this page left intentionally blank How Does Psychology Apply to YOUR Everyday Life? This text is full of hundreds of applications of psychology’s fascinating findings Our student reviewers helped us select their 50 favorites, shown here, and continued on the inside of the back cover How biological, psychological, and social- cultural factors contribute to psychological disorders? (Chapter 13) are near-death experiences similar to LSD “trips”? (p 387) How How many college students have experienced depression in the last year? (p 390) How does heredity affect the risk of bipolar disorder? depression? anxiety? schizophrenia? anorexia? (pp 394–395) in How can we alter our thinking stressful situations so that we feel less anxious? (p 418) person look for when selecting a therapist? (p 424) What should a How, by adopting a healthier lifestyle, might people find some relief from depression? (pp 430–431) What What may help prevent psychological disorders? (pp 431–432) psychological factors affect our feelings of hunger? (pp 260–261) How sleep, friends, and genetics affect weight? (pp 261–262) Why does it feel so painful to be excluded, ignored, or shunned? (pp 263–266) What are the social and emotional effects of all of our online social networking? (pp 266–268) How women and men differ at reading others’ nonverbal emotions? (p 275) and How our facial expressions movements affect the way we feel? (pp 277–278) How does the stress of life changes (leaving home, divorcing, death in the family, etc.) affect our health? (pp 284–285) and Does are some appropriate ways of coping How is our health affected by social support? with stress? (p 291) (pp 294–296) What aerobic exercise work as a therapy for depression anxiety? (p 297) What are some predictors of happiness? (p 305) Are there personality differences among dogs? (p 323) the best predictor of a person’s future behavior? (p 328) that most of us have a self-serving bias? (pp 330–331) tips for becoming happier? (p 306) steep Would What is Is it true What are some a toddler peering over a cliff perceive the dangerous drop-off and draw back? (pp 146–147) Could we adjust if special glasses turned our world upside down and backwards? (pp 150–151) In what ways can we control pain? (pp 155–157) PSYCHOLO GY IN EVERYDAY LIFE this page left intentionally blank PSYCHOLO GY IN EVERYDAY LIFE THIRD EDITION David G Myers Hope College Holland, Michigan C Nathan DeWall University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky WORTH PUBLISHERS A Macmillan Higher Education Company Permission has been secured to reprint the following photos at the Vice President, Editing, Design, and Media Production: beginnings of chapters and in the table of contents: Catherine Woods Publisher: Kevin Feyen Executive Marketing Manager: Katherine Nurre pp x top left, xlviii, Fotosearch/SuperStock; p. 1 top, Lane Oatey/Getty Development Editors: Christine Brune, Nancy Fleming Images; p. 1 bottom, Maciej Oleksy/Shutterstock; pp x top right, 28 Assistant Editor: Nadina Persaud center, RubberBall/SuperStock; p. 28 top, © Anna63/Dreamstime Media Editor: Anthony Casciano com; p. 29, © Yuri Arcurs/INSADCO Photography/Alamy; pp x bottom Supplements Editor: Betty Probert right, 66 bottom, Clover/SuperStock; pp xi 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Ann Marie Kurtz/ E+/Getty Images; p. 282 top, Rubberball/Mark Andersen/Getty Images; ISBN-13: 978-1-4641-0936-2 p. 283 top, © PhotosIndia.com LLC/Alamy; p. 283 center, © PhotoSpin, ISBN-10: 1-4641-0936-2 Inc/Alamy; p. 283 bottom, © D Hurst/Alamy; pp xiii bottom right, 310 © 2014, 2012, 2009 by Worth Publishers bottom, Image Source/Getty Images; p. 311 left, Craig Greenhill/ center, Aurora Open/SuperStock; p. 310 top, © VStock/Alamy; p. 310 Newspix/Getty Images; p. 311 right, Timothy Large/Shutterstock; All rights reserved Trinity Mirror/Mirrorpix/Alamy; pp xiv left, 336, Ryan McVay/ Photodisc/Getty Images; p. 337, © Hero Images/Corbis; pp xiv right, Printed in the United States of America 370 center, alberto gagna/E+/Getty Images; p. 370 top, © mikeledray/ Shutterstock; p. 370 bottom, Hemera Technologies/Jupiterimages/ First Printing Getty; p. 371, Martin Harvey/Jupiterimages; pp. xv, 408 bottom, Colin Hawkins/Cultura/Getty images; p. 408 top, jaroon/iStockphoto; p. 408 David Myers’ royalties from the sale of this book are assigned to the center, Tetra Images/Getty Images; p. 409 left, William Britten/iStock; David and Carol Myers Foundation, which exists to receive and dis- p. 409 right, Rubberball/Nicole Hill/Jupiterimages tribute funds to other charitable organizations Worth Publishers 41 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10010 www.worthpublishers.com Proudly sourced and uploaded by [StormRG] Kickass Torrents | TPB | ET | h33t For Alexandra Corinne Myers, beloved granddaughter For my mother, Beverly DeWall (1950–2011), an educator who provided love, support, and inspiration About the Authors David Myers received his psychology Ph.D from the University of Iowa Kathleen Paulsson Hope College Public Relations He has spent his career at Hope College, Michigan, where he has taught dozens of introductory psychology sections Hope College students have invited him to be their commencement speaker and voted him “outstanding professor.” His research and writings have been recognized by the Gordon Allport Intergroup Relations Prize, by a 2010 Honored Scientist award from the Federation of Associations in Behavioral & Brain Sciences, by a 2010 Award for Service on Behalf of Personality and Social Psychology, by a 2013 Presidential Citation from APA Division 2, and by three honorary doctorates With support from National Science Foundation grants, Myers’ scientific articles have appeared in three dozen scientific periodicals, including Science, American Scientist, Psychological Science, and the American Psychologist In addition to his scholarly writing and his textbooks for introductory and social psychology, he also digests psychological science for the general public His writings have appeared in four dozen magazines, from Today’s Education to Scientific American He also has authored five general audience books, including The Pursuit of Happiness and Intuition: Its Powers and Perils David Myers has chaired his city’s Human Relations Commission, helped found a thriving assistance center for families in poverty, and spoken to hundreds of college and community groups Drawing on his experience, he also has written articles and a book (A Quiet World) about hearing loss, and he is advocating a transformation in American assistive listening technology (see www.hearingloop.org) For his leadership, he received an American Academy of Audiology Presidential Award in 2011, and the Hearing Loss Association of America Walter T Ridder Award in 2012 He bikes to work year-round and plays daily pickup basketball David and Carol Myers have raised two sons and a daughter, and have one granddaughter, with whom he is shown here, and to whom he dedicates this book vi SI-4 SUBJECT INDEX Conventional morality, 88 Deafness See Hearing loss sleep and, 57–58 Convergent thinking, 226 Death and dying, 100–101 social-cognitive perspective on, 395 Cooperation, peacemaking and, 366 –367 Debriefing, 22 stress and, 394 Coping strategies, for stress, 291–296 See also Stress management Decibels, 151–152 suicide and self-injury in, 392–393 Decision making, 221–226 vicious cycle of, 396 Cornea, 140 belief perseverance and, 223, 227 Depth perception, 146 –147 Coronary heart disease, stress and, 289–290 framing and, 223–225, 227 Descriptive research, 13–15, 20 Corporal punishment, 178 heuristics in, 221–223, 227 Desensitization, media and, 415 Corpus callosum, 48 overconfidence and, 223, 227 Development, 66 –105 Correlation, 16 –17, 20, A- 4 two-track mind in, 226 Correlation coefficient, 16, A- 4 in adolescence, 73–86 in adulthood, 94 –102 Cortisol, 291 Declarative (explicit) memory, 195, 196 –200, 202 Counseling psychologists, 5, 424, C-2–C-3 Deep-brain stimulation, 428 conception and, 68–70 Counterconditioning, 414 Defense mechanisms, 314 –315, 318–319 continuity and change in, 93–94, 101–102 Counting, by animals, 228 Defensive self-esteem, 331 critical periods in, 74, 150, 231–232 Cramming versus spaced practice, 198 Definitions, operational, 13, 19 in emerging adulthood, 92 Creative intelligence, 237 Deindividuation, 347–348 epigenetics and, 70 Creativity, 226 –228 Déjà vu, 211 Freudian stages of, 314 Delayed gratification, 88 gender, 108–115 personality and, 226 sleep and, 56 teen pregnancy and, 119 cognitive See Cognitive development in infancy and childhood, 73–86 Criminal behavior See Antisocial behavior Delayed reinforcers, 176 language, 230–232 Critical periods, 74, 150 Delta waves, 54 moral, 87–88, 93 Delusions, schizophrenia and, 397 nature–nurture interaction in, 7, 68, 69–70 Critical thinking, 5, 6, 24 See also Table 1, Critical Thinking, xx Dendrites, 30 in neonatal period, 71–73 Denial, 315 Cross-race effect, 353 physical, 71–75, 86 –87, 94 –96 Depakote, 427 Cross-sectional studies, 245, A-7 prenatal, 70–71, 110–111 Dependent variables, 19–20 Crystallized intelligence, 246 psychosexual, 314 Depressant drugs, 382–384 Cultural influences See also Table 2, Culture and Multicultural Experience, xxi psychosocial, 89–92 Depression sexual, 110–113 for language development, 231–232 on aggression, 356 on child raising, 84 –85 on emotional expression, 276 –277 on intelligence testing, 249 on psychotherapy, 423 on sexual behavior, 127–128 on sexual orientation, 121 on substance use, 381–382 Culture definition of, individualist versus collectivist, 88, 331–333, 338, 343, 423 social development and, 89 transmission by animals, 229 Curiosity in motivation, 256 in scientific attitude, 11–12 D Daily hassles, stress and, 285 Dating online matchmaking and, 359 speed, 359 age at onset of, 394 social, 81–85, 89–92 biology of, 394 –395 stages of, 75–80, 87–88, 93–94 See also Stage theories in bipolar disorder, 391–392, 427 brain changes in, 395 cognitive changes in, 393 cognitive therapy for, 417– 418 diet and, 430 Developmental psychology, 5, 68, C-3 biopsychosocial approach in, 85 major issues in, 68 drug therapy for, 425– 426 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), 374 –375 duration of, 393–394 Dieting, 264 electroconvulsive therapy for, 427– 428 Difference thresholds, 136 exercise and, 297, 430 Discrimination explanatory style and, 395–396 gender differences in, 393, 395 in classical conditioning, 172 prejudice and, 350 genetic factors in, 394 –395 Displacement, 315 health effects of, 290 Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder, 374 –375, 392 learned helplessness and, 291–292, 395 lifestyle changes for, 430– 431 in major depressive disorder, 390–391 memory and, 205 nature–nurture interaction and, 395 negative thoughts and, 395–396 Dissociative identity disorder, 401– 403 Distributed practice, memory and, 198 Divergent thinking, 226 Divorce, 98, 265 health effects of, 295 stress and, 284 psychotherapy for, 426 See also Psychotherapy Dizygotic twins, 71, 72 recovery from, 393–394, 396 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 68–69, 70 Subject Index SI-5 arousal and, 269–270, 272–274 Equity, in relationships, 362 autonomic nervous system in, 272–273 Erectile disorder, 54, 117 Double-blind procedure, 18 basic, 272 Erections, during sleep, 54 Down syndrome, 242 Cannon-Bard theory of, 269–270, 271 Dreams, 55, 60–62 cognitive appraisal and, 270–272 Erikson’s psychosocial development stages, 89, 93 cognitive development and, 61 communication of, 275–276 Erogenous zones, 314 Freudian view of, 60–61, 317 components of, 269 ESP (extrasensory perception), 161–162 information processing and, 61 conscious experience and, 269 Estrogens, 115 neural pathways and, 61 cultural aspects of, 276 –277 Ethical issues neural static and, 61 detection of, 275–276 in animal research, 21–22 Drive-reduction theory, 256 duration of, 302–303 consent, 22 Drug abuse See Substance use disorder embodied, 272–274 debriefing, 22 Drug therapy, 424 – 427, 431 expressive behaviors and, 269 human participants and, 22 Dopamine, 32, 33, 41– 42 in schizophrenia, 398, 425 antianxiety drugs, 426 facial expressions and, 272, 277–278 values and, 22–23 antidepressant drugs, 426 feedback effects and, 277–278 Evidence-based practice, 422 antipsychotic drugs, 425 James-Lange theory of, 269, 271 Evolution mood stabilizing medications, 427 Lazarus’s theory of, 270–271 of mating preferences, 126 –128 LeDoux’s theory of, 270–271 perspectives on, 129 DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition), 374 –375 Dual processing, consciousness and, 40 See also Two-track mind Dysthymia, 391 E Ear, structure of, 152–153 Eardrum, 152 Eating, 258–261 See also Hunger appetite and, 258–261 dieting and, 264 ecology of, 261 obesity and, 261–263, 264 taste aversions and, 182, 261 taste preferences and, 260–261 Eating disorders, 400– 401 cognitive therapy for, 417 Echoic memory, 196 Eclectic approach, in therapy, 410 Ecstasy (MDMA), 386, 388 Educational psychologists, C-3 EEG (electroencephalography), 38 Effortful processing, memory and, 196 –199, 202 Ego, in psychoanalysis, 313–314 Egocentrism, in children, 78 Electra complex, 314 Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), 427– 428 Electroencephalography (EEG), 38 memory and, 200–201 mirroring of, 186 physiology of, 273–274 Evolutionary psychology, 125 Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of, 270 Excitement phase, in sexual response cycle, 116 spill-over effect and, 270 Exercise thalamus in, 270 cognitive function and, 95–96, 97 two-factor theory of, 270, 271 for depression, 426 two-track brain and, 270–272 in late adulthood, 95–97 variability of, 302–303 Zajonc’s theory, 270–271 Emotional expression for stress management, 296 –297 Exhibitionism, 117 Experiment(s), 17–20 cultural aspects of, 276 –277 animals in, 21–22 interpretation of, 272, 276 –278 versus correlational studies, 18 in schizophrenia, 397–398 double-blind procedure in, 18 Emotional intelligence, 238 ethical issues in, 21–22 Emotional stability, 322–323 human subjects in, 22 Emotion-focused coping, 291 purpose of, 20–21 Empathy, 88, 320, 341, 432 random assignment in, 18 feedback effects and, 278 gender differences in, 276 in psychotherapy, 422– 423 Encoding, in memory, 194, 195–199 failure of, 207 Endocrine system, 36 –37 See also Hormones Endorphins, 32, 155, 384 Energy therapies, 422 Engineering psychology, B-3 Embodied cognition, 161 Environment, heredity and See Nature– nurture interaction Embodied emotion, 272–274 Epigenetics, 70, 244, 395 See also Genetics Embryos, 70 child abuse and, 84 Emerging adulthood, 92 intelligence and, 244 Emotion, 268–279 nature–nurture interaction and, 70 amygdala in, 41, 271 of sexual behavior, 125–128 Evolutionary perspective, Epinephrine, 36 specific findings versus general principles in, 21 variables in, 19–20 Experimental group, 18, 19 Experimental psychologists, C-3 Explicit memory, 195, 196 –200, 202 See also Memory Exposure therapies, 414 – 415 External locus of control, 292 Extinction, in learning, 171–172 Extrasensory perception (ESP), 161–162 Extraversion, 322–323, 324 Extrinsic motivation, 184 Eye, structure of, 140–142 Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, 322–323 SI-6 SUBJECT INDEX F Face blindness, 133–134, 142 Facebook, 266 –268 Facial expressions cultural aspects of, 276 –277 emotions and, 272, 277–278 Facial feedback effect, 278 Factors, personality, 322–323, 324 Faith communities, health benefits and, 299–300 False consensus effect, 319 False memories, 210–214 of child abuse, 212–214 imagination effect and, 210–211 misinformation effect and, 210–211 recognition of, 211–212 reconsolidation and, 209–210 source amnesia and, 211 Family therapy, 419– 420, 431 Fear, 222–225 See also Anxiety conditioning of, 173, 379–380 exposure therapies for, 414 – 415 of flying, 224 –225 hippocampus in, 41 misplaced, 224 –225 natural selection and, 381 phobic, 376, 377–378 physiology of, 273 Foot-in-the-door phenomenon, 339–340, 346 in aggression, 108–109 Forgetting, 206 –209 See also Amnesia; Memory in depression, 393, 395 encoding failure and, 207 in emotions, 275–276 interference and, 208, 214 in empathy, 276 motivated, 208–209 evolutionary aspects of, 125, 128 retrieval failure and, 207–208 in self-esteem, 108 storage decay and, 207 in sexual behavior, 125 Form perception, 146 in social connections, 109 Formal operational stage, in cognitive development, 79, 87 in social power, 109 Gender discrimination See Prejudice Framing, in decision making, 223–225, 227 Gender expression, 114 Fraternal birth-order effect on sexual orientation, 124 Gender identity, 113–115, 314 Fraternal twins, 71, 72 Free association, in psychoanalysis, 312, 411 Free radicals, 56 Frequency, of sound waves, 151 Freud’s psychoanalysis, 3, 312–315, 410– 411 basic principles of, 312 defense mechanisms in, 314 –315, 318–319 dreams in, 60–61, 317 personality development in, 314 personality structure in, 313–314 psychosexual stages in, 314 Friendships See also Attraction; Social connections in adolescence, 90–91 gender and, 109–110 Feedback effects social networking and, 266 –268 emotional, 277–278 Frontal lobes, 43 See also Cerebral cortex in adolescents, 86 –87 Feel-good, do-good phenomenon, 301 age-related changes in, 95 Female orgasmic disorder, 117 association areas in, 46 Female sexual interest/arousal disorder, 117 development of, 73–74, 86 –87 Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 71 injuries of, 46 Fetus, 71 in memory processing, 199–200 sex determination in, 110–111 Frustration-aggression principle, 355–356 Field trials, 375 Functional MRI (fMRI), 38 Fight-or-flight response, 36, 273, 283 Fundamental attribution error, 338 Figure-ground relationship, 146 G Five Factor theory, 324 Fixation GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), 33 in decision making, 221, 227 Gallup Workplace Audit, B-4 –B-5 in Freudian theory, 314 Ganglion cells, 141 Fixed-interval reinforcement schedules, 177 Fixed-ratio reinforcement schedules, 177 in stress response, 285–286 Fovea, 142 Feature detectors, in vision, 142–143 behavior, 278 Gender differences, 6 –7, 108–110 Forensic psychology, 4, 5, C-4 Gender, 108–115 See also Table 3, Psychology of Women and Men, xxii Flashbulb memories, 201 definition of, 108 Flow, B-1–B-2 nature–nurture interaction and, 125, 128 Fluid intelligence, 246 versus sex, Fluoxetine (Prozac), 426 sexual development and, 110–113 fMRI (functional MRI), 38 stereotype threat and, 249–250 versus sexual orientation, 115 Gender roles, 113 Gender schemas, 114 Gender typing, 114 General adaptation syndrome (GAS), 285 General intelligence (g), 236, 238 Generalization, in learning, 172, 178 Generalized anxiety disorder, 376, 377 Genes, 68–70 expression of, 68, 83–84 Genetics of anxiety, 380 behavior, of depression, 394 –395 epigenetics and, 70, 84, 244, 395 of happiness, 305 heritability and, 244, 248–249 linkage analysis and, 394 –395 of personality, 324 of schizophrenia, 399– 400 of sexual orientation, 123, 127 Genital stage, in psychoanalysis, 314 Genome, 68 Gestalt psychology, 145–146 Ghrelin, 58 Glial cells, 30 Glucose hunger and, 258–259 self-control and, 293 Glutamate, 33 Goal setting, B-6 Grammar, universal, 231 Graphs, A-1 Grief, 100–101 Grit, achievement and, B-3–B-4 Group influence, 346 –350 Group polarization, 348–349 Group pressure, conformity and, 342–343, 345–346 Group therapy, 419, 431 Subject Index SI-7 Grouping, form perception and, 146 Heroin, 384, 388 Groupthink, 349–350 Heterosexuality, 115, 120–125 See also Sexual orientation Growth hormone, 37 Identity Heuristics, 220, 221–223, 227 sleep and, 56 Growth mind-set, 250 Guilty knowledge test, 274 H Habituation, 118 Hair cells, 152–153 Hallucinations, 45, 155 in schizophrenia, 397, 398 Hallucinogens, 386 –387 Hammer, auditory processing and, 152 Happiness, 301–306 adaptation-level phenomenon and, 304 enhancement of, 305, 306 genetic factors in, 305 helpfulness and, 364 money and, 303–305 predictors of, 305 relative deprivation and, 304 –305 set point for, 305 subjective well-being and, 302 work-life satisfaction and, 99, B-1–B-2 Hardiness, B- 4 Harlows’ attachment study, 81–82 Health See also Immune system meditation and, 298–299 pets and, 295 social connections and, 294 –296, 300–301 stress and See Stress availability, 222, 225 formation of, 89 social, 89 I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon, Illness See Health Hierarchy of needs, 257–258, 319–320 Imagination effect, in memory, 210–211 Hindsight bias, Immediate reinforcers, 176 Hippocampus, 40 Immune system, 286 –288 in memory processing, 199–200 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), 117–118 stress and, 288 age-related changes in, 96 maternal, sexual orientation and, 124 sleep and, 57, 58 stress and, 286 –288 Homeostasis, 256 Homosexuality, 115, 120–125 See also Sexual orientation in animals, 122 evolutionary aspects of, 127 Hormones, 36 –37 Implicit memory, 195, 200, 202 See also Memory Inattentional blindness, 51 Incentives, 256 Independent variables, 19–20 Individualist cultures, 88, 331–333, 338, 343, 423 appetite, 259 versus neurotransmitters, 36 –37 sex, 110, 111, 115–116 Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology, 5, B-2–B-8, C-4 sleep and, 55 Infant development See Child development stress, 287–288, 291–292 Infantile amnesia, 200 Hue, 140 Infections, schizophrenia and, 399 Human factors psychology, B-2, B-3 Influenza, schizophrenia and, 399 Human papilloma virus (HPV), 118 Information processing Humanistic psychology, automatic, 194, 195–196, 202 evaluation of, 321 dreams and, 61 Maslow’s self-actualization theory and, 319–322 effortful, 196 –199, 202 personality theories and, 319–322, 329 Rogers’ person-centered perspective and, 320–321 visual, 150–151 Information-processing models, in memory, 194 Informed consent, 22 Health psychologists, C-3–C-4 self-concept assessment and, 321 Hearing, 151–154 Ingroups, 352 treatment in, 412– 414 ear structures and, 152–153 Insight, 220, 227, 228–229 Humility, scientific, 11–12 neural processing in, 45 Insight therapies, 412– 413 Hunger, 258–261 See also Eating Insomnia, 58 perceptual set and, 138 physiology of, 258–260 sound location and, 153–154 Insulin, 259 psychology of, 260–261 sound waves and, 151 Intellectual disability, 242 taste preferences and, 260–261 Intelligence, 235–250 Hearing loss, 153 Hypersexualization, 119, 120 cochlear implant for, 153 aging and, 97, 245–246 Hypnagogic sensations, 54 conduction, 153 assessment of, 239–241 Hypnosis, 156 language development and, 230, 232 creative, 237 Hypothalamus, 37, 40, 41– 42 crystallized, 246 sensorineural, 153 sign language and, 50 Heart disease, stress and, 289–290 in hunger, 258–259 Hypotheses, 12–13 testing of, 13–15 Height differences, gender and, 111 Heredity, 68–69 and environment See Nature–nurture interaction Heritability, 244 See also Genetics individual versus group differences and, 248–249 I definition of, 236 emotional, 238 environmental factors in, 243–245 epigenetic factors in, 244 extremes of, 242 Iconic memory, 196 fluid, 246 Id, in psychoanalysis, 313–314 general, 236 Identical twins, 71, 72 See also Twin studies heritability of, 241–243 Identification, in Freudian theory, 314 longevity and, 245 SI-8 SUBJECT INDEX Intelligence (continued) multiple intelligences, 236 –238 nature–nurture interaction and, 241–242 practical, 237 L Language, 229–235 See also Communication; Speech in animals, 234 –235 social, 238 brain areas for, 232–233 stability of, 245 Intelligence quotient (IQ), 239 Intelligence tests, 239–241 See also Test(s) bias in, 249–250 cultural aspects of, 249 gender and, 246 –247 group differences in, 246 –250 race/ethnicity and, 247–249 reliability of, 240–241 stereotype threat and, 249–250 validity of, 241, 249 Intensity, of light, 140 Interaction of heredity and environment, 69 Interference, memory and, 214 forgetting and, 208 Intermittent reinforcement, 177 Internal locus of control, 292 Internet See also Social networking matchmaking, 359 as social amplifier, 349 Interneurons, 33 Interposition (overlap), in depth perception, 148 Interpretation, in psychoanalysis, 411 Intersex individuals, 112 Intimacy, capacity for, 90 Intrinsic motivation, 184 Introversion, 322–323 Intuition, 225–226, 227 limits of, 9–11 brain lateralization and, 50 definition of, 229 productive, 230–231 receptive, 230 sign, 50 thinking without, 233–234 Language development, 230–231 critical periods for, 231–232 grammar in, 231–232 hearing loss and, 230 Late adulthood, 95–96 intelligence in, 97, 245–246 memory in, 96 –97, 207 well-being in, 99–100 Latency stage, in psychoanalysis, 314 Latent content, of dreams, 60 IQ, 239 See also Intelligence Iris, 140 Lateralization, in the brain, 47–50 Law of effect, 174 Leadership, B-5–B-8 Learned helplessness, 291–292, 395 Learning, 166 –191 See also Memory aging and, 96 –97 of anxiety, 380 associative, 168 behaviorist perspective on, 183 biological limits on, 181–183 classical conditioning in, 168, 169–173 See also Classical conditioning cognitive, 168, 169 latent, 184 long-term potentiation in, 201–202 observational, 168, 184 –188 J James-Lange theory, 269, 271 Job satisfaction, B-4 –B-5 Judgments, 221–226 See also Decision making Just-world phenomenon, 352, 354 K Kinesthesia, 159–160 Kitty Genovese case, 363–365 Knowledge work, B-2 Kohlberg’s moral development theory, 87–88, 93 hue of, 140 intensity of, 140 vision and, 139–140 wavelength of, 140 Limbic system, 40– 42 Linear perspective, in depth perception, 148 Linkage analysis, 394 Lithium, 427 Little Albert experiments, 173 Lobotomy, 429– 430 Locus of control, 292–293 Longitudinal studies, 245, A-7 Long-term memory, 194 Long-term potentiation, 201–202 Love, 266 companionate, 362 passionate, 361–362 romantic, 97–99, 361–363 LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), 387, 388 Lymphocytes, 287 Latent learning, 184 definition of, 169 moral, 88 Light operant conditioning in, 168, 174 –181 See also Operant conditioning recall and, 202 recognition and, 202 relearning and, 202 retention of, 202–203 test-enhanced, 23, 198 Legal issues consent, 22 culpability of adolescents, 87 Lens, 140 Leptin, 259, 262 Lie detection, 274, 275 Lifestyle changes, therapeutic, 430– 431 M Macrophages, 287 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 38 Major depressive disorder, 390–391 See also Depression Mania, 391–392 brain changes in, 395 drug therapy for, 427 Manifest content, of dreams, 60 Marijuana, 387–388 Marriage, 97–99 arranged, 362 divorce and, 265, 284, 295 health benefits of, 295–296 interracial, 350 online matchmaking and, 359 Massage therapy, 299 Massed practice, versus distributed practice, 198 Mating preferences, evolution of, 126 –128 Maturation, 73 McGurk effect, 160 MDMA (Ecstasy), 386, 388 Mean, statistical, A-2 Measures of central tendency, A-2 Measures of variation, A-2–A-3 Media models antisocial effects of, 187, 188, 356 –357 hypersexualized images in, 119, 120 violence-viewing effect and, 188 Median, statistical, A-2 Subject Index SI-9 Medical model, of psychological disorders, 373–374 aging and, 96 Medications See Drug therapy failure of, 207–208 cues for, 214 social-cognitive perspective on, 395 suicide and self-injury in, 392–393 Mood, neurotransmitters and, 32 Meditation, in stress reduction, 298–299 sensory, 194, 196 Mood-congruent memory, 205 Medulla, 39 serial position effect and, 205 Mood-stabilizing medications, 427 Melatonin, 55 short-term, 194, 196 Moon illusion, 149 Memory, 192–217 See also Forgetting; Learning sleep and, 56, 199–200, 208, 214 Morality age-related changes in, 96 –97, 207 spacing effect and, 198 conventional, 88 alcohol and, 383 state-dependent, 204 –205 moral action, 88 attention and, 194, 196 –197 storage of, 194, 199–202 moral development, 87–88, 93 cerebellum in, 40 decay of, 207 in children, 75, 200, 212 stress and, 200–201, 318 chunking and, 197 two-track system for, 195–197 consolidation of, 199, 209–210 ways to improve, 24, 197, 214 context effects and, 204 working, 194 –195 definition of, 193 capacity of, 196 –197 moral intuition, 88 moral reasoning, 87–88 Morphine, 384 receptors for, 32 Motion perception, 143, 148 Motivated forgetting, 208–209 dreams and, 61 Memory aids, 24, 197, 214 echoic, 196 Memory trace, 207 achievement, B-3–B-5 emotions and, 200–201 Menarche, 111–112 arousal theory and, 256 –257 encoding of, 194, 195–199 Menopause, 95 drive-reduction theory and, 256 Mental age, 239 extrinsic, 184 explicit (declarative), 195, 196 –200 Mental practice, 233 hierarchy of needs and, 257–258 false, 210–214 See also False memories Mere exposure effect, 359 hunger and, 258–261 feats of, 193 intrinsic, 184 flashbulb, 201 Metabolism, in weight regulation, 259–260, 262 forgetting and, 206 –209 Methadone, 384 Motor cortex, 43– 44 hippocampus in, 40 Methamphetamines, 386, 388 Motor development, 74 –75 hunger and, 260 Milgram’s obedience studies, 343–346 Motor neurons, 33 iconic, 196 Miller’s Magical Number Seven, 196 implicit (nondeclarative), 195–196, 200 Mimicry, automatic, 183–186, 341 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), of brain, 38 information-processing model of, 194 –195 Mindfulness meditation, 298–299 Multiple intelligences, 236 –238 long-term, 194 Multiple personalities, 401– 403 long-term potentiation in, 201–202 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 324 mnemonics and, 197, 214 Minority influence, 346 expression of emotion, 238 mood-congruent, 205 Mirror neurons, 185–186 intelligence, 236, 238 odors and, 158–159 Mirror-image perceptions, 365 of pain, 155–156 Misinformation effect, 210–211 priming and, 204 Mnemonic devices, in memory, 197, 214 processing of Mode, statistical, A-2 failure of, 207 automatic, 194, 195–196, 202 brain areas in, 199–201 effortful, 196 –199, 202 neural networks in, 201–202 synaptic changes in, 201–202 recall of, 202 aging and, 96 recognition and, 202 reconsolidation of, 209–210 rehearsal and, 214 relearning and, 202 repressed, 209, 213–214 retention of, 202–203 retrieval of, 194, 202–205 Modeling, 184 –185 See also Observational learning of aggression, 185, 188, 356 –358 of antisocial behavior, 187 of prosocial behavior, 186 –187 Money, happiness and, 303–305 Monocular depth cues, 147 Monozygotic twins, 71, 72 See also Twin studies Mood disorders, 390–396 biology of, 394 –395 bipolar disorder, 391–392, 395, 427 major depressive disorder, 390–391 See also Depression Motivation, 255–258 need to belong and, 263–268 Music preferences, 325–326 Myelin sheath, 30 N Narcissism, 330 social networking and, 268 Narcolepsy, 58–59 Natural disasters, stress and, 284 Natural killer cells, 287 Natural selection, 181, 182 evolutionary psychology and, 125 mate selection and, 126 –127 Naturalistic observation, 14 Nature–nurture interaction, 7, 68, 69–70 brain development and, 74 child development and, 85–86 depression and, 395 epigenetics and, 70 SI-10 SUBJECT INDEX Nature–nurture interaction (continued) intelligence and, 241–242 Norepinephrine, 33, 36 in mood disorders, 395 Oral stage, in psychoanalysis, 314 Orexin, 259 personality and, 327 Normal curve, 240, A-4 Organizational psychology, B-2–B-3 sexual behavior and, 128 Norms, 343 Orgasm, in sexual response cycle, 116, 119–120 Near-death experiences, 387 NREM sleep, 54, 55 disorders of, 117 Necker cube, 145 O Necrophilia, 117 Ostracism, 265–266 Need to belong, 263–268 Obama effect, 250 Other-race effect, 353 Negative reinforcement, 175–176 Obedience, 343–346 Outcome simulation, 233 Neo-Freudians, 315–316 Obesity, 261–263 Outcomes research, 420– 421 Neonatal development, 71–73 sleep and, 58, 59 Outgroups, 352 Nerves, definition of, 33 Object permanence, 76 Oval window, 152 Nervous system, 33–36 Observation, naturalistic, 14 Overconfidence, 10, 223, 227 Observational learning, 168, 184 –188 See also Modeling Overlearning, 24 autonomic, 34, 36, 272–273 central, 33, 34 –36 See also Brain; Spinal cord linkage with endocrine system, 36, 41 antisocial effects of, 187 parasympathetic, 34, 273 definition of, 184 peripheral, 33, 34 –35 by imitation, 185–186 somatic, 34 mirror neurons and, 185–186 sympathetic, 34, 273 prosocial effects of, 186 –187 Own-race bias, 353 Oxytocin, 37, 286, 294, 362 P Pain, 154 –157 endorphins and, 32, 155, 384 Neural communication, 30–33 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 376, 378 management of, 155–157 Neural networks, 35, 47 Occipital lobes, 43 See also Cerebral cortex memory of, 155–156 development of, 73–74 Oedipus complex, 314 phantom, 155 dreams and, 61 Older adults See Late adulthood receptors, 155 in memory processing, 201–202 Older-brother effect on sexual orientation, 124 sensation of, 154 –155 pruning of, 74 Olfaction, 158–159 Neural plasticity, 47, 97 Neural static, dreams and, 61 Neurocognitive disorder, 95 Neurogenesis, 47 Neuron(s) interneurons, 33 mirror, 185–186 motor, 33 production of, 47 sensory, 33 structure of, 30 synaptic connections of, 35 Neuropsychologists, C-4 Neuroscience, cognitive, 3, 50 Neuroscience perspective, Neuroticism, 324 Neurotransmitters, 31–32 versus hormones, 36 –37 Neutral stimulus (NS), 169–170 Newborns, 71–73 Nicotine, 384 –385, 388 Night terrors, 59 Nociceptors, 155 Nondeclarative memory See Implicit memory Nonsuicidal self-injury, 392–393 Noradrenaline, 36 taste and, 160 social, 266 Panic disorder, 376, 377 One-word stage, in language development, 230–231 Paradoxical sleep, 54 –55 Online matchmaking, 359 Paraphilias, 117 Openness, 324 Paraprofessionals, 423 Operant behavior, 174 Parasympathetic nervous system, 34, 273 Operant chamber, 174 Parent(s), 84 –85, 99, 178–180 Operant conditioning, 174 –181 See also Conditioning applications of, 180 biological influences on, 182–183, 184 versus classical conditioning, 180–181 cognitive influences on, 183–184 limits on, 182–184 Parallel processing, in vision, 143 influence of, 91–92 Parenting styles, 84 –85 gender and, 110 Parietal lobes, 43 See also Cerebral cortex Partial reinforcement, 177 Passionate love, 361–362 negative reinforcement in, 175–176 Pavlov’s experiments, 169–173 See also Classical conditioning positive reinforcement in, 175 Paxil, 426 punishment in, 176, 178–179 Peacemaking, 365–367 shaping in, 174 –175 Peak experiences, 319 Skinner’s experiments in, 174 –180 Pedophilia, 117 Operational definitions, 13, 19 Peer relationships Opiate(s), 32, 384, 388 in adolescence, 90–91 abuse of, 384, 388 gender and, 109–110 natural, 32, 155, 384 social networking and, 266 –268 Opiate receptors, 32 Peg-word system, in memory, 197 Opponent-process theory, 144 Perception, 134 –163 See also Sensation Optic nerve, 141 context effects in, 138–139 Optimism, 293–294 definition of, 134 Subject Index SI-11 form, 146 steps in, 134 –135 Perceptual adaptation, 150–151 Physical attractiveness, 359–360 See also Attraction Physical development Premature ejaculation, 117 Prenatal development, 70–71 sex determination in, 110–111 Perceptual constancy, 148–150 in adolescence, 86 –87 Perceptual development, critical periods for, 150 in adulthood, 94 –96 Preoperational stage, in cognitive development, 77–79 in infancy and childhood, 73–75 Pressure receptors, 154 Perceptual set, 138 in neonatal period, 71–73 Pretend play, 77–78 Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 33, 34 –35 Physiological needs, 256 Primary reinforcers, 176 Permissive parenting style, 84 Primary sex characteristics, 111 Persistent depressive disorder, 391 Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 75–80, 87–88, 93–94 Personal control Pitch perception, 151 Proactive interference, forgetting and, 208, 214 social control and, 346 Pituitary gland, 36 –37 Problem-focused coping, 291 stress and, 291–293 Placebo effect, 18 Problem solving, 220–221 Personality, 310–335 biological factors in, 323 Priming, 135–136, 204 antidepressants and, 426 – 427 Process simulation, 233–234 in electroconvulsive therapy, 427– 428 Productive language, 230–231 definition of, 311, 322 Placenta, 70 Projection, 315, 318–319 emotional stability and, 322–323 Plasticity, brain, 47, 97 Projective tests, 316 genetic factors in, 324 Plateau phase, in sexual response cycle, 116 Prolactin, 119 heart disease and, 289–290 Pleasure centers, in the brain, 41– 42 Prosocial behavior, modeling of, 186 –187 nature–nurture interaction and, 327 Pleasure principle, 313 Prosopagnosia, 133–134, 142 reciprocal influences on, 326 –327 Polygraphs, 274 Prototypes, 220 stability of, 101–102, 324, 325–326 Pons, 39 Proximity temperament and, 73 Population, 15 Personality factors, 322–323, 324 Pornography, 118, 357 Personality inventories, 324 Positive psychology, 8, 301–306 See also Happiness Personality psychologists, Personality tests, 316 –317, 321, 322–323, 324 Personality theories humanistic, 319–322, 329 neo-Freudian, 315–316, 329 psychoanalytic, 312–315 psychodynamic, 312, 316 social-cognitive, 326 –328, 329 trait, 322–326, 329 Personality traits, 322–326 in animals, 323 assessment of, 324 Big Five, 324 clusters of, 322–323 definition of, 323 predicting behavior from, 325 Person-centered perspective, 320–321 Personnel psychology, B-2, B-3 Person-situation controversy, 325–326 Pessimism, 293–294 depression and, 395–396 PET (positron emission tomography), 38 Pets, in stress management, 295 Phallic stage, in psychoanalysis, 314 Phantom limb sensation, 155 Phobias, 376, 377–378 exposure therapies for, 414 – 415 Positive reinforcement, 175 Positive thinking, benefits of, 293–294 Positron emission tomography (PET), 38 Postconventional morality, 88 attraction and, 358–359 perception of, 146 Prozac (fluoxetine), 426 Pruning, 74 Psychiatric social workers, 424 Psychiatrists, 424 Psychoactive drugs, 381 See also Drug therapy Posthypnotic suggestion, 156 Psychoanalysis, 312–315, 410– 411 See also Freud’s psychoanalysis Posttraumatic stress disorder, 377, 378–379, 432 Psychodynamic theories, 312–319 dissociative disorders and, 402– 403 Power, gender and, 109 current views of, 317–319 Practical intelligence, 237 Freudian, 312–315 See also Freudian psychology Practice neo-Freudian, 315–316 massed versus distributive, 198 mental, 233 Preconventional morality, 88 personality tests and, 315–316 Psychodynamic therapy, 412, 431 Psychological disorders, 371– 407 Predictive validity, 241 anxiety disorders, 376 –381 Pregnancy biopsychosocial approach to, 374 alcohol use in, 71 classification of, 374 –375 fetal development in, 70–71, 110–111 definition of, 372 hormones in, sexual orientation and, 123–124 diagnosis of, 372, 374 –375 teen, 118–120 dissociative disorders, 401– 403 viral infections in, schizophrenia and, 399 eating disorders, 400– 401 Prejudice, 350–354 heritability of, 394 automatic, 351 historical perspective on, 372–374 cognitive roots of, 353–354 labeling and, 375 emotional roots of, 352–353 medical model of, 373–374 open versus subtle, 350–351 mood disorders, 390–396 social roots of, 351–352 personality disorders, 403– 404 trends in, 350–351 prevention of, 431– 432 SI-12 SUBJECT INDEX Psychological disorders (continued) schizophrenia, 397– 400 substance use, 381–390 Q Quantitative psychologists, C-4 suicide and self-injury in, 392–393 treatment of, 409– 435 See also Biomedical therapies; Drug therapy; Psychotherapy violence in, 376 Psychological manipulation, 22–23 Psychological tests See Test(s) Psychology careers in, 5, C-1–C-5 current perspectives in, 4 –5 definition of, 3– 4 four big ideas in, 5–9 historical perspective on, 2–5 practical applications of, 9–12 purpose of, 23 reasons to study, 9–12 scientific method and, 12–20 subfields of, 5, C-1–C-5 Psychometric and quantitative psychologists, C-4 Psychoneuroimmunology, 286 –288 Psychosexual stages, 314 Psychosocial development, 89–92 Psychosurgery, 429– 430, 431 Psychotherapists empathy in, 422– 423 selection of, 424 types of, 424 values of, 423 Psychotherapy, 410– 424 behavioral, 414 – 417, 431 benefits of, 422– 423 versus biomedical therapy, 410 client-centered, 413, 431 cognitive-behavioral, 419, 431 cultural aspects of, 423 discredited techniques in, 422 eclectic approach to, 410 effectiveness of, 420– 423 evidence-based, 422 family, 419– 420, 431 group, 419, 431 humanistic, 412 psychoanalytic, 410– 411 psychodynamic, 412, 431 when to seek, 424 Puberty, 86, 111–112, 116 Punishment, 178–179 versus reinforcement, 176 vicarious, 185 Pupil, 140 PYY, 259 R Race/ethnicity individual versus group differences and, 248–249 intelligence tests and, 247–249 stereotype threat and, 249–250 Racial prejudice See Prejudice Random assignment, 18, 19–20 Random events, 10–11 Random sample, 15 Randomized clinical trials, 421 Range of scores, A-3 Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, 53, 54 –55 dreams and, 60–61 Rationalization, 315 Reaction formation, 315, 318 Reality principle, 313 Recall, 202 Receptive language, 230 Receptors color, 144 olfactory, 158 opiate, 32 pain, 155 pressure, 154 sensory, 137 taste, 157–158 Reciprocal determinism, 326 –327 Reciprocity norm, 365 Reflexes, 35–36 neonatal, 71 Refractory period, in sexual response cycle, 116 Regression, in psychoanalysis, 315 Regression toward the mean, A-5–A-6 Rehabilitation psychologists, C-4 Rehearsal, mental, 233 Reinforcement, 380 of aggression, 356 continuous, 177 definition of, 174 negative, 175–176 partial (intermittent), 177 positive, 175 versus punishment, 176 vicarious, 185 Reinforcement schedules, 177–178 Reinforcers conditioned (secondary), 176 delayed, 176 immediate, 176 primary, 176 Relational aggression, 109 Relationships See Social connections Relative deprivation, 304 –305 Relative height, in depth perception, 148 Relative motion, in depth perception, 148 Relative size, in depth perception, 148 Relaxation techniques, 297–299 in exposure therapy, 415 Relearning, 202 Reliability of observed difference, A-6 of tests, 240–241, 316 –317 Religious involvement evolution and, 129 health and, 299–301 REM rebound, 62 REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, 53, 54 –55 dreams and, 60–61 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), 428 Replication of research study, 13 Representative samples, A-6 Repression, 209, 213–214, 314 –315, 318, 379 of memories of abuse, 212–214, 422 Research studies See also Experiment(s) animal, 21–22 cross-sectional, 245 ethical issues in, 21–22 human subjects in, 22 longitudinal, 245 Resilience, 84, 301, 379, 431– 432 Resistance, in psychoanalysis, 411 Resolution, in sexual response cycle, 116 Respondent behavior, 174 Reticular formation, 39 Retina, 140–142 Retinal disparity, 147 Retrieval, of memories, 194, 202–205 aging and, 96 cues for, 203–204, 214 failure of, 207–208 Retrieval practice effect, 23, 198 Retroactive interference, forgetting and, 208, 214 Reward centers, 41– 42 Reward theory of attraction, 361 Rods, 141–142, 144 Rogers’ client-centered therapy, 413, 431 Role(s) definition of, 113 gender, 113 Subject Index SI-13 Role-playing, attitudes and, 340–341 Romantic love, 97–99, 266, 361–363 Self-image, 328–331 definition of, 328 cultural factors in, 127–128 evolution of, 125–128 Rorschach inkblot test, 316 –317 Self-injury, nonsuicidal, 392–393 external stimuli and, 118 Rumination, 395, 431 Self-serving bias, 330–331 gender differences in, 125 Self-testing, memory and, 23, 198 hormonal factors in, 115–116 Self-transcendence, 319–320 imagined stimuli and, 118 Safe sex, 117–118 Selye’s general adaptation syndrome, 285 nature–nurture interaction and, 128 Sample Sensation, 134 –163 See also Perception and specific senses psychological factors in, 118–120 S random, 15 variation in, 119–120 definition of, 135 Sexual content, of dreams, 60 Sample size, A-6 information from, 134 Sexual development, 110–113 Savant syndrome, 236 steps in, 134 –135 representative, A-6 Scapegoat theory, 352–353 Scatterplots, 16, A-4 Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion, 270, 271 Schemas, 76 gender, 114 Schizophrenia, 397– 400 brain abnormalities in, 398–399 drug therapy for, 425 genetic factors in, 399– 400 onset and development of, 398 prenatal factors in, 398–399 recovery from, 398 risk factors for, 398–399 symptoms of, 397–398 School psychologists, C-4 Scientific attitude, 11–12 Scientific method, 12–20 correlation in, 16 –17, 20 description in, 13–15, 20 experimentation in, 17–20 Secondary sex characteristics, 111 Selective attention, 51–52 Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 426 Sensorimotor stage, in cognitive development, 76 Sensorineural hearing loss, 153 See also Hearing loss Sensory adaptation, 137 Sensory cortex, 44 – 45 Sensory development, critical periods for, 150 Sensory interaction, 160–161 Sensory memory, 194, 196 Sensory neurons, 33 Sensory receptors, 137 Sensory restriction, 150 Sensory thresholds absolute, 135–136 difference, 136 Serial position effect, 205 Serotonin, 32, 33, 385 in memory, 201 in mood disorders, 395 Set point happiness, 305 weight, 259–260 Settling point, weight and, 260 Sex versus gender, Self-actualization, 319–320 physiology of, 115–118, 273 Self-concept, 320 psychology of, 118–120 assessment of, 321 in individualist versus collectivist cultures, 331–333 Self-control, 292–293 aggression and, 356 Sex characteristics primary, 111 secondary, 111 Sex chromosomes, 110–111 Sex determination, 110–111 Self-discipline, B-3–B-4 Sex education, 118–119 Self-disclosure, 267, 296, 320, 362–363 Self-efficacy, 326 –327 Sex hormones, 110, 111, 115–116 See also Testosterone; Estrogens Self-esteem, 329–331 Sex-reassignment surgery, 112, 114 benefits of, 329–330 definition of, 329 Sexual abuse, 84 memories of, 212–214, 422 gender differences in, 108 Sexual arousal, 116, 118, 273 in humanistic psychology, 321 Sexual behavior self-serving bias and, 330–331 alcohol and, 384 adolescent, 111–112 prenatal, 110–111 variations in, 112 Sexual dysfunction, 116 –117 Sexual fantasies, 118 Sexual function in late adulthood, 96 after spinal cord injury, 36 Sexual maturation, 86 Sexual motivation, 119 Sexual orientation, 115, 120–125 biology of, 122–125 brain differences and, 122–123 cultural aspects of, 121 environment and, 122 evolutionary aspects of, 127 genetic factors in, 123, 127 origin of, 121, 122 prenatal influences in, 123–124 psychological problems and, 121 stability of, 121 trait differences and, 124 Sexual response cycle, 116 Sexuality, 115–128 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 117–118 Shape constancy, 149 Shaping, in learning, 167, 174 –175, 180, 416 Short-term memory, 194 See also Memory capacity of, 196 Sign language, 50 Significant differences, in statistics, A-6 –A-8 Size constancy, 149 Skeletal nervous system, 34 Skepticism, scientific, 11–12 Skewed distribution, A-2 Skills massed versus distributed practice for, 198 mental practice for, 233 10-year rule for, 238 Skinner box, 174 Skinner’s experiments, 174 –178, 179–180 See also Operant conditioning SI-14 SUBJECT INDEX Sleep, 52–62 alpha waves in, 53–54 minority, 346 obedience and, 345–346 Stage theories, 93–94 Erikson’s, 89, 93 biological rhythms and, 52–55 Social intelligence, 238 daylight savings time and, 57 Social interactions, gender and, 109 definition of, 55 Social leadership, B-7 Standard deviation, A-3–A-4 delta waves in, 54 Social learning theory, 113–114 Standardized tests, 240 in depression, 57–58, 431 Social loafing, 347 Stanford-Binet intelligence test, 239, 240 dreams and, 55, 60–62, 317 Social networking, 266 –268 State-dependent memory, 204 –205 immune response and, 57, 58 Social norms, 343 Statistical significance, A-7 lack of, 56 –58 Social power, gender and, 109 Statistics, A-1–A-8 melatonin and, 55 Social psychology, 5, 337–369, C-4 Stereotypes, 350, 352 memory and, 56, 199–200, 208, 214 NREM, 54, 55 focus of, 338 Kohlberg’s, 87–88, 93 Piaget’s, 75–80, 87–88, 93–94 Stimulant drugs, 384 –386 obesity and, 58, 59, 262, 264 Social relations, 350–367 See also Social connections paradoxical, 54 –55 Social scripts, 357 definition of, 168 purpose of, 55–56 Social support See Social connections neutral, 169–170 REM, 53, 54 –55, 60–61, 62 Social thinking, 338–341 subliminal, 135 stages of, 53–55 Social workers, 424 two-track mind in, 60 Social-cognitive personality theories, 326 –328, 329 Sleep apnea, 59 Sleep cycle, 55 Sleep deprivation, 56 –58 Sleep disorders, 58–59 Sleep patterns, 55 Sleep promotion, 59 Sleep studies, 53 Sleep theories, 55–56 Sleeptalking, 59 Sleepwalking, 59 Smell, 158–159 taste and, 160 Smiling, 277–278 Smoking, 384 –385, 388 Social anxiety disorder, 378 Social clock, 99 Social connections, 263–268 See also Friendships benefits of, 263–265 gender and, 109 health and, 294 –296, 300–301 loss of, 265–266 well-being and, 98–99, 100 Social control, personal control and, 346 Social development in adolescence, 89–92 attachment and, 81–84 in childhood and infancy, 81–85 parenting styles and, 84 –85 Social facilitation, 346 –347 Social identity, 89, 352 Social inequality, prejudice and, 351–352 Social influence, 341–350 conformity and, 341–343, 345–346 group behavior and, 346 –350 Social-cultural perspective, Social-responsibility norm, 365 Somatic nervous system, 34 Somatosensory cortex, 45 Sound Stimulus conditioned, 170 unconditioned, 170 Stimulus generalization, 380 Stirrup, in auditory processing, 152 Strange situation experiment, 82 Stranger anxiety, 81 Stress, 284 –301 coping with, 291–296 See also Stress management decibel levels of, 151–152 emotion-focused, 291 locating, 153–154 finding meaning in, 296 Sound waves, 151 meditation in, 298–299 decoding, 152–153 optimism and, 293–294 frequency of, 151 personal control and, 291–293 Source amnesia, 211 pets and, 295 Spacing effect, 198 problem-focused, 291 Spanking, 178–179 relaxation in, 297–299 Spatial abilities, sexual orientation and, 124 religion and spirituality in, 299–301 Speech See also Communication; Language self-discipline and, 293 disordered, in schizophrenia, 397 telegraphic, 231 self-disclosure and, 296 social support and, 294 –296, 300–301 Speed dating, 359 definition of, 284 Spermarche, 111, 112 depression and, 394 Spillover effect, 270 health effects of, 286 –290 Spinal cord, structure of, 35–36 heart disease and, 289–290 Spinal cord injury, 36 learned helplessness and, 291–292, 395 emotions and, 270 Spinal reflexes, 35–36 memory and, 200–201, 318 sources of, 284 –285 Spirituality, health and, 299–301 Stress hormones, 287–288, 291–292 Split brain patients, 48– 49 Stress management, 296 –301 See also Stress, coping with Spontaneous recovery, in learning, 171–172 Sport psychologists, C-4 –C-5 exercise in, 296 –297 Sports, mental practice for, 233 gender and, 110 Spotlight effect, 328–329 lifestyle changes in, 430– 431 SQ3R study system, 23–24, 214 SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), 426 resilience and, 84, 301, 379, 431– 432 Stress response, 34, 272, 285–286 Study tips, 23–24, 198, 214 Subject Index SI-15 Subjective well-being, 302 aptitude, 239 Trust, attachment and, 83 Subliminal messages, 135 bias in, 249–250 Twin studies, 72 Substance use disorder, 381–390 intelligence See Intelligence tests of depression, 394 addiction in, 382 personality, 316 –317, 321, 322–323, 324 of intelligence, 241 biology of, 388 projective, 316 of romantic love, 97–98 depressants in, 382–384 reliability of, 240–241, 316 –317 of schizophrenia, 399– 400 hallucinogens in, 386 –388 standardized, 240 prevention of, 390 stereotype threat and, 249–250 psychological factors in, 389–390 validity of, 241, 249, 317 of sexual orientation, 123 Twins fraternal, 71, 72 social-cultural influences in, 389–390 Test-enhanced learning, 23, 198 stimulants in, 384 –386 Testing effect, 23, 198 Twitter, 266 –268 identical, 71, 72 tolerance in, 382 Testosterone, 115–116 Two-factor theory of emotion, 270, 271 trends in, 389 aggression and, 354 withdrawal in, 382 autism spectrum disorder and, 78, 79 decision making and, 226 sex determination and, 111 dreaming and, 60 Suicide, 392–393 Two-track mind, 5, 8, 40 Superego, in psychoanalysis, 313–314 Texting, 266 –268 emotions and, 270–272 Superordinate goals, 366 Thalamus, 39, 270 intuition and, 225–226 Surveys, 15 THC, 387 memory and, 195–197 Sympathetic nervous system, 34, 272–273, 283 Theories, 12–13 during sleep, 60 Synapses, 30, 35 Theory of mind, 78 thinking without language and, 233–234 in memory processing, 201–202 Therapeutic alliance, 423 unconscious and, 318 Synesthesia, 161 Therapeutic lifestyle changes, 430– 431 Two-word stage, in language development, 231 Systematic desensitization, 415 Therapy See Biomedical therapies; Psychotherapy Type A personality, 289 Thinking See also Cognitive processes Type B personality, 289 T convergent, 226 Type D personality, 290 T lymphocytes, 287 critical, 5, 6, 24 Tardive dyskinesia, 425 divergent, 226 Task leadership, B-7 social, 338–341 Umami, 157 without language, 233–234 Unconditional positive regard, 320, 413– 414 Taste, 157–158 perceptual set and, 138 smell and, 160 Taste aversions, 261 conditioning and, 182 Thresholds, 31, 135–136 Unconditioned stimulus (US), 170 difference, 136 Unconscious mind Time management, 24 Tinnitus, 155 Technology, social networking and, 266 –268 Token economy, 416 Teen pregnancy, 118–120 Tolerance, to psychoactive drugs, 382 Telegraphic speech stage, in language development, 231 Tools, use by animals, 229 Television Touch, 154 –157 Top-down processing, 134 pain and, 155–157 hypersexualized images in, 119, 120 Traditional healers, 423 irresistibility of, 137 Trait theories, 322–326, 329 See also Personality traits Telomeres, 95–96 Temperament, 73 attachment and, 82–83 stability of, 101 Unconditioned response (UR), 170 absolute, 135–136 Taste preferences, 260–261 antisocial effects of, 187, 188, 356 –357 U evaluation of, 325–326 person-situation controversy and, 325–326 Tranquilizers, 384 in Freudian theory, 312 modern views of, 318–319 Universal grammar, 231 V Validity content, 241 predictive, 241 test, 241, 249, 317 Values, 22–23 in psychotherapy, 423 Variable(s) confounding, 19–20 dependent, 19–20 Temporal lobes, 43 See also Cerebral cortex Transduction, 135 10-year rule, 238 Transference, in psychoanalysis, 411 Tend-and-befriend stress response, 286 Transgender people, 114 –115 Variable-interval reinforcement schedules, 177–178 Teratogens, 71 Transsexual people, 114 Variable-ratio reinforcement schedules, 177 Terrorism, group polarization and, 348–349 Transvestites, 115 Variation, measures of, A-2–A-3 Test(s) Treatment See Biomedical therapies; Psychotherapy Vestibular sense, 159–160 achievement, 239 independent, 19–20 Vicarious punishment/reinforcement, 185 SI-16 SUBJECT INDEX Video games perceptual set and, 138 antisocial effects of, 187, 188, 357–358 restored, 150 hypersexualized images in, 119, 120 sensory restriction and, 150 Violence See also Aggression Women See also Gender sexual function in, 115 in split-brain patients, 48– 49 disorders of, 116 –117 testosterone in, 115 in antisocial personality disorder, 403– 404 Visual cliff, 146 –147 Word salad, in schizophrenia, 397 Visual cortex, 45 Wording effects psychological disorders and, 376 Visual interpretation, 150–151 Violence-viewing effect, 188, 356 –358 Visual organization, 145–151 Viral infections, schizophrenia and, 399 Vygotsky’s theory of mind, 78 Virtual reality exposure therapy, 415 W Vision, 139–151 age-related changes in, 95 Wavelength, 140 binocular depth cues in, 147 Weber’s law, 136 color, 140, 141–142, 143–145 critical periods for, 150 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), 240 depth perception and, 146 –147 Weight in surveys, 15 values and, 22 Worker satisfaction, B-4 –B-5 Working memory, 194 –195 See also Memory capacity of, 196 –197 Work-life satisfaction, 99, B-1–B-2 X X chromosome, 111 Y eye structures and, 140–142 obesity and, 261–263 feature detection and, 142–143 regulation of, 258–261 Y chromosome, 111 sleep and, 58, 59 Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory, 144 form perception and, 146 information processing in, 142–143 Weight management, 261–263, 264 light and, 139–140 Well-being, subjective, 302 monocular depth cues in, 147 Wernicke’s area, 232–233 neural processing in, 45 Willpower, 293 Zimbardo’s prison study, 340–351 parallel processing in, 143 Wish satisfaction, dreams and, 60–61 Zoloft, 426 perceptual constancy and, 148–150 Withdrawal, drug, 382 Zygotes, 70 Z (continued from inside front cover) How Does Psychology Apply to YOUR Everyday Life? Why are smells so closely associated with important memories? (pp 158–159) Why is it that social exclusion may literally feel cold, and physical warmth (as in holding a coffee cup) may promote social warmth? (pp 160–161) How long does it take to learn a good habit? (p 168) How could you use operant conditioning principles to shape new behaviors in your pet (or partner)? (pp 167, 174–175) How can you use operant conditioning techniques to make a change, such as stopping smoking, eating less, or What is the relationship between studying or exercising more? (p 181) viewing media violence and violent behavior? (p 188) How is our memory affected by the context or mental state we’re in? (pp 204–205) causes us to forget? (pp 207–209) What the tongue memory problems? (p 208) false memories? (pp 211–212) What causes those frustrating tip of Why is it so hard to recognize What are some specific tips for improving your memory in your studies? (p 214) How social and emotional intelligence affect success in career, marriage, and parenting roles? (p 238) How can those memorable exceptions (the uncle who smoked two packs a day and lived to be 89) mislead us? (p 14) How can you use the testing effect to improve retention and get better grades? (pp 23–25) How could a brain tumor cause a person to become a child molester? (p 29) Why we find kissing so pleasurable? (p 45) How can music therapy, sleep, exercise, and stimulating environments help the brain repair itself? (p 47) How does sleep affect memory? mood? weight gain? (pp 57–58) How can we get a better night’s sleep? (p 59) dream? (pp 60–62) few years of life? (p 75) for Why can’t we remember anything from those first Do our early attachments form the foundation adult relationships? (p 83) attachment What are the long-term effects of deprivation and of abuse? (pp 83–84) differences affect children? (p 84) before What and why we How parenting-style What is the effect of living together marriage on divorce risk later? (p 98) How does viewing pornography affect men’s attitude toward women, including their own partners? (p 118) ... Memory Storage Thinking Without Language 233 Do Other Species Have Language? 234 Intelligence 199 235 What Is Intelligence? 235 Retaining Information in the Brain 199 Assessing Intelligence 239... and Learning CHAPTER 181 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 219 Biological Limits on Conditioning 181 Cognitive Influences on Conditioning 183 Learning by Observation 184 THINKING CRITICALLY... interesting applications to help ing the Aging and Intelligence coverstudents see just how applicable psyage to Chapter 8, Thinking, Language, chology’s concepts are to everyday life and Intelligence