 132 Social psychologists, 9, C–8 Social psychology, 544–589 attitudes and actions and, 547–550 attribution theory and, 545–546 social influences and See Social influence social relations and See Social relations Social relations, 564–589 aggression and, 569–575 altruism and, 581–583 attraction and, 575–581 conflict and peacemaking and, 584–588 prejudice and, 564–569 Social relationships, obesity and, 365 Social-responsibility norm, 583 Social support, coping with stress and, 429–430 Social traps, 584–585 Sociopathy, 507 Somatic nervous system, 41 Somatoform disorders, 505 Sound waves, 203–204 Source amnesia (source misattribution), 298–299 Sour taste, 212 Spacing effect, 274, 275 Spatial ability, gender and, 344–345 Specific phobias, 500 Speech, telegraphic, 317 Spelling, gender and, 344 Spermarche, 167 Spillover effect, 397–398 Spinal cord, 42 Spirituality, health and, 433–434 Split-brain studies, 59–61 Split-half reliability, 337 Spontaneous recovery, in classical conditioning, 242 Spontaneous remission, 426 Sport psychologists, C–8 Sports, operant conditioning and, 258 Spotlight effect, 466, 467 SQ3R method, 10–11 SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), 536 Stability, of personality traits, 456 Stability/change issue, 142, 144–145 Standard deviation, A–3––A–4 Standardization, of intelligence tests, 337 Stanford-Binet test, 335 Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, 87 State-dependent memory, 288 Statistical significance, A–7––A–8 Statistics, A–1––A–9 descriptive, A–1––A–6 inferential, A–6––A–8 Stereotypes, 564 Stereotype threat, 349 Stimulants, 96–100 Stimulus(i) conditioned, 240, 241 discriminative, 250 external, sexual behavior and, 376 imagined, sexual behavior and, 376–377 masking, 191 neutral, 239–240 subliminal, 190–191 unconditioned, 240, 241 Stimulus generalization, anxiety and, 503 Stirrup (bone), 204, 205 STIs (sexually transmitted infections), in adolescence, 377, 378–379 Storage, 272, 278–285 decay of, 293 sensory memory and, 279 Stranger anxiety, 158 Strange situation, 160 Stress, 418–435 biopsychosocial approach to, 427 brain and, 486 coping with, 427–430 definition of, 418, 419 events provoking stress responses and, 420–421 heart and, 421–422 illness and, 418–423 management of, 430–434 post-traumatic stress disorder and, 500, 501–502 responses to, 419–420 susceptibility to disease and, 423–427 Stress hormones, 282–283, 395, 419, 423–424, 428 Stress inoculation training, 521 Stressors, 418 Stress reactions, 418 Structured interviews, B–5 Study tips, 10–12, 301 Subgoals, B–10 Subjective well-being, 411 Subliminal stimulation, 190–191 Successive approximations, 250 Suicide, 484–485 Supercell clusters, 196 Superego, 440–441 Superordinate goals, 586–587 Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), 72 Surveys, 20 Survival, social bonds and, 386 Swallowing reflex, 147 Sweet taste, 212 Sympathetic nervous system, 41 emotions and, 395 SI-12 | SUBJECT INDEX Synapses, 38, 39 information storage and, 281–282 Synaptic gaps (synaptic clefts), 38, 39 Systematic desensitization, 516, 517–518 T Taijin-kyofusho, 475 Tardive dyskinesia, 535 Task leadership, B–11 Taste preferences, 361 Taste sense, 212–213 Teen pregnancy, 377–378 Telegraphic speech, 317 Telepathy, 230 Television, observational learning and, 266–267 Temperament attachment and, 160 personality and, 114, 115 sexual orientation and, 384–385 Temporal lobes, 53 Tend-and-befriend response, 419 10-year rule, B–7 Teratogens, 146, 147 Terminal decline, 185 Test(s) empirically derived, 456 guilty knowledge, 397 intelligence See Intelligence tests personality inventories, 455–456 projective, 443–445 Testing effect, 275 Testosterone, 134 sexual behavior and, 374–375 Test-retest reliability, 337 Test taking tips, 11 Thalamus, 49 THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), 101 Theories, 18–19 Theory of mind, 154–155, 264 Therapeutic alliance, 529 Therapeutic life-style change, 541 Therapy(ies), 512–542 biomedical See Biomedical therapies eclectic approach to, 513 history of, 513 preventive, 531 psychological See Psychotherapy(ies) Thinking, 305–314 See also Cognition; Reasoning in animals, 323–326 belief perseverance and, 311–312 concepts and, 305 critical, 11, 17 disorganized, in schizophrenia, 492 framing and, 313–314 heuristics and, 306, 307–309 influence of language on, 320–321 intuition and, 312–313 overconfidence and, 309–311 problem solving and, 306–307 social, 545–551 Three-color (trichromatic) theory, 199 360-degree feedback, B–6 Three-stage processing model of memory, 272 Thresholds, 38, 190–191 absolute, 190 difference, 190, 191 subliminal stimulation and, 190–191 Tinnitus, 210 T lymphocytes, 423 Token economies, 519 Tolerance, to psychoactive drugs, 92 Tonguing reflex, 147 Top-down processing, 189 Touch sense, 207–208 Traits, 453–459 assessment of, 455–456 astrology and, 455–456 Big Five factors, 456–457 person-situation controversy and, 457–459 Tranquilizers, 95 Transfer, positive, 295 Transference, in psychoanalysis, 514 Transformational leadership, B–11 Trichromatic (three-color) theory, 199 Trust basic, 161 psychotherapy and, 529–530 Trust vs mistrust stage, 170 Tutored human enrichment, 342 Twins fraternal (dizygotic), 111 identical (monozygotic), 110–111 separated, 111–113 virtual, 113 Twin studies, 110–114 Two-factor theory of emotion, 394 Two-track brain emotion and, 398–400 hypnosis and, 89–90 vision and, 68–69 Two-word stage, 317 Types A and B personalities, 421–422 U Umami, 212 Unconditional positive regard, 448, 449 in client-centered therapy, 515 Unconditioned response (UR), 240, 241 Unconditioned stimulus (US), 240, 241 Unconscious collective, 443 contemporary view of, 445, 446 projective tests and, 443–445 psychoanalytic perspective on, 439–442 Unconscious parallel processing, 69 Universal grammar, 318 Unstructured interviews, B–5 UR (unconditioned response), 240, 241 US (unconditioned stimulus), 240, 241 Ventromedial hypothalamus, hunger and, 359 Venturesome personality, creativity and, 333 Verbal ability, gender and, 344 Vestibular sacs, 206 Vestibular sense, 206–207 Video games, aggression and, 573 Violence-viewing effect, 266–267 Viral infections, during pregnancy, schizophrenia and, 495–496 Virtual reality exposure therapy, 518 Virtual twins, 113 Vision, 193–200 color, 199–200 eye and, 194–196 information processing and, 196–199 light energy and, 193–194 restored, 225–226 two-track mind and, 68–69 Visual action track, 68 Visual cliff, 219 Visual encoding, 277 Visual perception track, 68 Vivid cases, prejudice and, 569 Voice effect, B–11 W WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), 336–337 Warmth, receptors for, 208 Wavelength, of light, 193 Wealth, well-being and, 412–413 Weber’s law, 190, 191 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), 336–337 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), 336–337 Weight control, hormones and, 359–360 Weight loss, 369–370 Well-being subjective, 411 wealth and, 412–413 Wernicke’s area, 56 White matter, 134 WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children), 336–337 Wish fulfillment, dreams and, 82, 84 Withdrawal, from psychoactive drugs, 92 Wording, of surveys, 20 Work, 182 See also Career entries; Industrialorganizational (I/O) psychology; Jobs Working/short-term memory, 272, 273, 279, 280 Workplace, operant conditioning and, 258 V Validity of intelligence tests, 338–339 of projective tests, 444 Value(s) psychotherapy and, 530 sexual behavior and, 385 Value judgments, 30–31 Values in Action Classification of Strengths, 477 Variable(s), independent and dependent, 26–27 Variable-interval schedules, 253, 254 Variable-ratio schedules, 253, 254 Variation, measures of, A–3––A–4 X X chromosome, 134 Y Y chromosome, 134 Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory, 199 Z Zygotes, 145–146 The Story of Psychology: A Timeline  (continued from inside front cover) 1949— In The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory, Canadian psychologist Donald O Hebb outlines a new and influential conceptualization of how the nervous system functions 1950— Solomon Asch publishes studies of effects of conformity on judgments of line length — In Childhood and Society, Erik Erikson outlines his stages of psychosocial development 1951— Carl Rogers publishes Client-Centered Therapy 1952— The American Psychiatric Association publishes the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, an influential book that will be updated periodically 1953— Eugene Aserinski and Nathaniel Kleitman describe rapid eye movements (REM) that occur during sleep — Janet Taylor’s Manifest Anxiety Scale appears in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1954— In Motivation and Personality, Abraham Maslow proposes a hierarchy of motives ranging from physiological needs to selfactualization (Maslow later updates the hierarchy to include self-transcendence needs.) — James Olds and Peter Milner, McGill University neuropsychologists, describe rewarding effects of electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus in rats — Gordon Allport publishes The Nature of Prejudice 1956— In his Psychological Review article titled “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information,” George Miller coins the term chunk for memory researchers 1957— Robert Sears, Eleanor Maccoby, and Harry Levin publish Patterns of Child Rearing — Charles Ferster and B F Skinner publish Schedules of Reinforcement 1959— Noam Chomsky’s critical review of B F Skinner’s Verbal Behavior appears in the journal Language — Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk report their research on infants’ depth perception in “The Visual Cliff.” — Harry Harlow outlines “The Nature of Love,” his work on attachment in monkeys — Lloyd Peterson and Margaret Peterson in the Journal of Experimental Psychology article, “Short-Term Retention of Individual Verbal Items,” highlight the importance of rehearsal in memory — John Thibaut and Harold Kelley publish The Social Psychology of Groups 1969— In his APA presidential address, “Psychology as a Means of Promoting Human Welfare,” George Miller emphasizes the importance of “giving psychology away.” 1971— Kenneth B Clark becomes the first African-American president of the American Psychological Association — Albert Bandura publishes Social Learning Theory — Allan Paivio publishes Imagery and Verbal Processes — B F Skinner publishes Beyond Freedom and Dignity 1972— Elliot Aronson publishes The Social Animal — Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart’s “Levels of Processing: A Framework for Memory Research” appears in the Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior — Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner publish their associative model of Pavlovian conditioning — Under the leadership of Derald Sue and Stanley Sue, the Asian-American Psychological Association is founded 1973— Ethologists Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, and Nikolaas Tinbergen receive the Nobel prize for their research on animal behavior 1974— APA’s Division first publishes its journal, Teaching of Psychology, with Robert S Daniel as editor — Eleanor Maccoby (pictured) and Carol Jacklin publish The Psychology of Sex Differences 1975— Biologist Edward O Wilson’s Sociobiology appears; it will be a controversial precursor to evolutionary psychology 1976— Sandra Wood Scarr and Richard A Weinberg publish “IQ Test Performance of Black Children Adopted by White Families” in American Psychologist 1978— Psychologist Herbert A Simon, Carnegie-Mellon University, wins a Nobel prize for pioneering research on computer simulations of human thinking and problem solving 1979— James J Gibson publishes The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception — Elizabeth Loftus publishes Eyewitness Testimony 1981— Ellen Langer is the first woman to be granted tenure in Harvard University’s Department of Psychology — David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel receive a Nobel prize for research on single-cell recordings that identified feature detector cells in the visual cortex — Roger Sperry receives a Nobel prize for research on split-brain patients ... B-8 Human Factors Psychology B-12 Appendix C: Careers in Psychology C-1 Preparing for a Career in Psychology C-1 Subfields of Psychology C-5 Preparing Early for Graduate Study in Psychology C-9... Longitudinal Studies A-7 Appendix B: Psychology at Work B-1 CLOSE-UP: I/O Psychology at Work B-2 Personnel Psychology B-3 CLOSE-UP: Discovering Your Strengths B-3 Organizational Psychology B-6 xiv CLOSE-UP:... Science of Psychology MODULE Dual Processing, Sleep, and Dreams 67 The Brain and Consciousness 67 Sleep and Dreams 71 MODULE The History and Scope of Psychology Psychology’s Roots Contemporary Psychology