fish in nutrition034834mbp

Snyder 370 FUR-BEARING ANIMAL NUTRITION The Utilization of Menhaden Products by Mink PART V DEMAND FOR FISH AS HUMAN FOOD AND POSSIBILITIES FOR INCREASED CONSUMPTION PIG NUTRITION R.. It

IN

NUTRITION

Edited by

TechnologyBranch,Fisheries Division,Food andAgriculture

Publishedby

FISHING NEWS (BOOKS) LTD.

O FAO 1962

Theviews expressed inthe papers and discussions are those

ofthe contributorsandnotnecessarilythose oftheFoodand

Agriculture OrganizationoftheUnitedNations

MADE AND FRINTBD IN ORIAT BRITAIN

Y THE WHITBntlARS PRESSLIMITED, LONDON AND TON1RIDOI

. B R Sen xvii

/>. B.Finn xix

DonaldL McKernan xxi

PART I THE ROLE OF FISH

The World BiomassofMarineFishes

Herbert W Graham andRobertL.Edwards 3

World AquaticBiomass ItsFutureAbundance

Importance ofFisheriesProduction and

TheR61e ofFishinHumanNutrition B, C Guha 39

The R6kofFishinAnimalFeeding G F Combs 43

PART II-CHEMICAL COMPONENTS

OF FISH AND THEIR CHANGES

UNDER TREATMENT

PROTEINS AND GENERAL COMPOSITION

ProximateComposition ofFish

MauriceE.Stansby 55Amiao AddComposition of FreshFishand

The Amino Add Composition of Fish Muscle

Races, Spawning Migrations) on Fat, Protein

and Water; their Distribution in Sea-Trout

(SalmotruttaL.) . J.T Kukucz

Enzymes of Marine Fish Musde and their Rdle

EndogenousProteolytkEnzymesandtheirAction

onWater-SolubleFish Tissue Proteins

Discussion

LIPIDS AND VITAMINS

Oxidation ofFish Lipids //. S Olcott

Some Modern Methods of Separation and

RalphT.Holman

the Amount of Vitamins and Minerals in

ProcessedFish . HideoHigashi

B-Vitaminsin FishandShellfish

OlafR. Braekkan

B-VitaminsinSomeFishProducts

OlafR Braekkan

MusdeLipidsofTuna

ff. S Olcott,J. FroinesandC Y Shuster

theSolubilityofCodActomyosin

INFLUENCE OF PROCESSING

C F Dunker andG W Wharton

OnToughness ofBoiledFishMeat

Toyo-o Takahashi

FtahSausageinJapan . Minoru Okada

C.ft.Kurtzman,D.G.Snyder, L E Ousterhout,

F T.PiskurandP. F.Braucher

161

Value of Ftah with Special Reference to

FermentedFtahProductsinSouth-East Asia

K.Amano 180

A B Morrison 201

J.M.Shewan 207

Ftah . Edward Cohen and JohnPeters 220

222

224

226

228

Untreated HerringMeals . B E March,

J.Biely,F Claggettand H.L A Tarr 230

231

PART III CONTRIBUTION OF FISH

AND FISH PRODUCTS TO

Arkansas Pond-Reared Ftah M.C.Kfk 257

Valor BkJigtao de pescados de Consume enEspaia InfluencM sobred mtamo de aJgnnas

Tecnkasde Conservation

Tryptophan Content of Fish Meat with Special

Referencetothe ProteinScore

S Konosu andF Matsuura 261

Enrichment of Lime-Treated Cora Flour with

DeodorizedFishFlour RicardoBressani 266

Henrik Dam andErlingLund 277

ComparativeEffects ofMarine Oils, Marine Oil

Hyper-choksteremkRats . JamesJ.Peifer 282

Plasma Uptds and Possibly to Atherogenesis

Polyunsaturated Fatty Adds in Fish Fat, in the

Diet andintheStood

Olav NotevarpandBjorg N Cyvin 286 UseofFishinthe Control of Hypercholesterania

andObesity C M Harhw andA R Morton 292

TakashiKaneda 294

S A.Miller, H.A Dymsza andS A Goldblith 295

296

PROTEINS

PART IV FISH AND FISHERY

PRODUCTS IN ANIMAL NUTRITION

PageNo

GENERAL

FishProductsin AnimalNutrition

The Binding of Lysine in Herring Press-Cake

heated underControlledConditions

K.J. CarpenterandC.H Lea 310

A Ekern, T Homb, H Hvidsten,O Uhesli

andK Breirem 324

PageNo

MetabolizaUe Energy and Digestibility

Evalua-tionofFishMealforChickens

L M.Potter, W.J. Pudelkiewicz, L Webster

Quality ofFish Mealin Relationtoits Valueas

a Supplement to Corn-Soybean Meal Chick

W. F Dean, A AguileraandR E Smith 366

Condensed Fish Solubles in Broiler Nutrition

J. R Couch, A A Camp andC R Creger 368

byFishProducts

T D RunnelsandD G Snyder 370

FUR-BEARING ANIMAL NUTRITION

The Utilization of Menhaden Products by Mink

PART V DEMAND FOR FISH AS

HUMAN FOOD AND POSSIBILITIES

FOR INCREASED CONSUMPTION

PIG NUTRITION

R Braude 332Preliminary Report on the Use of Fresh

Anchovy (Engraulis ringens) in Pig Feeding

The DemandforFish asHuman Food

R Hamlisch andR A Taylor 385

PublishersNote:Theillustrationsusedin thisbookarenotstrictlylinked withthetextofthearticleswithwhich they

they are placed and totake advantage ofthe space availablein order to give the reader asmuchservice aspossible.

permissionto publish these picturesisgratefullyextendedtoFAO andallothersconcerned

NorwegianFishing Fleet .

African Method ofProcessing .

Fish Food Demonstration in Mexico

South African Fish Meal Production .

Drying Cod inGreenland

Canning Tuna inJapan

Malnutrition Rectified by FishProtein

Good Catchof Fishin Ceylon .

Improved Dryer forAfrican Conditions

Shrimp Processingin Cochin, India .

A Research Chemistat Work .

Tuna on Tokyo Market .

Canning Factory in California .

Drying and SaltingCodin Newfoundland

Fermented Fish (Canned), Sudan

Laboratoryon ResearchVessel

Housewivesin Fish Market, Brazil

Fish Sausage Production, Canada

PageNo

2238

42

51

606772

111

116140145

147

160179

200

219

221

225227

PageNo

SouthAfrican Fisheries Laboratory . 229HerringMeal Output 233

Proofof Malnutrition South America andIndia . 247

Fish Pondsin the East 256

Farming ofCarp Mexico 260

Fish Meat becomes Popular 262FishFlourforBurmeseChildren . .265

Mixing Fish Flour withCereals . 270Fish Meal inPig Feeding 309Poultry to benefitfrom Pakistani Fish . .311Training Future FishTechnologists . .319

Canning FactoryinChile . .323

FishMealforChickens countersDeficiencies . 365Fish OilbenefitsPoultry 367

Young Turkeysbenefitfrom FishOil . 369

Fishusedin FightingFamineintheCongo . 410

IX

ABERNATHY, R P .

PageNo

Senior Fisheries Officer, Fisheries Division, Ministry of

Agri-culture,Accra,Ghana

AGUILERA, A

ofIllinois,Urbana,Illinois,U.S.A

AMANO, Dr K 180, 231, 372

Chief,PreservationDivision,TokaiRegionalFisheriesResearch

Laboratory, Fisheries Agency, Ministry of Agriculture and

Forestry,Tsukishima,Chuo-ku, Japan

ANDERSON, Miss M. L . 148

Gloucester, Massachusetts, U.S.A

AULISIO, GAETANO . 246

Office of the Italian Technical Delegation, Embassy of Italy,

2401-15thStreet,N.W., Washington,D.C., U.S.A

BACIGALUPO, DR. A . 50, 353, 355,382

Universidad Agraria,Apartado456,LaMolina, Lima,Peru

BAELUM, DR. J . 356

Chief, Poultry Department, National Research Institute for

B&RSAMIN, SILVESTRE V .

Chief, Technological Research Section, Bureau of Fisheries,

Diliman,QuezonCity, Philippines.

PageNo

230Poultry Nutrition Laboratory, UniversityofBritish Columbia,

BIRD, Professor H. R . 50,322,323,372,382

Wisconsin,Madison,Wisconsin, U.S.A

. 366 BLACKWOOD, Dr CHESLEY M. . 83

College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle,

FisheriesResearchBoard of Canada,St John's,Newfoundland

BORGSTR0M, Professor GEORG . 21, 50, 232, 246,

State University,East Lansing, Michigan,U.S.A

BRAEKKAN, Dr OLAF R . 50, 132, 141, 231,

BRAUCHER, Miss PELA F 228

CollegeofHome Economics, University ofMaryland,CollegePark, Maryland,U.S.A

BRAUDE,Dr R 332,354,372NationalInstitute forResearchinDairying, Universityof Read-

ing, Shinfield,Reading, England

BREIREM,Professor KNUT . 322, 324, 331

Director,InstituteofAnimalNutrition,Vollebekk,Norway

BRESSANI, Dr RICARDO . .266

InstituteofNutritionofCentralAmerica andPanama(INCAP),

. 300 BUTLER, CHARLES 435

Chief, Division ofIndustrial Research, Bureau of Commercial

Fisheries,Department oftheInterior,Washington,D.C., U.S.A

BYRD, CLIFFORD

Associate Director, Technology Division, National Fisheries

Institute,1614-20thStreet,N.WM Washington,D.C,U.S.A

CABALLERO,D., ProfessorHERN^N . 50, 276, 331, 382

Con-cepci6n,Casilla 537, Chilian, Chile.

No

Superintendent, Substation 21, Texas Agricultural Experiment

Station,Gonzales, Texas, U.S.A

Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Technological Station,

Canada

COHEN, Dr EDWARD H. . 220

Gloucester, Massachusetts, U.S.A

COMBS, Professor G F 43,50

Station,Universityof Maryland,College Park,Maryland,U.S.A

CORDANO, Dr ANGEL 271

ResearchDivision, BritishAmericanHospital,Lima,Peru.

COUCH, Professor J. R 368,373

Station,Texas, U.S.A

CREGER, Dr C R 368

Station,Texas, U.S.A

CUTHBERTSON, Dr D. P . 299, 300

Director, Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen,

Scotland,U.K

CUTTING, Dr C L 37, 50, 161, 231, 232, 275, 276,436

Officer-in-charge, Humber Laboratory, Wassand Street, Hull,

Yorkshire, England; now: Directorof Research, British Food

Leatherhead,Surrey,England

PageNo

. 277Danmarks TekniskeHfljskole, 0sterVoldgade 10 L.2,Copen-

DEAN, W. F . 366

Univer-sityofIllinois,Urbana,Illinois,U.S.A

DEL SOLAR, Sr DON ENRIQUE M. . 323

SociedadNational dePesqueria,Av.PetitThouars1931,Lima,

Director,FishingIndustryResearchInstitute,UniversityofCape

DREYER, Dr J J 429

National Nutrition Research Institute, P.O Box 395, Scientia,

Pretoria,SouthAfrica.

Crisfield,Maryland,U.S.A.;now:PerkFoodCo.,4540S.Kolmar

Street,Chicago,Illinois, U.S.A

DYMSZA, Dr H. A 295

Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology, Cambridge 39,

Massa-chusetts,U.S.A

EDWARDS, Dr ROBERT L 3, 22

AssistantLaboratoryDirector, BiologicalLaboratory,Bureauof

Hole, Massachusetts, U.S.A

InstituteofAnimalNutrition,Vollebekk,Norway

Director of Research, Westgate California Corporation P.O

Box2311,SanDiego,California,U.S.A

FINN, Dr D. B., C.M.G., Ph.D., F.R.S.C

Director, Fisheries Division,FAO,Rome,Italy.

XIX

FouofeRE, Dr H. 263, 276, 373,413

Director of Research, Fisheries Research Board of Canada,

Halifax,NovaScotia,Canada

Instituteof MarineResources, UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley

4, California,U.S.A

GARDINER, J. M 436President, InternationalAssociationofFishMealManufacturers,

'

70WigmoreStreet,London, W.I,England

GOLDBLITH, Dr S A 295

Massa-chusetts InstituteofTechnology,Cambridge39, Massachusetts,U.S.A

Universidad Agraria,Apartado456,LaMolina, Lima,Peru

FAO/TAFishery Expert, c/oRegionalOfficeforLatinAmerica

Mexico

GRAHAM, Dr GEORGE G. 271,275

Com-mercialFisheries, U.S Fish andWildlife Service,WoodsHole,

Massachusetts, U.S.A

GRUGER, Dr E H., Jr 150

Labora-tory, U.S Fish and Wildlife Service, Seattle 2 Washington,

U.S.A

*GUHA, Professor B C 39, 50, 85, 231, 274,435, 436

CollegesofScienceand Technology, 92 UpperCircular Road,

Service,Cook,Washington, U.S.A

HAMLISCH, R . 385

Chief,Economics andManagementSection,EconomicsBranch,

Fisheries Division,FAO,Rome,Italy.

Fisheries Officer, Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture,

Accra,Ghana

HAMOIR, Professor G. 73, 85, 274

University ofLiege, InstituteEd van Beneden, Department of

Federal Fisheries Adviser in the West Indies, Federal

Head-quarters,Portof Spain, Trinidad,WestIndies.

HOLMAN, Professor RALPH T . 117

The HormelInstitute,UniversityofMinnesota, Austin,

Division ofAnimalNutrition,College ofAgriculture, University

ofIllinois,Urbana,Illinois,U.S.A

KADER, Dr M M ABDEL 51,85,231,296,297

AssistantProfessor of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine,Cairo

University,Cairo, UnitedArabRepublic

KANEDA, Dr T 294, 296, 297, 355

Chief,DivisionofMarineAnimalOilsandFats,TokaiRegional

Fisheries Research Laboratory, Fisheries Agency, Ministry of

Agricultureand Forestry,Tsukishima,Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan

AssistantChief(Fisheries),CSIRO MarineLaborary, Cronulla,

KlELANOWSKI, Dr J. 330

PolishAcademyofSciences, InstituteofAnimalPhysiologyand

Nutrition,PalacKultureiNauki,Warsaw,Poland

Knc, Dr MARINUS C 257

Univer-sityof Arkansas,Fayetteville,Arkansas, U.S.A

KING, Dr FREDERICK J 148, 382

Gloucester, Massachusetts U.S.A

KINSELL, Dr LAURANCE W. . 284, 296, 322

Director, The Institute for Metabolic Research, Highland*

AlamedaCountyHospital,Oakland,California,U.S.A

KONOSU, Professor S 261, 274

Universityof Tokyo, Tokyo,Japan

KREUZER, Dr R 51, 233, 435

Chief, Fish Processing Section, Technology Branch, Fisheries Division,FAO,Rome,Italy.

KUKUCZ, Professor J. T . 76

KDHNAU, Dr J. 298, 299, 300

Martini-strasse 52,Hamburg,Federal Republicof Germany

KURTZMAN, Mrs CAROLINE H. 228, 232, 436

PageNo

LEVERTON, Miss RUTH M. 50

Associate Director,InstituteofHomeEconomics, Agricultural

Research Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington 25,

D.C U.S.A

President,VioBinCorporation, Monticello,Illinois,U.S.A

LOREDO H., Sr DON HUGO . 37, 51,232, 246,

Licenciado en Economla, Compania Nacional Subsistcncios

Populates,Mexico,D.F.,Mexico

LOVERN, Dr J. A . 86,372, 435

Station,135AbbeyRoad, Aberdeen,Scotland,U.K

LUND, Dr ERLING 277, 297

DeGamlesBy,N0rreAlle41,Copenhagen N,Denmark

AgriculturalChemicalsDivision,MonsantoChemicalCompany,

Poultry Nutrition Laboratory, University ofBritish Columbia,

Universityof Tokyo, Tokyo,Japan

MATTERSON, Dr L D 364

University ofConnecticut,Storrs,Connecticut,U.S.A

Associate Professor of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition,

Massachusetts, U.S.A

Chief,DivisionofAnimalPhysiology, Ian CluniesRoss Animal

Research Laboratory, CSIRO, P.O Box 144, Parramatta,

Director, Bureau of CommercialFisheries, Department ofthe

Interior,Washington,D,C,U.S.A

MEESEMAECKER, R 436F6d6ration des Industriesde la Conserve, 37 rue de Mareuil,

Casablanca,Morocco

Ministerialdirigcnt, Bundesministerium fUr Ernfthrung,

Land-wirtschaftundForsten,Bonn12,FederalRepublic ofGermany

METTA, Dr V CHALAM 264DivisionofAnimalNutrition,CollegeofAgriculture,University

ofIllinois,Urbana,Illinois,U.S.A

MIDDLETON, Dr E J 263

Canada

MILLER, Dr S A 296, 297, 382

Massa-chusetts InstituteofTechnology,Cambridge39,Massachusetts,U.S.A

MILNER, Dr MAX 436Senior Food Technologist, Food Conservation DivisionUNICEF,United Nations,NewYork,U.S.A

MOREIRAS DE VARELA, Sra O 259Laboratprio de Nutricidn, Escuela de Brpmatologia, Ciudad

Universitaria(Pabell6ndeFarmacia),Madrid3,Spain

MORRISON, Dr A. B . 201, 232, 263,275

Canada

Halifax,NovaScotia,Canada

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Tsukishima, Chuo-ku,

NEWE, Dr VINCENT E 382

OLCOTT, Dr H. S, . 84, 112, 146, 232, 296,322

InstituteofMarineResources, UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley

4, California,U.S.A

ORYEM-OBITA, I. K, 246,276FisheriesDevelopmentOfficer,GameandFisheriesDepartment,

P.O.Box4,Entebbe,Uganda

OUSTERHOUT, Da LAWRENCE E 228, 303, 322, 323,

College Park, Maryland, U.S.A ; now: Manager, Poultry

Nutrition Research,The QuakerOatsCo., Harrington, Illinois,

U.S.A

PARKER, Dr E R 432

College Park,Maryland,U.S.A

PAUTZKE, CLARENCE . 436

Interior,Washington,D.G, U.S.A

The HormclInstitute,UniversityofMinnesota, Austin,

Minne-sota,U.S.A

PETERS, Dr JOHN A 220,232

Gloucester, Massachusetts, U.S.A

Universidad Agraria,Apartado456,LaMolina,Lima,Peru

PISKUR, Dr FRANK I . 228

Laboratorio de Nutrici6n, Escuela de Bromatologia, Ciudad

Universitaria(Pabcll6ndeFarmacia),Madrid 3, Spain.

RAAFAT, Professor Dr MOHAMED ALY . 276, 322,

Professor ofAnimal Nutrition, Faculty ofAgriculture, Cairo

University,Cairo, UnitedArabRepublic

RAO, Dr K K. P N. 38, 231, 237,247

Chief. Food Consumption and Planning Branch, Nutrition

Division,FAO,Rome,Italy.

RICHARDSON, DR. T 150

California,Davis,California,U.S.A

RUNNELS, Dr T D. 370

PoultryDepartment,UniversityofDelaware,Newark,Delaware,

U.S.A

SCHAIBLE, Dr P J. 374,382

Fur AnimalProject,Department ofPoultryScience, Michigan

State University,East Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A

SCHENDEL, Dr HAROLD E

PageNo

DivisionofAnimalNutrition,CollegeofAgriculture,University

ofIllinois,Urbana,Illinois,U.S.A

SCOTT, Dr H M. . 366, 373

Univer-sityofIllinois,Urbana,Illinois, U.S.A

Chief, Animal Production Branch, Animal Production and

HealthDivision, FAO,Rome, Italy:now: European and

Over-seas Director, Soybean Council of America, Via Parigi, 11,

Rome,Italy.

SHEWAN, Dr J. M. 207, 232

Station,135AbbeyRoad, Aberdeen,Scotland,U.K

Institute of Marine Resources, University of California,Berkeley,4, California.U.S.A

University,Mainz,FederalRepublic ofGermany

SINNHUBER, R 231, 232

Univer-sityofIllinois,Urbana,Illinois,U.S.A

SNYDER, Dr DONALD G. . 228, 275, 303, 322, 323,

370,411,437

SOUDAN, Dr F 78, 297

Institut Scientifique et Technique des Itches Maritime*, 59

AvenueRaymond-Poincart,Parts(XVI), France

Techno-logicalLaboratory,Seattle,Washington,U.S.A

STEINBERG, Dr MAYNARD A 148

Gloucester, Massachusetts, U.S.A

TAKAHASHI, Dr T 224

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Tsukishima, Chuo-ku,

California,Davis,California,U.S.A

TARR, Dr H. L A. . 85,230, 322, 323, 353, 372,

Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Technological Station,

Canada

TAYLOR, Dr R A ,

OfficeoftheTrafficAdviser,BritishTransportCommission, 222

Division ofFood Toxicology, Department ofNutrition, Food

ScienceandTechnology, MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,

VAN MAMEREN, Dr J.

Director, Institute forFishery Products,Haringkade1.Ijmuiden,

Netherlands

VAN VEEN, Dr A G. 50, 231, 275, 276,435

Chief,FoodScienceand TechnologyBranch, NutritionDivision,

FAO,Rome,Italy; now: Graduate School ofNutrition,Savage

Hall,CornellUniversity, Ithaca,NewYork, U.S.A

*Since deceased.

385,435 VARELA, ProfessorDr GRBOORIO 246, 259, 274, 323,

Laboratorio de Nutrici6n, Escuela de Bromatologia, Ciudad

Universitaria(PabeltendeFarmacia),Madrid3,Spain

Helsinki, Helsinki,Finland

435 WHARTON, Dr G W. . 222

Crisfield, Maryland, U.S.A.;now: Chairman, Zoology ment,OhioState University,Columbus,Ohio, U.S.A

Depart-YANASE, Dr M. 320

thepast ten years FAO has devoted considerable time, energy and expenditureto the

study of the world's fishery resources and to the problem of how best to exploit and utilize

them. Its Fisheries Division has promoted a number of useful studies and published their

The present volume is the outcome of an FAO Conference on "Fish in Nutrition" held in

Washington in September 1961 This Conference, as the title indicates, had a broader scope than

any previous one, inasmuch as its theme included the study of human nutrition as well as animalnutrition

The Conference, which was attended by about three hundred participants from many countries,aroused keen interest throughout theworld Seventy papers were submitted by experts from twenty-

four nations, and the majority of those attending took part in the discussion. I believe that the information thus collected is of such value that it should be made available to a wider public. With

thisend in view, theproceedings ofthe Conference are now being published inthe form ofthisbook.

The Conference, among other things, focused attention on the problems of human nutrition

the urgency of which has been brought to the fore through the Freedom from Hunger Campaign A

large proportion of the world's population suffer from varying degrees of malnutrition Protein

deficiency is one ofthe major causes ofmalnutrition, and it is obvious that fish, a protein-rich food, could be an important factor in reducing the incidence ofmalnutrition. Yet, the present harvest offish is still below 40 million metric tons, that is, less than one per cent ofthe total world food pro-duction Itwould seem thenthat quantitativelyfish plays a negligible part in the world's food supply,

a situation that lends itself to vast improvement through a more rationalized exploitation of the resources of the sea forproviding human nutrition

It would be appropriate here to recall the message which was sent to the Conference by PresidentKennedy He said: "A first responsibility of the human race is to see that its members have enough

to eat . Nutritional problems are not peculiar to countries where food is scarce Protein nutrition is, in fact, a serious disease affecting nearly two-thirds ofthe world's population There is,

mal-therefore, an urgent need forthe exploitationof whatis probablythe major untapped source of food: products from seas and inland waters . Your part in the task that lies ahead, like that of other dedicated people in commerce, in laboratories, in factories, farms andfishing boats, isto recreate the

miracle ofthe loaves and fishes a miracle no less spiritual for being scientific."

Iam glad tohavethisopportunity of adding my own thanks, and those of FAO,tothe manytributes

already paid to all those who helped to ensure the smooth running and success of the Conference.

Finally, incommendingthis book, Imust express the hopethat itsstudy may soon result in a marked

increase and improvement in the use offish and fisheries products in the fight against hunger andmalnutrition

B R SEN

Director-General,

Food andAgricultureOrganization

ofthe United Nations

xvn

FAO Conference on Fish in Nutrition was unique in so far as it brought together for thefirst time on an international platform people working in fisheries, in production as well asresearch,with specialistsin nutrition and animalfeeding. Itsobjectwasto evaluate some oftheexistingknowledge of the rdleoffishin human and animal feeding, and to stimulatefurtherstudy and

exploration

One such matter which emerged wasthe possible rdle offishprotein concentratesinhumannutrition,

a product which is not only needed now to relieve animal protein shortage in diets, but will become

more and more necessaryin nutrition aspopulation densityincreases It may besaid that fishprotein concentrates furnish a way of making directly available to man the richnesses of the multitudinous

"smallfishes" which abound in the ocean but are only slightly usedin contrastto thelargerand more

expensive forms offish which atpresent mark consumertaste

The Nutrition Division and the Animal Production and Health Division of FAO, who are vitally

concerned with developing a more extended use of food from the sea, collaborated extensively and, while itwasleft tothe FisheriesDivisionto takethe lead,theeffortand theresultmust be regarded as

the outcome of ajoint undertaking.

The Conference was fortunate in having as its Chairman Mr Donald McKernan, Director ofthe

U.S Bureau of Commercial Fisheries This Bureau indeed was largely responsibleforstimulating theinterest and active support of the U.S Government and of other national bodies Thanks must also

be expressed to the U.S National Institutes of Health, whose grants made it possible to bring to

Washington such an impressive number ofdistinguished experts.

Many people shared the work, not only of preparing the original papers, but also ofgetting theseinto suitable shape for presentation at the Conference Amongst those who must be especiallymentioned are A G van Veen, Nutrition Division of FAO; J C Shaw, Animal Production and

Health Division; D G Snyder, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, U.S.A., who acted as associated

editors, assisted by A D Ingram-Schirato, and M R Khan, Fisheries Division, who prepared theindex Othertasksfellto members of ourstaff: M Laing,P.McLaughlin,P.Andrews, D D Tapiador,

Conferences such asthisone serve to catalyse action Itis to be hoped thatthe rateof progresswill

be an increasing one and thatsteady advances on manyfronts will be made to the end that man may

harvest and put to betteruse a crop whichis,afterall,agiftofnature

D. B FINN

Director* Fisheries Division

Food andAgricultureOrganization

ofthe United Nations

XIX

NOTE FROM THE CHAIRMAN

I They can provide many timesthecurrent food supplyifwe butlearnhowtogarner and husband thisself-renewinglarder. To meet the vast needs of an expanding

population, the bounty of the sea must be made more available Within two decades, our own nationwillrequire over a million

more tons of seafood than we nowharvest.9 *

This statement, made by President Kennedyin a message to Congress in March 1961, delineates in

a few words the theme and objective ofthe FAO International Conference on Fish in Nutrition, held

in Washington, D.C., on September 19-27, 1961

This Conference was indeed convenedto discuss how thelivingresources ofthe sea firstharvested

by our fishermen and then processed by ourfishplants have contributedinthepast and can contribute

in the future to man's health and welfare

of world hunger cannot be longerignored Viewed againstthis background of hungrymultitudes, thediscussions and presentations covered in this book assume historic importance Few question theestimates of demographers that world population is increasing at a rate never before experienced in

thehistoryof man. It has been estimated thatin A.D 1600thepopulation ofthe earth was 300to 400million people Two centuries later this figure had doubled and from then on population growth

accelerated atan ever-increasingrate By 1900, the population had risen to about 1,500 millions and

during thelast60years that figuredoubledagain. Anindicationof whatisgoingtohappeninthefuture

isgiven by manyexperts,whoforecast thatwithinthe next 40yearswewill have reachedthe 6billion

mark.

On the other hand, nutritionists from the Food and Agriculture Organization, the World Health

Organization, and otherinternational agencies, inassessing thepresentstateof food productioninthe

world, estimatethattwo-thirds ofthepresent world population does notreceivean adequatedailydiet.Onechild diesof hunger every second ofthe year; ofthe900million childrenunder IS yearsofage,

more than 500million live and die criticallyundernourished and the catalogue ofassociated miseries

could be continued over manypages,with statisticscollectedfromallthe continents

Hunger can mean manythings to variouspeople. The term commonlydescribes conditions ranging

from acute, extreme starvation to the symptoms of "hidden hunger". By and large, however, the

dietary nutrient most lackingin deficient diets all overtheworldis good quality protein

What isunderstood bythis term "good qualityprotein"?

In man's long and arduous struggle to understand the nature, composition and function of stuff,he atleastlearnedthat Hippocrates was wrong when he said, some thousands ofyearsago, that

food-man required nothing but energy to subsist We know today that the human body requires a large

number of different components which it cannot synthesize itself. Among these are certain protein components,called essentialamino acids, andit isthe combined presence and proportions of theseinfoodsthatdetermine theirvalue Only animalproteinscontain alltheessentialamino acids thatman

cannot synthesize himself, and only animal proteins are, without supplementation, considered to be

"good quality proteins"

xxi

Note from theChairman

Goodquality proteins are notuniversally availablein sufficientquantities inthe form ofagricultural

products Furthermore, land resourcesfor crops and animal grazing are not inexhaustible; only fifthof the totalavailablecrop landis left unutilized and this, at best, could only supply enough food (predominantly vegetable) for presently underfed peoples and this only if the most modern agri-

one-cultural methods could be applied world-wide. Even if this could be achieved and great capital

expenditures and major educational and technological efforts will have to be made in thisdirectiontherewouldstillbe aseriousdeficit inthe supply of animal proteins to supplement adequately thediets

of today's population,letalonethatof tomorrow's additionalmillions

In view ofthis,it isnotsurprisingthat, in theirquestforfood,scientistsandindustrialistsallover the

world have again focused theirattention upon theseasas avast potential source ofnutrients

The highnutritive value offish protein has been recognizedsince earliesttimes, but notable

utiliza-tion ofthis food has always been limited to certain areas owing, in part, to the extremely perishable nature offish

As the first topic to be considered at this Conference, it seemed logical to review the rdle offish in

world nutrition It seems strange with over three-quarters of our globe covered by the sea, and with

even down to the great depths within the ocean, that such a small amount of our present total food

supplyis contributed by the sea Our present-day harvest of some 40million metric tons offish and

the present total world fish production.

We considered at this Conferencetowhatextent thesea could contribute tothisgreatneed forfoodfor the future We examined the potential productivity of the sea and the practicability of doubling

what means or methods, what research and engineering, are goingto be necessary to bring about the

Our second topic at the Conference was to examine the chemical composition offish and fisheries

products in order to ascertain their wholesomeness and the desirability of using fish protein to anincreasingextent in thehuman diet We wanted to knowto what extentis knowledge availablewhich

will allow us to assess the nutritional attributes offish protein, and are there unique qualities in fish

which can be helpful in overcoming the proteindeficiencies in thehuman diet?

Experts present at this Conference discussed the present state of knowledge concerning how fish

should be prepared to provide maximumnutritional benefits We knowtherearenutrient losses inthe preparation and processing offisheries products Can we develop specific information on how theselossesoccur andinwhatdirectionsmust we goto maximize, byspecialprocessing, the benefitsfrom the

fish resources harvested? How can we use existing information, and develop new information, to

provide a maximum amount of the kinds ofnutrients which are needed in various national diets?

The third general topic concerned the contribution of fish and fisheries products in the various nationaldiets Itisobviousthatwe needto assessthe presentcontribution, todetermine whatlimitations

This Conference, asrepresented by the present book, has attempted,forthefirsttime, tobring before the world the various means for increasingnot only the harvest offish but also the number, variety,

andnutritivevalue of the products manufactured therefrom, and thus permitfishtoassume, on a

The realization ofthese objectives has taxed the energies ofall participants, but 1 believe that the

set goals have, to a large extent, been reached This Conference and the concerted, international

efforts thatit representscan, ofnecessity, be only a modest beginning. Much remains to be done, for

the overall task of providing additional food for our world's peoples is urgent and the obligationscompelling. Itisour hopethatthisbookwillinspirecontinued effortsto make thebenefitsofnutritiousfoods available to all of mankind.

Greatcreditis due the FAOforitsforesightinhaving perceived the need forthisConference andfor

the organizational work associated with it as well as to the respective FAO-member nations for their

enlightened support of its objectives Congratulations are due also to the many people who have

contributed so freely and wholeheartedly oftheir time and effort in order that this valuable referencetextcould be made quickly availableto thosein need of information onthe nutritive value offish and

shellfish

Chairman^

FAO Conference on Fishin Nutrition

THE ROLE OF FISH IN WORLD NUTRITION

The World Biomass of Marine Fishes

World Aquatic Biomass Its Future Abundance

Discussion

Importance ofFisheriesProduction and Utilization in the Food Economy

The Rdle of Fish in Human Nutrition

The Rdle of Fish in Animal Feeding

43 50

HERBERT W GRAHAM and ROBERT L EDWARDS

Manypeoplebelieve thatthe300millioncubic milesofsaltwaterin theoceanshavea comparablyvast potentialasasourceof

protein food Underpresent

; conditions,however,there isadefinite limittothisproteinpotential, at least insofarasmarinefishare concerned

Themostproductivefishingareasare variousgroundsonContinentalShelves, especially inthenorthernhemisphere andinareas

ofthe oceanswhere phytoplanktonproductionis

relatively high. Manyoftheseareas are probablyapproachingpeakproductionnow A

anestimatedannualharvestpotentialof55millionmetrictons.

millionmetric tons ofmarinefisharepotentially available forharvest annually However, alargeportion ofthisproductionistoothinlyscattered tobeeconomicallyfished at this time.

It isshownthatarelation existsbetweenfishcatchandbenthic biomass Inasmuchasthe benthicbiomassdecreases veryrapidlywith depth,one cannotexpectanysubstantialpopulationoffishesonthebottom beyondtheContinentalShelves.

metric tons annually

LA BIOMASSE MONDIALE DES POISSONS MARINS

vastecommcsource d'alimentsprotdiques. Souslesconditionsactuelles,cependant,il existeunelimite dtfinie&cepotentiel proteique,au

Leszonesdepechelesplusproductivesont des fondsdiverssurlesplateaux continentaux,spdcialementdansI'h&nispherenordet

danslesregionsoceaniquesoft faproduction dephytoplanctonestrelativementhaute. Uncalculdela recoite potentiellemondiale, bastesurlaquantite ptehfe parunitedesurfacesurleszonesdeproductionrepresentativesduplateaucontinental,pcrmctd'estimer&55millions

detonnes mttriquesle potentielannuelder6colte.

Enprenantcommeautre base d'appreciationlaproduction primairenetteestimee detouslesoceans, onarrive&chiffrer& 115millionsenvirondetonneslaquantitedepoisson disponibleenpuissancepourfttrer6coltechaqueannee Cependant, unelargepartdecetteproductionesttrop clairsemeepour trepcchec d'unemaniere economiquedurantcette periode.

II estd&nontre'qu'unerelation existe entre lacapturedupoissonet labiomassebenthique Etantdonn quelabiomassebenthique

ddcrott tresrapidemcntaveclaprofondcur,onnepeutsfattendre&trouverunepopulationsubstantielledepoissons surlefondaudeUtdesplateaux continentaux

prdsentestechniquesdeptehe,la recoiteannuelledepoissonsmarinspuissedtreplusquedoubles, voire triplee. Onpeut estimcrles possibilityraisonnablcs& 60millionsenvirondetonnes mttriques paran.

LA BIOMASA MUNDIAL DE LOS PECES MARINOS

Creemuchagentequelos300millonesdemillascubicasde aguasaladaenlosoceanostienenunvastopotencialcomparablecomofuente dealimentoproteico. Sinembargo, enlascircumstanciasactuateshay un limite claroaeste potencial,porlomenosen cuantose

refierealospeces marines.

en regiones oceanicasen lasque laproducci6n de fitoplancton es relativamente elevada. Muchasde estas regiones probablemente se

toneladasmitricas.

Empleandolaproduccibnprimaria ncta estimada para todoslosocdanoscomobasedelcompute,se calculaque hayuna bilidadpotencialde 115 millonesdetoneladas metricasdepeces para cosecharlos anualmente. Sinembargo,unagranproporci6ndeestacantidadnoest& losuficientemente concentrada para pescarlaecondmicamente enla actualidad.

disponi-Se sabe que existe una relacibn entre las capturas y la biomasa del bentos Dado quela biomasa del bentos decrecemuy

contincntalcs.

Noparecequeexistanrazones parasugerirque enlascondicionesy conlast&nicasdepesca actuales lacosecha anual depeces

m&ricasanuales.

EVERY

cubicmile of sea watercontains 140Ib. of

kind ofasievedoIneedto strainoutthisvaluable

metal? Granted you hadthe perfect sieve,itwouldnot

anykind ofdevicewouldrequirepumping50,000gallons

ofwater every second continuouslyforoneyear,obviously

We are continuouslybombarded bypress, radio, andscientific articles with factsand figures designed to im-

indeed vast, comprising some 300 million cubic miles

FishinNutrition: The R6k ofFish

moisture", when one considers the total amount of

perspective

Thetotalmarinefishbiomass mustalsobeafigureof

havethe required sieves to harvest at least pan ofthat

further,but very important,factor inourfavour Fishes

arenot randomlydistributed, as are the atoms ofgold.

hydrographic climate, by geography, and by social

behaviour(1). A significant part ofthe total resource

stillmay be so thinly scattered that it is like the gold,

pisciculture,thatthereisalimitto theamountoffish that

maybe harvested eachyear; thatthismaximumquantity

may be estimated within reasonable limits; and, finally,

harvested

What is being harvested at the present time? Since

World War II, various fisheries have developed around

theworldthathaveneverbeforebeenseriouslyexploited

by man Someofthemorerecently exploitedpopulations

anchovy ofPeruand Chile, the sardineofSouthAfrica,

fisheries long before they were seriously fished by man.

Fewsuch remain, andcontinuedgrowthatthisrateand

alongtheselinescannot beanticipated. Accordingto the

approxi-mately 35 million metric tons offish and other related

TABLE I

Presentlandtagsof marinefish in million*of metrictons.

An estimate based, in part, onFAOstatistics for1959

Jacksandmullets

Totalfish ,

Millionsof

metrictons0-91-2 6-2 11-42*74.90-527*

with purseseines,orin trapsandweirs Includedin this

groupare the herrings, sardines, menhaden, and

ancho-vies It should be noted that some ofthese species, inpart or entirely, are not directly used for human food

The menhaden,forexample, istakeninpart forits oil,whichfindsitswayintomanyproducts other than food-

stuffs. Sardines and anchovies largely support the fish

Thenextlargestcontributionismade bythegroundfish

species,and amountstomorethan 6millionmetrictons

Theseare the species thattypicallyinhabitthe great

off-shore fishing banks, such as the Grand Bank of

New-foundland, and are fished, forthe most part, withotter

trawls The most famousofthesefishes is,perhaps, theAtlantic cod

hetero-geneousgroup fromataxonomic andfisheriesviewpoint,arerecognizedasasinglegroupfor thepurpose ofland-ingstatisticsbytheFAO Assuch theycontribute nearly

metric tonsayear,andflounderlandings toslightlymore

The important fisheries of the world are, without

upwelling or mixing of great oceanic currents Quiteobviously the reason for this goes back to the relative

where, as Sverdrup (10) says, "the oceans plow selves"

them-Over the entire globe there areapproximately 6x10*

With-out making any special allowances for differential

har-vestfrom this area?

In Tables II and III we have tabulated theresults of

Conti-TABLE II

North-westAtlanticeachyear, hi millionsofIb. Databasedon anaverage

ofstatistics available foryean1956through1958

TABLE III

4

45*

5' 60" 55" 50* 45* 4Cf

Fig.L TheContinental ShelfoftheNorth-westAtlanticshowing four areasreferred to in the text

showninFig. 1, hasbeendivided intofoursub-areas, to

facilitateusingthe availablefisherystatistics.

12*7Ib. peracre,are surprisinglysimilar The

production can be markedly increased The demersal

com-pared with that of the other three areas The pelagic

intheGulfofMaine and MiddleAtlantic

byauthors basedonstatisticsfromseveral sourcesLocation

North Sea

BalticBarentsSea

IcelandBanks

Adriatict

Period195&-581956-581956-581956-581947-53

Demersal

10-04-115-72902-5

Pelagic16-6 3-50-85-3 2-1

Total26-67-8 16-534-34*6

tTheAdriaticis generallyconsideredtobeoverfished.

European waters These are presented in Table IV

Although there is more variation in the harvest ofdemersalspeciesfromareato area, the valuesare,onthe

whole,similar to thoseobtainedfortheWesternAtlantic

ThefishingbanksoftheNorthAtlantic areamongthe

moreproductive in the world,and have been exploited

forcenturies Althoughthe harvesthasincreasedalittle

have stabilized, at least for certain species. Although

managementmeasureswillpreventover-exploitationand

mayresultinsomeincrease inharvest,wecannotexpect

by anygreat percentage

Forpurposes ofcomputingthe possibleworldharvest

fromallContinental Shelves, we can use the values for

NorthAtlantic banks Let us pick 20 Ib. peracre as a

Con-tinentalShelfyieldwouldbe 120billionIb.or 55million

To this might be added some poundage of pelagic

fishtakeninareasremotefromland Thisharvestisnot

expected to be large Even though some tuna fisheries

are prosecuted in the equatorial regions of disturbed

hydrographicconditions, many ofthetuna fisheries are

Thus,wecansayonthebasisofthese calculations that

we may, at best, possiblydouble present world harvest

ofmarine fishes. This is assuming, ofcourse, that the

avail-ableandas economicaltoharvest asthose ofthe North

We can arrive at another estimate ofpotential world

theoretical technique. This technique, which has been

used by Kesteven and Holt (4), is based upon our

knowledge oftheprimaryorganicproductioninthe sea

andits relationtotheproduction offishusableby man.

Many assumptions regarding the food chain in the sea

of modern ecologists (7). The first of these is that

per cent efficient. The second is that the average

marine fish is a second level carnivore The third is

netprimary production ofalloceans StfemannNielsen

subject, and has estimated the average annual gross

primary productionto be between 55and70 gm C/m2,

andthetotalnetproduction about 1 -2to 1 -5x1010tons

of carbon

Multiplyingby37[toconvertfrom gramsof carbonto

wet plankton weight: conversion factor from Sverdrup

et al. (1 1) ], we may obtain the netamountof

phyto-plankton produced each year: (!-2-l-5xlOlo)x37

44'5-55'SxlO1*. We will use the average value of

SOxlO10. Let us assume that the herbivores

(zoo-plankton) fully harvest this net production and are 20

per cent efficient: then (50x1010)xO-20 - lOOxlO"

production at an efficiency of 10 per cent is then(10'Ox1010)xO*10 ~ lOOx109 tons of primary carni-vores, and (10-0x109)x0-10 10<0x10s tons ofsecondarycarnivores,marineanimalsofalldescriptions,from which man maytakehisharvest

One billion metric tons of secondary carnivores is avery big figure, but hardly indicative of what we can

Some farmfish ponds havenearlyreached thelevels of

efficiency used in the calculations Odum (7, p 79)

states that " it isevident thatonlyintheintensively

managed German and Oriental fish ponds is a harvest

even approaching10percentofgrossprimary production

Evidence thatenergy is shunted away atvarious

pro-ductionlevels is observedin the bottomdeposits ofthe

largely of the remains of different kinds oforganisms.Typical ofthese are the "diatomacetous" oozes in the

North Pacific and around the Antarctic Continent, the

"pteropod" oozes ofthe Atlantic basins and the spread"globigerina" oozes found in all oceans Other

fossildeposits,notablythepetroleumdeposits

Ifwe assumethat inthe marine situation 70 per cent

ofthetheoreticalenergytransferisactivelyattainedatall levels, our estimated annual production of secondary

Included in this figure, in addition to the marine fishes

in which we are principally interested, are many other

marine animals suchassquids,whales,andsharks,which

consuming biomass at this and higherconsumer levels.

on anannual basis Obviously, however, this quantity

cannot be harvested annually withoutjeopardizing the

isreasonableto suggest that resourcesofthisnaturemay

yield 50 per cent by weight, at least, ofthe net annualproduction

tech-nologywillhavetobegreatlyimprovedbeforeaharvest

ofthismagnitudeispossible orfeasible

sig-nificant entities are the efficient herbivorousfishes, and

blooms, the degree ofwhich depends upon the nature

andsource ofnutrients Thesenutrientsareseldom

oon-^Xlffip1 Hi RpShce

rates overafairproportionoftheoceans donot exceed

thoseofsemi-arid grasslands

mid-ocean areas are generally unproductive, while the

higher latitudes* both north and south, are exceedingly

well explained by Sverdrup (10) We are concerned

With this differential distribution of plant production

because it qualifies our estimate, given earlier, for the

byonlymoderate levels of primary production On the

other hand, most ofthose areas of shelfcharacterized

byhighlevels of primary productionare already heavily

fished Accordingly,wefeelourfirstestimateofpotential

groundfish harvest on the Continental Shelf to be, if

TablesIIIandIV,wefeel that the differences shownare

probablyquite real. Moiseev (in UNESCO, 1955) lists

thebiomass ofthebenthosinanumberofseas A

com-parison ofthese data ispossiblewiththree ofthe areas

forwhich wehavecomputedfishharvestrates(TableV)

A comparison offish yields with amountof benthos

Location Biomass ofbenthos

Ib.jacre fish(1956-58)26-67-8 16-5

The relation between the benthic biomass and catch

per acre has the broadest ofimplications. The benthic

biomass decreases even faster, as one moves offshore,

than doestheplankton ofthe photic zone Accordingto

Zenkevich (UN, 1956), in his discussion ofthe research

doneintheNorth-westPacific area,thebenthosdecreases

circum-stances, one cannot expect to find any substantial fish

populationonthebottom beyondtheContinentalSlope

To summarize, it seems reasonable to suggest that,

althoughmanhas notyetfullyexploited themarinefish

to believe Pending the development of totally new

fishinggearand feasiblemarinepisciculturetechniques,

fishes are at present available for harvest on an annual

basis

Theauthors wishtoacknowledgethe suggestions andcriticisms ofmany people, especially Dr. Eugene Odum

Howard Eckles(BCF, Washington, D.C.)

REFERENCES

(1) FLEMING, R H.andLAEVASTU,T (1956). Theinfluence

FAOFish Bull.9(4): 181-196

(2) FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATIONOFTHEUNITED

the fisheries contribution to world food supplies.

FAOFish Bull.6(5): 159-192

(3) (1960) Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics, 1959.Rome,Italy.

(4) KESTEVEN, G and HOLT,S J. (1955) A note on thefisheriesresources ofthe North-west Atlantic. FAO

Fish.Pap.No. 7.

(5) MENZEL, D W andRYTHER, J. H (1960). Nutrientslimiting theproductionofphytoplanktonintheSargasso

Seatwith special referenceto iron. DeepSeaResearch,

(7) ODUM, E P (1959). Fundamentals ofEcology 2nd

edition Philadelphia,Saundcrs

(8) RAKESTRAW, N W. (1951) Chapter 13. Mineral

Resources Edited by PaulK Hatt Proc Second

Book Company, NewYork

Marineresources Natural Resources M.R.Huberty

(10) SVERDRUP, H U (1952) Someaspectsoftheprimary

productivity of the sea. FAO Fish Bull., 5(6):215-223

(11) JOHNSON, M W andFLEMING, R H. (1946) The

Prentice-Hall, Inc 1.

(12) UNESCO. (1955) UNESCO Symposium onPhysical

Society for thePromotionofScience Tokyo,Japan

(13) UNITEDNATIONS (1949) Wild-life andfish resources

Volume VIL Proceedings of the United Nations

Scientific ConferenceontheConservationand

(14) (1956) Papers presentedat the International

Tech-nical Conference on the Conservation of the Living

May,1955 NewYork

(15) WALFORD, L.A (1958). LivingResources ofthe Sea.The RonaldPressCo.,NewYork

AQUATIC BIOMASS

by

G L KESTEVEN

(1)Anyexamination ofwhat biomassthere willbein the futuremustbequalitative;

(2)Thequestionisanecologicalone;

(4)Anestimateoftotalbiomassofthebiosphereisofless interestthanestimatesofthebiomassof each ofmanyseparate species

and communities;

(6)Thestructureandmagnitude,and hencebiomass, ofacommunityorofaspeciespopulation,mayvary within aseason, seasonally

andannually,andmayexhibitatrend;

(7)Undernaturalconditionstheremaybeatrendto increasebiomass;

reverseupwardtrendsinthem;however,healsohaspowersto act ina contrarysense.

(1)Evenas predator,mancanregulate his activitiessoasnottocause irremediabledamage;

(2)Theprincipleof eumetricfishing givesmanawayofmaximizingtheproductive capacity ofaspeciespopulation(stockoffish)

(3)Byanextension ofthe principle of eumetricfishing, mancouldprobablyincreasecommunity-productive-capacity; and ifhe

could extendtherange ofspeciesofwhich hecouldmakeuse,hewould haveincreased yieldfromthecommunity;

andbeneficialeffects;hehasmeanstomaximizethelatter,andtominimizeor even convertto hisadvantagetheformer;

(5)Mancanintervenein naturalsystemstodeterminetheir structureandsizeandthepace oftheir processes,evenin the sea;

per-hapsthemostdirectapproach would be by adeepening ofthe applicationof eumetricfishing.

This reviewleads to the logicalconclusion that the biomassofthe future is likely tobeas much moreorlessthanit isnow,as

LA B1OMASSE AQUATIQUE MONDIALE: SON ABONDANCE FUTURE

Getarticleproposeles points suivantsconcernantleproblemegeneral:

(4)L'estimationdelabiomassetotaledelabiosphereestd'uninterfit infereuraI'estimation delabiomassede chacune de

nom-breuses especesetcommunautesseparecs;

unebiomasse;

(6)Lastructure et I'lmportance, et, ainsi, labiomasse d'unecommunaute oud'une populationdem&meespece, peuventvarierau

cours d'unemme saison, saisonniercmentetannuellement, etpeuventpresenterune tendance generatedans leurevolution;

(7)Souslesconditionsnaturelles, ilpeutexisterunetendancedelabiomassea 1'augmentation;

(8)Lesactivitesde1'hommeintcrftrentaveclesprocessusnaturels;danslamesureouil agitcommepredateuroucommeperturbateurdes systemesnaturels, ilpeutarr&terourenversercompletementleurstendances; cependant,ila 6galcmentlespouvoirsd'agir

ensens contraire.

Cetarticleexaminele rolederhommeetcherche amontrerque:

(2)Leprincipedelap6cherationnelle selective("eumetricfishing")donne arhommele moyenderendremaximumla capacity

deproduction d'une populationdemmecspccc(stockdepoisson) sous des conditionsprecises;

(3)Enetendantle principedelap&cherationnelle selective,1'hommepourraitprobablementaccrottrc la capacit deproduction des

(4)Les activatesde1'hommecommeperturbateur(provoquant desErosions, produisant descaux dugoutsetdeseffluents, struisantdesbarrages,etc.)ontala foisdeseffets nocifs etdeseffets bencfiques; ilalesmoyensd'accrottre lessecondsetde

con-reduire les premiers, voiredelestransformer a son avantage;

(5)L'hommepeutintervenir danslessystemesnaturels pour determinerleur structure ainsi quelagrandeuret 1'alluredeleurs Evolutions, rntme en mer; il est possibleque 1'approchela plus directc de ce problemesoit dans 1'approfondissement des

applicationsdelapecherationnelle selective.

Getexamenconduitadirequela seuleconclusion logiqueestquelabiomassefuture seravraisemblablcmcnt ceque 1'hommela fera devenir,plusgrandeoumoindrequ'ellene1'est aujourd'hui.

LA BIOMASA ACUATICA MUNDIAL: SU ABUNDANCIA FUTURA

(1)Cualquierexamendelabiomasa queexistaenelfuturotendiiqueser cualitativo;

(3) Exfeteunabiomasa de comunidades yuitabiomasa deespecies;

The R6le of

(4)LA*stimti6ndelabiomasatotaldela biosfcra ticnemenosinuresquoladclabiomasa de cadaunadelasmuchasespetiesy

(ftlntetwmeBOslabioinasadeuiuiGosecta

(6)Laestracturac importancey,deaquf, labiomasa devma comunidadodeunapoblaciondeunacapecie,puedevariardentro

(7)Encondicionesnaturales,puedeexistirunatendendadelabiomasaalaumento;

(8)Lasactividadcs delhombreinterfierenconlosprooesos naturales;enlamedidaenqueactuacomopredadorocomoperturbador

delossistemasnaturales,puededetcneroalterarBUStendendasasoendentes;sinembargo, tambienescapaz deactuarensentidocontrario.

Elarticulopasa a examinarelpapeldelhombreytratade demostrarque:

(2)Elprincipiodelapesca eumetricaofrece alhombreunmedio dehaoermaximalacapacidadde produccion deunapoblacidn

delamismaespecteencondiciones predsas;

(3)Forextensiondelprincipiodelapesca eumetrica,esprobablequeelhombrepudiera incrementarlacapaddadproductivadelas

comunidad;

(4)Lasactividades delhombrecomoperturbador (causantedeerosiones,productor de aguas dealcantarillayefluentes,constructor

depresas,etc.), tiencnalavezefectosnodvosybeneficos;disponedelosmediosdeacreoentarlos liltimosy dereduciralminimo

o,induso, aprovecharlosprimeros.

(5)Elhombrepuedeintervenirenlossistemas naturalesparadeterminar suestructuraymagnitud,asicomosusevolucionesincluso

Deesteestudiosededuce quelaunica conclusion16gica esquelabiomasadelfutureserfprobablementemuchomayor o mucho

menordeloqueesactualmente,seguncomolahagaelhombre

IN

aboutactivitiesthatmaybelabelled "farmingthe seas"

Unfortunately, such discussions, besides bypassing a

number of serious problems concerning most effective

use ofavailable resources intheirpresent condition,tend

to concentrate on the technological problems ofgiving

effect to highly imaginative proposals formulated by

analogy with agricultural or other operations. The

magnitude of the biomass of aquatic resources of the

seek some conclusions on this matter, we must have

mightcause such change Talkofincreasing thebiomass

Effectiveaction to intervene in naturalsystemsmight be

only from a deep understanding of the system to be

changed Theprincipalthemeofthispaperthenmust be:

biosphere oftoday

Atthis time anenquiry into what is likely to bethe

magnitude oftheworld's aquatic biomassin the future

must be, ofnecessity, essentially qualitative in nature.

pro-ductive systemwillhaveat sometimeinthefuture, one

must be in possession of certain minimal information

In particular, one must have information on the

"be-haviour of the selected characteristic Despite the

havetoadmitthatthereisscarcelyasingleintegralsystem

(community or ecosystem) ofwhich we know so much

thatwecould claim with confidencetobeabletopredict

its behaviour for anything more than a very limited

space oftime Recognizingalsothatweas yet havenoinventory ofthe aquatic biosphere(all living organisms

species-popula-tions, or ofcommunitiesorecosystems,we mustaccept

that we cannot predict the shape ormagnitude that the

biosphere will have some years hence This is not to

biomass existing at present; it simply asserts that we

cannotforecast quantitatively the changes likelyto take

with a thoughtto changes takingplace naturally in the

wewish toconsider also the changes broughtabout by

human activities! To indicate that human action is

causing certain changes, or that human action couldbring about certain other changes, is one thing; but to

say whether the first action will continue, or whether

theotheractionwillbe taken(orwhenitmightbe taken)

isanentirely differentmatter

The most, then, that we can hope to do is to try to

form anideawhetherthebiosphereisshowing any

orhuman forces,and ofwhether such trend(if, infact,

it exists) is toward increase or decrease We may also

or, on the other hand, could accelerate, or otherwiseimprove, a trend toincrease To make anessayofthis

ofthedynamics ofbiologicalsystems and, inparticular,

of aquaticbiologicalsystems Thisisbecausethe whole

questionis amatterfor ecological enquiry Indeed,the

question would bestbe approached bycareful study of

mono-graphic text Principles of Animal Ecology, by Allee,

Emerson,Park, Park and Schmidt(1).

SOME BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

The term "biomass" is taken to mean "a quantity of

living material"; one can consider the biomass ofthe

population ofa species as a "species biomass*', or the

biomass of the several species of a community as a

"community biomass'9 It is relatively unimportant

herethat the amountofthismaterial may be expressed

as a weight or a volume, or that the material may be

measured as dried weight or carbon equivalent or in

other terms In contrast a distinction must be seen

between "biomass" and "resource", since the latter

comprehends both the living organisms whose biomass

maybe measured, andthe storesofmaterialsandenergy

on whichtheseorganismsdrawfortheir livingprocesses

andtowhichtheyreturn induecourse Theimportance

we must keep in mind that a primary determinant of

the magnitude ofany biological system is the quantity

the term "resource" is essentially an economic one, of

which the meaningin plain words is "natural materials

on which man candraw" Forthe purposes ofthis

problemsofexaminingchangesinbiomass,it isnecessary

to employ the counterpart ecological term, namely,

"ecosystem" "Ecosystem" may be defined as "a

com-munity of organisms with their habitat, thus

to varyingdegrees" Spatially, anecosystemis

approxi-mately congruent with the community that constitutes

emphasis on the integration of living and non-living

components and on the fact that such an integrated

complexconstitutes a systeminwhich variousprocesses

significance than that ofthe term "community" which,

regarding non-biological elements as outside the

com-munityperse. Discussionof ecosystemsismore

meaning-ful in the present context, in so far as we shall need to

consider the changes that might be induced in natural

com-munity can be produced most easily by action directed

note herethat basically the present discussion considers

total biomass without regard to the economic use that

might be made ofit; the question ofselective

The livingorganismsofthe world are referred to as its

homo-geneous mass of living matter it is instead a complex

assemblage of populations ofspecies It isimportantto

bearin mind, forthe purposes ofthisdiscussion(ifnot

forotherreasons), that thebiosphere cannotusefully be

communi-ties. Although some authorities would regard marine

also of the pelagial. The latter is represented by the

appended diagramofmarinebiogeographicareas(Fig. 1).

diversity offreshwaterbiota

Thechanges of communities

over extended periods;atthesametimeeach

energy) is subject to similar changes, and the intensity

of each determinant factor (e.g. temperature and pH),which influences thelifeprocesses ofthe organisms and

theuse they makeofmaterials,changes in similarways

Ofthe changes of these sets, those ofthe determinant

the other two Changes in supply components are to

varying degrees dependent on those of the biological

populations; changes ofbiological populations are very

of determinantfactors

Since biological populations interact, the pattern ofthem within a community is in constant flux, withchangesthat may berelatively small orrelatively great;

period and direction of such changes. Similarly, the

constantflux.

Inordertounderstand thenature ofmajorchanges of

biomass which take place in communities and in the

biosphereasa whole,we must haveafairly clearstanding oftheminorchanges takingplace inorganismsandinpopulations ofspecies,ofwhichthemajorchanges

goes through, from single cell through embryonic and

dominating all population processes In the course of

this cycle, but especially after reaching maturity, most

organisms go through changes within each year (orreproductive period) as they pass through reproductive