The timeline book of science george ochoa

Ihc ilncllno fgck cI iclcilrc Forthcomlngboohsin the same series: ' ,' : , ' ,'t,.' 1" TheTimeline Boohof the Arts TheTimelineB@k of Greatldeas ' TheTimelineQoohof History The flmellne Book of Sclence George Ochoaand MelindaCorey A Stonesong PressBook New York Ballantine,Books Saleof this book without a front cover may be unauthorized.If this book is coverless,it may havebeen reportedto the publisheras "unsoldor destroyed"and neither the author nor the publisher may have receivedpayment for it Copyright@1995by The StonesongPress,Inc All rights reservedunder Internationaland Pan-AmericanCopyright Conventions.Publishedin the United Sares by BallantineBooks,a divisionof RandomHouse,lnc., New York, and simultaneouslyin Canadaby RandomHouseof CanadaLimited,Toronto Libraryof CongressCataloging-in-Publication Data Ochoa,George The timeline book of science/ GeorgeOchoaand MelindaCorey p cm "A StonesongPressbook." Includesbibliographicalreferencesand index rsBN0-345-38265-X I Science-History-Chronology I Corey, Melinda, Il Title '-1995 Qt25.O24 509-dc2O 94-tt865 clP Coverdesignby RichardHasselberger Typographyby NobleDesktopPublishers A Stonesong Pre$ Eook Manufacturedin the United Statesof America First Edition:March | 995 l0 I7 Photoresearchby Photosearch,Inc., New York City In memory of JoseVerdiCevallos,physicianand poet, and HarrietGri$$sGuild,physicianand pathftnder : )# t tAB-IE Of CO,ilfE.t'13 Acknowledgments xiii Introduction ,ix A Note to the Reader xi Timeline Appendix:Birth and DearhDates 393 Bibltography Index i 403 407 vIi IGKilOWl T DOttilr I We are indebted to Kerry Benson and Nsa Schneider, diligent researchersand contributors We also thank Tom Brown for heyboardingmuch of the manuscript and Mudit Tyagi for his edltorial assistance.Finally, we thank PaulFargisand ShereeBykofskyof The Stonesonlf Pressand Ginny Faber,our editor at Ballantine viit l1'lt noD UCT roll A timeline is a recordof change;TheTimelineBookoJScienceis a record of stunningchange.In ho field of human endeavorhave rhings been alteredmore quickly,dramatically,and irreversiblythan in our knowl' edgeof the physicaluniverseand our ability to manipulateit The most rapid and visiblechangeshavetakenplacein just the lasttwo centuries, originatingmostly in Europe and America,but many of the deepest changestook place much earlier in distant places.It is obvious that microwaveovens,television,computers,the theory of relativity,and the model of rhe atom are productsof scientificknowledge;it may be tessobvious that so are bread, the do$, the pipeline, the concept of angles,and the year The TimelineBoohoJ Sciencecharts chronologically,from prehistory to the present,how we came to know what we know about naure and have what we made It is a story with many twists and turns, frequent shifts of locale,and a decidedlyuneven pace For millions of years the tale hardly movesat all; after the developmentof agricultureit moves graduallybut slowly; then in the last few hundred years it moves at a blindingpace.A physicianfrom ancientRomewould havehad much in ltaly, with a physicianin seventeenth-century common,technologically, but both would have great difficulty figuring out what to with a CAT hospiml, much less how to drive scannerin a late'twentieth-century home on the expresswayafter work It is no accident,then, that most of this book dealswith the few hundred yearssincethe sixteenthand seventeenthcenturies,when people like Copernicus,Galileo,and FrancisBaconbroughtabout a fundamen' tal shift in humanity'sapproachto studyingnature,a chan$eknown as the scientific revolution.Yet The TimelineBookof Sciencealso outlines other importantstorlesof scientificprogress:how early humansspread out of Africa acrossthe world and invented such technologiesas frsh hooks, sewing needles,and the use of fire; how farmers and herders domesticatedwild plants and animals;how Chineseexperimenters invented silk, paper, and gunpowderwhile Chineseastronomersfirst recordedwhat became known as Halley'sComet; how the Hindus developeda systemof numeralsthat was passedto the Arabsand from and how Mayansin CentralAmericaindependently them to Europeans; developedtheir own systemof numerals tx IttnoDUCtlOl| The TimelineBookof sciencerangesover as many different ropics as it doesperiodsand locales.It chartsthe growth of the disciplinesusually taught in school-biology, chemistry,physics,and the earth sciences But it also maps the rise of rechnology,engineering,archaeology, paleontolo$y,mathematics,medicine,psychology,computerscience,and the explorationof earth and space.It concentrateson the physicalsciencesbut nevertheless includesentrieson linguisticsand the socialsci, ences-anthropology,sociology,economics,potiticalscience Throughout,the timelinereportsaction.It tellswhat was discovered, invented,suggested, argued,and disproved-by whom, when, where, and why It noteswrong stepsas well as right ones,established ideasas well as controversial ones.Thereare explodedtheoriessuchas the four humors and phlogiston(materialsupposedlylosr in combusrion);outmoded proceduressuch as medicalbleeding;and obsoleteinventions, a n d t h e c o n t r o v e r s i e so f t h e p r e s e n td a y - w h o f i r s t s e t t l e d t h e Americas;where is the massthat astronomerscall ,.missing"? Lestthe accumulationof eventsbecomeoverwhelming,TheTimeline Bookof scienceincludessidebarsthat spotlightmomenrsin rhe story Some of theseare serious(how the bubonic plaguewas blamed on EuropeanJews),othershumorous(how an Englishtown incorporateda dinosaurinto its coatof arms).Someoffer more detailon how a discovery was made and why it was significanr,while others bring out the human side of scientistsand inventors(suchas charlesGoodyear,who never made a penny from his inventionof vulcanizedrubber).other sidebarsquote the reflecrions,observations, and quipsof scientistsand eyewitnesses from Aristotleon natureto Einsteinon the atomicbomb In rhe stanley Kubrick frlm 2001:ASpaceodyssey(196g)there is a sequencein which a hairy ancestorof humans,havinglearnedhow to use a bone as a weapon,hurls it into the air; the next thing we know, a h u m an- m ades pac e c fti s o rb i ti n g th e e a rth If rhe devi l i s i n the d e t ails ,t hen t his a c c o u n to f o u r d i v e l o p me n r,how everevocati ve, leavesmuch to be explained.How we know what we know about the universeand ourselves? what are we still trying to discover?How did we come to own the technologies we possess;why is it they sometimes seemto own us?with the year 2001 now much closerthan it was, TheTimelineBoohoJscienceis wrinen to help answerthesequestions IltDtx Interferon(antiviralprotein),5l Introns,356 Intuitionism,rheoryof (MArH), 243 Ionic dissociation,theoryof (cnervr), 202 Iron,9; for anemia,64, production,69, 83, 105, ,1 ,1 Isaacs,Alick.518 Isomers.154 Isomorphismrule (EARTH), 260 Isotacticpolymers,311 Isotopes,259 Ives,FrederickEugene,205 J Jackson,John,214 Jacob,Frangois,333 Jacobi,CarlGustav,157 I 19 Jacquard,Joseph-Marie, Jacuzziwhirling b ath, 33I J a h nH , A.,278 effect(pHvs),278 Jahn-Teller James,Huberr,272 James,William,151, 197,2O2,2O9,222 Janet,PierreMarieFelix,225" Jansky,KarlG.,268,272 I 85 Janssen,Pierre.Jules-Cesar, Jasper,Herbert,285 Jeans, JamesHopwood,224, 250,275 Jeffreys,Harold,250, 275 jenney, William LeBaron,204 Jennison,Roger,349 Jensen,JohannesHansDaniel,300 Jet stream,285 SophiaLouisa,188 Jex-Blake, Jobs,Steve,349, 552-53 WilhelmL., 236 Johannsen, Donald,348,368,390 Johanson, Johnson,Virginia,334 Frederic,273 Joliot-Curie, lrdne,273, 301 Joliot-Curie, Jones,Sir William, 99 Jose,Juan,I 05 J o s e p h s oB n , D , 328 Josephsoneffects(PHYS), Jost'slaw, 160 Joule,JamesP., 118, 150, 152, 157, 162 150 Joule'slaws(PHYS), effect, I 62 Joule-Thomson 348 J-Psiparticle, Judkins,Melvin,537 Judson,WhitcombL., 214, 257 Jung,CartGustav,189,244 Junine,C G.,95 Jupiter,59-60, 72, 105, 12, 228, 275, 547; radio emissionsfrom, 514; spaceexploration, 346-47, 354, 168, 575, 584 Justeson, JohnS.,387 K Kaas,Jon,356 Kalokairinos, M., 197 Kamen,Martin David,285, 296 Kanner,Leo,289 K a n t , l m m a n u e l , 31,0 Kaons,309,3ll Kaposi,MoritzK., 187 Kapteyn,JacobusCornelis,231 Kastler,Alfred,306 Kaufman,Terrence,587 Keesom,Willem Hendrik,255 K e i l i nD , avid,257,282 Kekulevon Stradonitz,FriedrichAugust,168, - t 7 Keller,Gottlob,154 KellyG , eorge,314 Kelvin,Lard.SeeThomson,William Kelvinscale,159 Kendall.Edward.245 K e n d r e wJ,o h n ,3 Kennelly,Arthur Edwin, 227 Kepler,Johannes, 57-58, 60, 63, 65,369: heliocentrictheory and RomanCatholic c h u r c h6, , , Kerr,John,l89 189 Kerr effect(PHYS), Kerst,DonaldWilliam,285 Kesselring,Ulrich,232 K e t t e r i n gC, F , Ketzbach,JohnE.,574 Keynes,JohnMaynard,266, 277 K i b b l eT , om,550 Kilby,lack,322 I 15 Kinesthesis Kinetographcamera,212 viewer,212,217 Kinetoscope King,Charles,271 King,Clarence,186, 195 King, SamuelArcher,174 King,ThomasJ.,308, 310 Kinsey,AlfredC.,297 Kipping,FrederickStanley,229 Kirchhoff,GottliebSigismundConstantin,125 Kirchhoff,GustavRobert,170, 172, 174 Kirkwood,Daniel,179 Kirkwoodgaps(AsrRo),179 Klaproth,MardnHeinrich,1O9,12O Klaus,KarlK., 153 Klein,Melanie,2OO,272 Kleinschmidt,EdwardE., 246 Kline,Nathan,505 K - m e s o n3 Q , l l Knipling,Edward,307 Knittingmachines,55 Koch,Robert,191,200 200 Koch'spostulatesor laws (MED), Koffa, Kurt, 239 Kcihler,wolfgang,239 Koldewy,Roben,222 Kolff,Willem,29l K6lreuter,J G.,96 Korh,William,575 Kossel,Albrecht,203 Sonya(Sofya)Vasilyevna,189, Kovalevskaya, ?o2,208 420 IilDEX Kowal, Charles,347 K r a m e r s ,H A , Krdtschmer, W olf gang, 37 K r e b s E d w i n G , Krebs, Hans Adolf, 27 l, 277 Krebs cycle (Bto), 277, 307 Kremer, Gerhard See Mercator, Gerardus Kroc, Raymond,3l3 Kroeber, Alfred Louis, 2O1,225 Kronberg, Arthur, 321 Kroto, Harry, 566 Kuiper, Gerard P., 290, 298, 3O2' 306 Kundt, August, 181 Kundt's tube, I 81 L Lacaille,Nicolas L de,247 La-Chee Tsui, 375 La€nnec, Ren€, 120, 128 Lagrange, JosePh-Louis, 108, I Lagrangian funcdon (PHYS),108 Lamarck, Jean-Baptistede, 117-18, 123, 127 Lamb, Willis Eugehe, 294 Lambda particle, 509 Lambert, Johann H., 95-96 Lamb shift (PHYS),294 Land, Edwin Herbert, 272 Lande, Alfred,253 Landsteiner, Karl, 229, 287 Lange, Karl,197 Langevin, Paul,249 Langmuir, lrving, 243, 248 Langsffom, J William, 375 Language learning,362 Languages: Anglo-Saxon grammar, I 08; Icelandic grammar, 108; Indo-European, 5' 99, 108' 133: Native American,368 Lanxides, 566 L a p l a c eP , i e r r eS i m o n d e , , 1 , 1 - , 2 ' 125-26,290 Laplace equation (ASrRo),107 Laser,325,347 Lashley, Karl SPencer, 265 Lassell.William 155, 161 Lassen Louis.224 Lasswell, Harold, 268 Latitude measurements, 34 Lauchen, GeorgJoachim Iserin von, 48 l-auiltz, Ssren Peter, 236 Lavoisier,Antoine-Laurent, 82, 94, 98'101' I 07' 10 - Lawrence, Ernest Orlando, 268 Lazarus, Arnold, 320 Lead pencil, 52 Leakey, Louis,321,331 L€akey, Mary,321 Leakey, Richard, 364 Leallemard Andre,277 Learning, theory of , 272 Least action, principle of (PHYS),90 Leavitt, Henrietta, 241 Lebedev, Pyotr Nikolayevich, 212 Le Bel, JosePh'Achille, 188 Lebesgue, Henri,227 Lebesgue measure (M^rH), 227 Le Chdtelier, Henri-Louis, 206 Leclanchd, Georges, I 82 Lecoq de Boisbaudran, Paul'Emile, 189, 194, 204 Lederberg, Joshua, I Lederman, Leon Max, 553 Lee, Tsung-dao,316 Legendre, Adrien-Marie, | 12' 130 Legendre functions (MArH), I 30 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 75,77 ' 80' 82-83 Leidy, JosePh, 166, 169 Lemaitre, Georges,262 L e n a r d ,P h i l i P PE d u a r d , ' 2 Lenoir, Jean-JosePhEtienne, I 74 Lenz Heinrich, 146 146 Lenz's law (PHYS), Leonard Karl, 528 Leonardo da Vinci, 41,43-45 Leptons, 305 Le Rond d'Alembert, Jean, 90-9 1' 93 ' 95 Leukocytes, 200 Leukocytosis, I 70 LeVay, Simon,583 L e v e r I - Leverrier, Urbain-Jean-Joseph,| 55' 164 Levi-Montalcini, Rita, 501, 508 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 504 Levitt, Abraham,297 Lewin Kurt.291 Lewis, Edward,27l Lewis, Gilbert Newton, 248, 256, 272 Lewis Meriwether, 120 Lewis theory (CHEM),256 Leyden jar, 90 L'Hospital's rule on indeterminate forms (uarn), 80 Libby, Willard Frank, 296 L i f e o r i g i n , t h e o r i e so f , , O , Light, I 18, 130, 163, I 80; diffraction of, 72; polarization of,123: refraction of, 63, speed of, 76,200,263,345 Light bulbs, 238,243: fluorescent, 285; incandescent, 194, 196 Lighming rod,93 Lights: arc, 151; gas, 115, 1271mercury-vapor electric, 226: street, 93 Lilienthal, Otto, 21 Lillie, Frank l\atfi ay, 249 Lilly,SimonJ.,371 Limnology, 225 Lin, Douglas, 588 Lindbergh, Charles Augustus, 263, 277 Lindblad, Bertil,262 Linde.A D 358 Lindmayer, JosePh, 348 Lindow, Steve, 370 L i n d q u i s t ,M , 3 Linguistics,249,319 Linnaeus, Carolus, 80, 87, 92 Linoleum 174 Linsey-woolseY,107 421 IltDtx Linton,Ralph,29Z Liouville, Joseph,146 Lippershey,Hans,59-60 Lister,JosephJackson,I 40 Lister,joseph, I 79 Li Tianyuan,387 Livingsrone,David, t 50 Locke,John,66, 78, 85 Lockyer,JosephNorman, lg3, 206 Lodge,OliverJoseph,2 l4 Loeffler,Friedrich,2O2.221 Loening,Grover,243 Lomonosov, MikhailV.,90, 96 London, Fritz W olfgang,26i London,Heinz.328 Longitudemeasurements, 34, 4g L o r e n t zH, e n d r i kA n t o o n Z , lZ, ZlT Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction,2l 7, 224 zil Lorentzforce.2l7 Lorenz,EdwardN., iZ6-27 Lorenz,Ronrad,334 Loschmidt, JohannJoseph,132,lTT Love,Augustus,I 76 Lowe,ThaddeusSobieskiCoulincourt.179 Lowell,Percival,192,Z3l LSD,289 Lull, RichardSwann,246 Lumiere,Augusteand Louis,2l Lunareclipses,33, 44 Lunarformarion,theoryof, \94 Luria,SalvadorEdward,288,292 Lwoff, Andre-Michael i3i Lyceum(Athens),16,26 Lyell,Charles , 140-41, 144, 154 Lymphocyteadhesionmolecules,556 Lynen,FeodorFelixKonrad,i07 Lyot, Bernard Ferdinand,267 Lysenko,Trof,m,267 Lysergicacid diethy lamide.SeeLSD Lysomes,514 M Macadam,128 MacArthur,R H 535 MacCready,Paul,35J Mach,Ernst,184,205.Z2B Machnumber (pHys),205 Mach'sprinciple(pHys), 184 Macintosh, Charles,134 Mackenzie, K R., 285 Maclaurin,Colin,87, 92 Mafiei,Paolo,343 Magellan,Ferdinand,47, l4S Magnesiumsulfate,80 Magneticeffectof electricconvection,l g7 Magneticstorms,95 Magnetism,10; temperedsteet,220 Mahler,Ernst.250 Mail delivery,66,86; expressdeliveryservice, I 54; parcelpOstservice,t 98; pony Express, 174;postagestamps,adhesive,158 Malman,TheodoreHarold.i25 Maiuri, Amadeo,239 Maketa, Bob, SS4 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 24g Matlet, Robert, 160 Malpighi, Marcello, t, 74-ZS, T7 Malthus, Thomas Robert, I l4 Malus, Etienne-Louis,l2i Manchly, John William, 296 Mandelbrot, Benoit, i50 Manson, Joseph, J85 Mantell, Gideon, t3S-36, l 45 Mantoux, Charles, 2i5 Manufacturing: assembly line,244,jigs, I l4 Maps, 3, 7, I t; geologic, t 68; Mercator projection, use of, 52; ocean, 324: satellite, j56; wejther 78,155, 176 Marconi, Guglielmo, Zl B, 226 Marco Polo, i7 Marcus, P 1., 315 Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund, 95 Marignac, Jean-Charles de, 2O4, 2j3 M a r i n s k y ,J A , Mariotte, Edme, 7l Mariotte's law (pHys),71 Markov,A A.,232 Marks, Hertha See Ayrton, Hertha Marks Marc, 72, 105-6, 192,386: distance from earth 75; space exploration, j30, 543, 346, 350, 37| ,384 Marsden, Ernst,244 Marsh, Orhniel Charles, 184, t9S, 198,206, ZOg Marshall, Alfred, 210 Martin, Archer 291 Martin, Arthur J p., 3O9 Martin, Pierre Emile 175 Marx, Karl, 182 M a s e r Maskelyne, Nevil,97 Maslow, Abraham, ZZ7, iZ8 Mason, John, l 70 Mason jar,170 Maspero, Gaston, 198 Mass action, law of (cueu), 182 Mass spectrometer, 251 Masters, William Howell ii4 Match: phosphorus, 142: safery, 163 Matlack, Timorhy, 108 Matrix mechanics (pHys),258 Matrioli, Pietro Andrea, 49-50 Maunder, Edward Walter, 214,34O Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis de, 90 Maury, Matthew Fontaine, 163,l65 Mauss, Marcel 260 Maximum ionic density, theory of ,297 Maxwell, James Clerk, 165, 168, t7Z, 174, 179-80 Maxwell-Boltzmann sratisrics (pHys), I 74 Maxwell's equations (pHys), I 29, 207 Mayans, 20, 24, 31, 46, 50, t 48 Mayer, Julius Robert von, 152, IST Mayer, Maria Goepperr, 500-501 Mayo, Elton,266 422 lltDtx M€ni6re,Prosper,175 Mayow,John,75 Menninger,C F.,251 Mazia, Daniel,323 Menninger,l\arl,251 McAdam,John,128 Menninger,William, 25 McCarthy, John,5l 6,35O M e n t apl a t i e n t st r e a t m e n t5, , - , 0 ,1 , Barbara,3O1,361 McClintock, t t , ,1 ,1 ,1 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,5 McCollum,ElmerVerner,238,254 Menten,MaudLenora,245 McCormick,CyrusHall, 145 Mercator.Gerardus,52, 55 McCulloch,Warren,290 Mercator,Nicolaus,74 McDonald.lan,320 74 Mercator'sseries(MATH), McDougall,william, 235 Mercury,13, 65, 1O5,332ispaceexploration,346 McDowell,Ephraim,124 Ottmar, 205 Mergenthaler, McGraw,MyrtleB.,285 Meridianphotometer,195 McMillan.EdwinH., 285, 292 Merriam,CharlesE., 260, 268 Mead,GeorgeHerbert, 224 Merrifield,Bruce,331 M e a d ,M a r g a r e t2,0 1, , , O Merton,Robert,239 system,74; decimal-based Measurements: Merzenich,MichaelM., 356, 383 ephemeridicalunit, 306; metric system,110, Mesmer,FranzAnton, 100 525; Sumerianstandard,7; unimof, 118 Mesmerism.151 Mechanics,79: laws of, 75 Mesons,305 Mechnikov,llya llich, 200 Messier,Charles,104 Medawar,PeterBrian,302 10, 1I l, 338 Meteorites, Medicaland surgicalprocedures.:amniocentesis, Meteorology:dynamical,19 I 18: angioplasty , 337; artificalheart,277, 361i M e t e o r s1, , I , artificialinsemination,362: ardfrciallimbs, 50; 80 Methodof determinants(MArH), aftiflcialrespirator,271: bloodvesselcauteriza 106 Meusnier,Jean-Baptiste, rion,263: bone mamowtransplant,557; Buck's Micali,Silvio,572 288; I 74: cardiaccatheterizadon, traction(MED), Michaelis,Leonor,243 cardiacpump,277: cardiacstimulator,271; 245 equation(SHEM), Michaelis-Menten chemotherapy,164, 238; coronaryartery Michelin,Andrdand Edouard,216 bypass,355; electrotherapy,I 90; episiotomy, Michelson,AlbertAbraham,199-200, 2O5,252, 89; genetherapy,590t human heart transplant, 263 336; iridectomy,| 64; liposuction,252: lobotoMichurin.I V 500 my,276: lumpectomy,344; magneticreso' 270 nanceimaging(MRl),294,358: mammography, Microcinematography, Microfossils,335 245; open-heart,311; pacemaker,artifrcialcarMicrometer,67,72 diac,27 l; Papsmear,264; plasticsurgery,25, Microprobe,3l2 57; total parenteralnutrition (TNP),331; tourniposition, I 84; trepaMicroscope:achromatic,140;compound,60; quet,75; Trendelenburg's 66; electron,272, 279; field double-convex, nation.3-4 Seeclso Anaesthesia emission,279: held ion, 315; phase-contrast, Medicalinstruments:CATscanner,346; (EEG), 280; positrontransmission,375; scanning defibrillator,272; electroencephalograph electron,542; scanningtunneling,357,359: 265; hber-opticendoscope,328; germfree 71 single-lens, 354; iron lung, 271; isolator,216; iaparoscope, petrography,187 164; Microscopical kidneymachine,291;laryngoscope, Microwaveoven,297-98, 336 obstetricalforceps,65; ophthalmoscope,I 57, Midgley,Thomas,Jr.,254, 267 ;s t e t h o s c o p e2 ,8 Milgram,Stanley,305 Medicine: behavioral,355: Brownian (Brunonian) Milk: bottles,196; condensed,166; fortifiedwith 6-7, 1O;education,18, system,105;Chinese, 265 vitaminD,273i homogenized, 55, 54, 188; first referencetexts,2l , 3O,42: M i l k yW a y ,t , , , , O , , , , home health care,62iJewsand practiceof, 56; -8, 3O7 364, 367, 384, 588i gamma radiation nuclear,294: old medicalterms, I 5; preven169; from,337 of the profession, tive, 185,386; regulation Mill,JohnStuart,161, 172, l9O womenand practiceof, 16, 159 Miller,Barry,359 MEEP(electricallyconductivepolymer),363 Walther,273 Miller,Neal,505 Meissner, Miller,StanleyLloyd,252,3O9 Meissnereffect(PHYs), 275 Millikan,RobertAndrews,240 Meitner,Lise,249,283 M i l l s ,C W r i g h t , Melloni,Macedonio,160 M i l l s ,R o b e r t , l Melzack,Robert,555 Milne.EdwardArthur, 255 Memory, l6; researchon,2O5 Milstein,Cdsar,350 Mendel,GregorJ., 180, 223, 381 Mimeograph,190 Mendeleyev, Dmitry lvanovich,183, 185 425 tltD.EX Mineralogy,52; experimentalpetrology,I 13 Minerals:classification, 95: essential.282 Minerogenesis, 232 Minkowski,Hermann,235 Minocha,Subhash,564 Minos,palace,8; excavation,l9T,2Z3 Minsky,Marvin,316, 330,367 Mitscherlich,Eilhardt,I 50 Mitscherlich's law, or law of isomorphism (CHEM), 150 Miyamoto,Shotaro,521 M6bius,AugusrFerdinand,137, 179 Mdbiussrrip(MArH), 179 M o e ,M i c h a e l K , M o h n ,H e n r i k Mohn-Guldberg equarions(EARTH), I 9l Mohorovicic,Andrija,236 Mohorovicicdiscontinuity(Moho),2i6 Moissan,Henri,204 Molchanov, PyotrA., 258 Moleculestructure,168 Molina,Mario,348 M o l l e rC 295 Monge,Gaspard,106,1 12, 120 Moniz,Antonio Egas,276 Monoamine(MAO)inhibirors,305 Monod,Jacques-Lucien, 333 Montagnier, Luc,363 Montgolfier,Jacquesand Joseph,I 05 Moore,EldridgeM.,382 Moore,Stanford.500 Moo-YoungHan,333 Moreno,JacobL., 306 Morgan,ConwayLloyd.276 Morgan,LewisHenry,185, 193 Morgan,Thomas,262, 271-72 Morgan,ThomasHunr,258,240,246 Morgan,William Wilson,507 Morgenstern,Oskar,291 Morley,EdwardW., 199,2O5 Morphology,131 Morris,Mark, 364 Morris,Simon Conway,344 M o r s eF , , 7, Morsecode,147 Morton,WilliamThomas,156 Mosander,CarlGustaf,112, 148, 152 Moseley,Henry Gwyn Jeffreys,245 Mcissbauer, RudolfLudwig,520 Mossbauereffect(pHys),320,325 M o t i o n l,a w so f , ,6 , , Motion picrure:5-D frlm, 312: PatheGazeve,239; synchronizedsound,26 I Motor,induction,20t Moulton,ForestRay,23O,275 Mouton,Gabriel,T4 Movements,law of rhe composidonof, 35 Moviecameras:color flm, 276; l6-millimeter, 265 Mueller,ErwinWilhelm,279, 515 Muirhead,Hilary,335 Muller,FranzJoseph,I 06 M0ller,GeorgElias,160, 199 Mriller,HermannJoseph,24O,246, 265 Muller,Johann.SeeRegiomonranus M0ller,Karl Alexander,369 M l l e rP , aulH.,282 M u l l e rW , ,264 Mriller-Hill, Benno,536 Multigraph,226 Muons,278,3O5 Murchison,Roderick1.,146, 148 Mqrphy,Ga+dner,2l7 Murray,D W Gordon,278 Murray,HenryA.,276 Mushet,RobertForester,I 83 Musset,Paul,347 N N a a r m a n nH, , Nader,Ralph,533 Nail-making machine,I 07 Nanowires, 590 Napier,John,62 Nathans,Daniel,353 NativeAmericans: ancestors, 3, 387: culture study,241; medicine,81-82 Natta,Giulio,5l Navarro,Ignacio,370 Navigarion: Brirish,98; Danish,85; Durch,68; English,54,60',ftrst scienrificoceanvoyage,80; Italian,47, Phoenicians, 9, I 1; Porruguese, 40-43,47; sextant,95; Spanish,58, Vikings, Neckam,Alexander,34 Ne'emen,Yuval,326 Neisser, Albert,195 Nelson,Errk,257 N e p t u n e1, ,1 5 ,2 , , , ;s p a c e exploration,354,373 Nernst,WaltherHermann,158.233 Neurotransmitterc, 341, 347 Neutrinos,305, 528, 337, 347, 357i mass,387 Neutron,245,271;magneticmoment o1,283; mass,274 N e w c o m bS, i m o n , 16 Newcomen,Thomas,84 N e w e l lA, l l e n , , Newspapers,82, 139 N e w t o nI,s a a c , , ,5 , , - ,7 - Nicholson, William, | 17, 122 Nickel as catalyst,220 Nicol, William, 140 Nicolaier, Arthur, 202 Nicolle, Charles,236 Nicol prism (eHvs), 140 N i e l s o n ,N , Niepce, Joseph Nic€phore, 128, 133 Nightingale, Florence, 164, 174 Nilson, Lars Fredrik, 195 N i l s s o n ,N i l s , Nitrocellulose, 154 Nitrogen, 94; fixation of ,227 424 rltDtx Nitrousoxide,I 17 Nobel,Alfred Bernhard,182, 19O,219 Noddack.Walter Karl,258 Noether,AmalielEmmy),25O,255 Nordheim.Lotharw., 264 Norkay,Tenzing,3l1 N o r m a n nW , illiam,226 Norris,Kenneth,524 Northrop,JohnHoward,267, 275 N o v a e2, , Noyce,Robert,322 Nuclearchain reaction,288 Nuclearexplosion,527 Nuclearfission,28O,282-83 Nuclearfusion,controlled,383, 39O Nuclearmagneticresonance(NMR),294 Nuclearmagneticresonator,358 Nuclearreaction,251, 27 1,282 Nuclearreactors,291; first commercial,350; in orbit,333 Nucleicacids,205 Nucleons, 305 Numbers:decimalsystem,9,55, 43:googol,285; half-integerquantum,253; irrational,geometric t h e o r y ,1 ;n e g a t i v e2,0 , , ;p r i m e ,2 , 372; 357,386:randomgeneration, 90, 187' transfinite,I 88 transcendental, , 7, 118,249,568 N u m b e rt h e o r y Numerals:Arabic,35;Hindu,26-27:Roman,l8 N u r s i n g1, ,1 , o Oberth, Hermann, 262 Observatories,35, 4l , 53 , 66, 75, 83, l3li Gamma Ray,379: Greenwich, 76: magnetic, t4t, 144, 150 Ocean Acoustic Tomography (CT scannin$, 558 Oceanography, 165, 186 Ochoa,Severo,52l Oersted, Hans Christian, 13l, 134 O h m , G e o r gS i m o n , , 1 , Ohm's law (pHvs),137 Okun,L.8.,328 Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm, 13, 19, 127, 136 Olbers's paradox (AsrRo), 136 Olsen, Scott 357 Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh, 235, 24O Oort, Jan Hendrik, 506,314 Oort cloud,506 Oparin, Alexander lvanovich, 252 Oppenheimer, J Robert, 266, 280-81 Optical pumping system, 306 O p t i c s ,5 , , Organic compound, 122, 139 ornirhology,57 Orwell, George, 504 Osborn, Henry F., 220 Oscilloscope, 220 Osmosis, 9l, 192 Ostermeir, Johannes, 268 Ostwald, Friedrich Wilhelm, 206 Otis, Elisha Graves, 162 orto, NikolausAugust,174,191 Oughtred,William, 63, 65 Owen Richard,134, 150, 164 Oxygen, 98-99: action of, 75 Oxyhemoglobinatomic structure,335 Ozone.150 Ozonelayer,243, 348, 366, 37A,372, 386 P Pabst,Karl,286 Pacini.Franco,538 Pacioli,Luca,43 258 Packingfraction(PHYS), Paeno,Giuseppe,208 Pain,gatecontroltheory of,333 192 Paint,ready-to-use, Painter.William,214 Paintings,prehistorical,2, 194, 285, 583 Pais.Abraham,295,513 Palade,GeorgeEmil, 515 PanamaCanal,246 Panopoulos,Nickolas,570 Pantyhose,522 George,264 Papanicolaou, Paper,23, 28, 38; Kraft paper, 24 1; production, , , ,t , r Papert,Seymour,530 550 Papert'sprinciple(PSYCH), Paracelsus,48-49 106 Parachute, Paramagnetism,154 Parchment,19 Par€,Ambroise,45, 5O,52 Parker,EugeneN.,319 Parkes,Alexander,166 Parkinson, James,128 Parkinson'sdisease,128: treatmentof , 370-7 | , 375,386 Parsons,CharlesAlgernon,203 Talcott,259, 279, 316 Parsons, Particleaccelerator,268, 285, 292, 313 P a s c aB l , l a i s e5, l , , , - , , 1 69 Pascal'slaw (pHYs), Paschen,Louis,255 Passy,Fr€d€ric,219 Pasteur, Louis,156, 159,175-77, 198 176 Pasteurization, Path€,Charlesand Emile,239 Pathology,86,170 Pauli,Wolfgang,258, 270 258 Pauliexclusionprinciple(PHYs), Pauling,LinusCarl,270,527 Paulsen,Yaldemar,222 Pavlov,lvan, 193,261 Payen,Anselme,144-45 Payne,Katherine,566 Peary,RobertR.,236 Pease,DanielChapin,302 Pedology,189 128, 130 Pelletier, PierreJoseph, I 45 Peltier,Jean-Charles-Athanase, 145 Peltiereffect(PHYS), 425 ItDtx Penfield,William,285 gianrmold, 385; hormones,ZTj,3t8; Pennica,Diane,j75 ldentification,97; introducedto Europe,45: Penzias, Arno Altan,35t nurririonalvaiue,'9i;pil;ryruh"ris,3t7: Pepsin,146,267 physiotogy,85; pollinarionpiocess,I I I ; Perey,Marguerite,2S2 poraroes,3, 4g,'54,g4; sexlalreproducrionof P6rignon,Dom Pierre,80 cells,77;robacco,4g, 5l_52,6l; rreesrrucrure Perl,MarrinL.,348 and physiology,95 Perrier,Carlo,278 ptasteiof paris,AS Perrin,Jean-Baptisre, plexiglas, Zl7,23S 268 Perrine,CharlesD., ZZB plowl S, 26, 52 Personality, theoriesof,22s,314, 329:biosocial, pl0cker, Julius,l37, t 70 217; constirutional, plunkett,Roy,2gl 288 P e r u r zM , a x F ,j j s p t u t o ,1 ,i o z , S S O , S , s , Pestmanagement,25 pniewski, Jerzy,3O9 Petrogenesis, poincar€, 232,3OO julei-Henri,l9S,21Z, ZZg,2Sg Petroleum,164,lZZ, ZjB; geology, poisson,Simeon-Deni ZSZ s, lZS, 147 Pfeffer,Wilhelm 192 pH: meter,273; numbersystem,236 polarimetiy,t4O,2A6 Phantompain, 356 polariryinversion, 251 Pharmacopeia; polarography,250 UnitedShres'sfrrsr, l j l ' Phelps,Michael,569 politicilsiience,160;behavioralism, 268,292, Phenolproduction,Hale-Brittonprocess,255 324 Pheromones,332 politzer.David.347 Phonograph,193,206 pol/ring,ZT6 Phonographrccord,,iOZ polyei-hylene,276 Phoroelectric polymeis,255 effect,205, Z2T,231 Photography,62, potypropylene, 119, 133, tSO-S|; aeriat,tT4: 518 daguerrotype, 148;halftonephoto-engraving eolyureinane,2ZS process,205; negarivehlm, z92: polaroidfllm, pompeii,zz, s5: excavarion,88, z3g 272; rollfilm, 199;SeedDry-plate,196;as rool poncelet, l2S, t|j, l3T Jean_Victor, ponnamplruma, cyril, 342 _.of astronomy,r 60; wet collodionprocess,r r Photoheliograph,168 pons,Jein-Louis, t28 Phrenotogy, | 12, tz4, 144,tsz, t7Z pons,iimorhy 38J Pi, 8, I 8,24,26, 56, 96, 162, zoo, 37s popov,Aleksindrsrepanovich, 2r8 Piager,lean, 253, 330 poiter, Keirh.3j I Piazzi,Giuseppe, portlandcemenr,t 54 117 Picard,lean,77 positionalnotation,g,2g, iS, SS,gz Piccard,Auguste,27O,3O0,313 positron.271 Pick,Arnold,213 posirronEmissionTomography(pET)scan,566, Pickering,EdwardC., t9S,2O9 569 Pickering, post,Wilev,27j William,221 Piezoelecricity,198 potassium-salts, g7 Pildnede Rozier,Jean,I 05 potentialenergy,conceprof, 163 Pi-meson, pott, percivall,Sg,tOZ 297 Pincus,_Gregory,3l4 portery: clay,3_4;porcelain,28, 5J Pion,297 pom'siracture,9g Pi Sheng,50, 52 powell,CecilFrank,297 Pitcairn,David,105 powell, JohnWesley,1g6, 195 Pitman,lsaac,147 power liw of psychophysics (psycn),247 Pitts,Johnand Hiram, 147 praxagoras, 17 Pitts,Wafrer,290 precipitation,artificial,294 prefabricatedhomes, 159 Planck,Max Karl ErnsrLudwig,223 (pHys),223-24 Planckformula pregl,Fritz,236 Planck'sradiationlaw (pHys),2Zj preicot, John,324 Planetesimal pressurscooker,T7 hypothesis(AsrRo),2j0 Planets:Alphonsine prevost,pierre,I l0 Tables,36; movement of, 7Z; orbits of, 52 Seealsospecificplanets Priestley, Joseph,75, 94, 9Z-t0Z Plann,William Gardner,309 Prime meridian(Greenwich), 20 Plants:cellnucleus,141;classification, 51, 54, Prince,Morton,233 64, 72, 80, 87, 92, 109icloning,j40, 364: Principia(lsaacNewron),19, 68, ZZ, 7B-29 coflection,97i corn,49,84; dispersal,267; Printing,25,32, 42; block,j6; in China,30, 32, gene murations,225, 233: geography,t2 l ; 4l; TheDiamondSuta,30; GutenbergBible,4l ; 426 TNDIX lighmingpress,156;lithography,I l4; metal rype,42; rotary press,185; Sumerians,30 theory,64,7O-7l, 841analytic,125; Probability Poisson'slaw (uern), 147 Processof group transferpolymerization(GTP) (CHEM), 361 P r o k h o r o vA, M , Proportions,theoryof, 58 275 Prostaglandins, 371 Proteinioids, 326, 331 Proteinssynthesizing, Proust,joseph-Louis,I 15 Proust'slaw or law of definite(constant) proportions(CHEM), I 15 Prout,William.127,245 (CHEM), 127 Prout'shypothesis Prussicacid, 108 Psychiatricsocialwork, 252 I 66, 198,200, 217, 29li brief Psychoanalysis, rherapy,295 profiletests:BeckDepression Psychological InventoryGDI), 336; inkblot test, 253; MinnesoraMultiphasicPersonalityInventory (MMPI),284, 376: ThematicApperception Tesr,276 Psychology:analytical,I 89; assertiveness training,541; behaviorism,194, 244, 251; bonding,520; child development,272,clientcenteredtherapy,227',double-bindtheory of communicationpatterns,316; encounter groups,323, 541; existential,23O,5Q5:faculty psychology,96: family therapy,323; frustration-aggression hypothesis,305; functionalism,I 51: Gestalt,239; individual, 250, interpersonalrelationstheory, 274: pastoralcounselingmovement,252: play therapy, 272, psychodrama,506; rational,861 ScotrishSchoolof psychology,96; transactionalanalysis,239 3Q7 Psychophysical correspondence, Ptashne,Mark, 536 Ptolemaeus, Claudius.SeePtolemy Ptolemy,24,29 Publichealthtreafise.126 PuckT T 5 Pullman,GeorgeM., 177 Pulsars, 335,338,373 Punch-carddata system,2 I Purcell,EdwardMills,285, 29O,294, 3O7 Pythagoras.I I Pythagorean Theorem,8, I I a Quadrant,4l Quadraticreciprocity,law of (uaru), I 12, I l8 Quantumchromodynamics(QCD),345, 389 (QED),501 Quantumelectrodynamics 557 QuantumHall effect(PHYS), Quantumrnechanics,261, 263 Quantumtheory,231,272 Quarks,531-52,347 Quarticequations,50 329, 356,358,379 Quasars, R Rabi,Isidorlsaac,280 Radar,276.524 Alfred Reginald,199, 309 Radcliffe-Brown, Radiation.218.220 Radio,226; antenna,2.18;first broadcasting station,255; FM,283;handheld transistors,509 Radioactivedisplacementlaw, 243 Radioactivetracing,250 224, 226, 232, 273 Radioactivity, Radioastronomy,268 Radioimmuneassay,308 Radiointerferometer,514 189 Radiometer, Radiowavedetector,2l Radiowaves,180; FM (frequencymodulation), 273 Radium:atomicweightof,226 127, 135, 156, l6r-62, 177, 182, 184, Railroads, ectric,244, 224, 344: air brakes,I 83; diesel-el 298; frrstiron bridge, 153;knucklecoupler, I 83; sleepingcars, 170, 177; standardgauge, 106, l2l , 127;Tom 156;steamlocomotives, Thumblocomotive,140:T-rail,l4l SS Rainbows Raleigh,Sir Walter,54 Raman,Chandrasekh araYenkata,264 Ramaneffect(pnvs),264 Ramanujan,Srinivasa,249 Ramony Cajal,Santiago,208 Ramsay,William,?l 216, 221 Rank,orro, 202, 252, 256 2O4 Raoult,Frangois-Marie, Raoult'slaw (CHEM), 204 Raphael,Ber$am,324 F V., 127 Raspail, Therapy(RET),5l Rational-Emotive Raulin,Jules,183 Ray,John,72, 78, 80 formula (PHys),224 Rayleigh-Jeans Reber,Grote,277,288 Redfreld.William, 142 Rees,Dick,554 Reflectingguadrant,86 R e f r i g e r a t i o9n,, I , , 9 Reliomontanus,42-43 Reich,Ferdinand,176 Reichstein,T adeus,272 Reid,Thomas,96 Reines,Frederick,516 Reitsch,Hanna,280 Relativity,generaltheoryof, 195,248 Relativity,theoryof special,195,231 Remak,Robert,.156,162 Remek,Vladimir,555 Remsen,lra 195 Resonance, 270 conceptof (CHEM), Rhine.JosephBanks,265 Ribonuclease enzyme,335, 338 427 rltDtx Ricardo, David 128 Richards, Dickinson Woodruff 2gg Richards, Theodore William, 243 Richardson, Owen Willans 224 Richer, Jean,74-75 Richter, Burton, i32, i4g Richter, Charles,275 Slg Richter, Theodor, 176 Richter scale.275 Ridley, Henry,267 Riemann, Georg Friedrich Bernhard, 161, 163 Riemann hypothesis (MArH),|69, j4g Riemann surface, l6l Ritter, Johann Wilhelm, | 17, l t9 Rivera, Thomas, 260 R i v e r s ,W H R , Robbins, Frederick Chapman, 299 Roberrs, Ed.349-5O Robinson, Lockhart, I 72 Robot, 324; honeybee, 3T Roche, Edouard-Albert, 159 Roche's limir (ASrRo),159 Roch.lecours, A.,362 Rocket propulsion, marhematics of , Z5l Rockets, 261 , 266, 276, 291 304 Rock strata classification I 15 Roebling, John Augustus, I 55, 201 Roebling, Washingron Augusrus, 201 Roentgen rays,219 Rogers, Alan E E.,349 Rogers, Carl Ranson, 227 Rohwedder, Otto Frederick, 264 Rollerblades 557 Romagnosi, Gian Domenico, l9 Ronalds, Francis, 135 ROntgen,Wilhelm Conrad, ZtT, Zt9 Rorschach, Hermann, 253 Rosch, Eleanor, 359 Rose, William Cumming, 306 Rosenberg, Steven, 573 Rosenbusch, Karl, I 87 Rosenfeld, Orro See Rank, Otto Rosenman, Ray,540 Rosetta Stone, 15,132 Ross, Colin, 572 Roth,Thomas F.,331 Rowland, F Sherwood, i48 Rowland, Henry Augusrus, 187, 199 Rubber, 44, 62, 100; synthetic, 261 Rubbia, Carlo,362 Ruddman, William F., 374 Rudman, Daniell,378 Ruhmkorff, Heinrich Daniel 165 Rulein von Kalbe, Ulrich, 44 Rumely, Rabert,557 Ruska, Ernst August Friedrich,2Z2 Russell, Bertrand, 227 238 Russell,Henry Norris, 240, 27 Rust, John, 263 Rust, Mack, 263 Rutan, Dick.569 Rutherford, Daniel, 94, 99 Rutherford, Ernesr,220,226, 232, Z4O, Z4S.ZSI Rutherford,L M., 172 Ruyson,Fredrick,T2 Ryle,Martin,514,516 s Sabatier, Paul,22O Sabin, Alben Bruce, i l I Sabine, Wallace Clement Ware 2l g Saccharin, 195,320 Sack, David, 572 Safety boiler, 182 Safety pin, 159 Sagan, Carl,36l Sager, Rurh, 329 Sainte-ClaireDeville, Henri-Etienne, 166 Sakel, Manfred,266 Salam, Abdus, 338,347 Salk,Jonas Edward, 3l I S a l o m a n ,A Samuelson, Paul,502 Sandage, Allen,324 Sanger, Frederick, 308, 356 Sanger, Margaret, 201, 248, 31 Sapir, Edward, 201 Satellites,artificial, 329, 341, 354, 356, 361: commercial communications, 32g; Soviet Union, 17; United Srares,5 I 9, j2l: weather, 324, 3j4 S a t u r n ,6 , O , - , , , i A , Z Z t , , O , , : s p a c ee x p l o r a t i o n ,3 , i , 556,358 Sauria, Charles 142 Saussure, Ferdinand de 249 Saussure,Horace Benedict de,9T, loj Saussure, Nicolas-Th6odore de, t 20 Savery, Thomas, 80, 84 Scale,platform, 141 Scarpa, Antonio, | 12, 12O Schachter, Stanley, 507 Schaefer,Vincent 294 Schank, Roger, 361 S c h e c h t m a n ,D , S c h e e l e ,C a r l W i l h e l m , 9 , t - j t S - Schiaparelli,Giovanni, 192 Schizophrenia, 350, 357; diagnosis, j66, 372: therapies, 266, 27 | , 278 Schleiden, Matthias Jakob, I 56 Schleiden-Schwann cell theory, 156 S c h l i e m a n n ,H e i n r i c h , , , l , Z S Schmidt, Bernhard V., 267 Schmidt, Maarten, 324 329 SchOnbein,Christian Friedrich, 150, 154 Schrieffer,John N., 318 Schrcidinger, Erwin, 261 Schrudde, Josef,232 Schultze, Max, 174 Schwabe, Heinrich Samuel, 151 Schwann, Theodor, 46, 156 Schwartz, David,22O Schwarzschild,Karl, 231, 249, 313 Schwarzschild, Maftin, 308 Schwarzschild radius (AsrRo),51 428 rltDEx Schweigger, johann Salomo Christoph, 132 Schweitzer, Albert, 309 Schwinger, julian S., 301 S c o t M i c h a e l , 3 , 5 Scott, Robert Falcon, 240 Scudder, John, 287 Seaborg, Glenn T., 285, 290, 5O2, 306 Seabrook, Charles, 260 Secchi, Pieuo Angelo, 182 Sedgwick, Adam, 142, 146, 148 Seebeck, Thomas Johann, 132 Seebeck effect (PHYS),132 Seeley, Harry Govier, 205, 245 Sefstrcim,Nils G., 140 Segre, Emilio Gino, 278, 285, 31 Seismic wave travel timetables, 285,581 Seismograph, 198 Self-service grocery stores, 245 Selye, Han, 284 Semmelweiss, Ignaz P., 157 Semon, Waldo Lonsbury, 261 Semper, Karl Gottfried, 21 Senefelder, Aloys, l4 Sequoia, 159 Sereno, Paul,387 Sert0rner, Friedrich, 122 Serulas, Georges-Simon, I 55 Sets, theory of (MArH), 184 Sewing machines, 141, 152, 156, 161,2O9 Sewing needle, Sextant 95 Sexuality studies, 222, 297, 334 Sexual orientation studies 383 389 Seyiert, Carl, 290 Shakers, lO0,134 Shanks, William, 162 Shapiro, Irwin lra, 343 Shapley, Harlow, 244, 250, 252 Shaw,JC ,318 Sheldon, William Herbert, 288 Shellman, Lawrence E., 37 Shelter lan,369 Sherrington, Charles Scott, 27 | Shirley, Anthony, 58 Shklovskii I.S 314 Shockley, William, 302 Sholes,Christopher, 183 S h o r t h a n d ,2 , , Siemens, William, 175 Sigardsson, Haraldur, 582 Sikorsky, lgor Wan,244 Silicon carbide (carborundum), 21 Silicones.229 Silk: production, 6,26; trade,23 Silliman, Benjamin, 130, 164 Silver, Harold, 285 Simon, Herbert, 31 6, 318 Simon Th€odore, 241 Simons, Elwyn,336 Simpson, George Gaylord, 290 Sims, James Marion, 154, 175 S i n g e r ,I s a a c , Sirotta.Milton.285 Skinner,B F., 280, 338,344 Slater.Samuel,109 Sleepstudy,3l Sliderule, 65 Slipher,VestoMelvin,244 Slowinski,David,386 Small,ceorge,299 Smalley,Richard,366 Smallpox:amongNativeAmericans,104, 147; distinguishedfrom syphilis,52; inoculation,84 Smith,Adam, 102 Smith,Carson,285 Smith.Edwin,8,266 Smith,George,185 Smith.HamiltonC.,353 Smith,Lowell,257 smith, william, 115- 16, 128 Snellen,Herman,176 Snell'slaw (PHYs), 65 Snyder,Solomon,379 551 Sociobiology, Sociology:evolutionconceptsappliedto, l9l; scientificmethod fot, 206: structural-functional theory,279; symbolicinteractionism,224 506 Sociometry, Soddy,Frederick,226, 239, 243 Sodiumchloride,245 Sodiumsalts,87 Sodiumsulfate,65 Soilscience(pedology),189 9- I 0, 33, 84, 251 Solareclipses, Solarsystem,theoriesof, 115, 115,275: catastrophictheoriesdisproved,275: tidal hypothesisof formation,250 Solarwind, 519 Solderingprocess,192 Solitons,347 ArnoldJohannes Wilhelm,247,264 Sommerfeld, Sonar,249 S o n n e b o r nT, M , O Soret,JacquesL.,194 Sorokin,PitirimA., 279 Soule.SamuelW 185 Sound,speedof, 181 Spaceflight.seeAstronautics;Astronauts; Satellites, artifrcial;Spaceprograms;specifrc satellites;spaceexploradon Spaceprograms,349;GammaRayObservatory, 376, 579, 384, 379; HubbleSpaceTelescope, 388; projectMercury,317,319,329; Skylab, 546,Soviet,524,326, 329, 331*32,334, 336, 338,343, 352-54, 356, 360,362, 370, 573: Sovietspacestation,568; spaceshuttle,358, 360-64,371, 373, 384; UnitedStates,326-27, 332, 334, 337-38, 342-44 lazzaro,9T,99, 103 Spallanzani, Sparkchamber(pHvs),32 286 Spectrophotometet, Spectroscope., 170 Speigelman,Sol,337 Spemann,Hans,275 429 rltDEX Spencer,Herbert,177, 190-91 Spencer,Percy,298 Spermatozoa, 76 Sperry,Roger,336 Spindel,RobertC., 358 Spinningframe, 98 Spinningjenny, 99 Spinrad,Hyron, 358 Spitzer,Lyman,275 Spock,Benjamin,295 Sprague.FrankJulian,207 Sprengel, Chrisrian,1l t Spurzheim, Johann,124, 144 Stahl,GeorgeErnst,82, 99 Stanley,FrancisEdgarand FreelanO.,219 Stanley,HenryM., l9'1,2O8 S t a n l e yJ, R , O Stanley,Robert,289 Stanley,Wendall,275 Stanley,William,204 Stark,Johannes,244 Stark effect (PHYS), 244 Starley,JamesKemp, t 85 stars,69, 246-47, 280,290,369; Algot,1O4; Beltegeuse, diameterof,252; brightnessof, 20; catalogs, 15, 19, 85, 96, 107,144.182.206, 257,3O2:Cepheidvariable, 241,243-44,308: distanceot, 147-48:HarvardClassiflcation System,209,225:maps,51, 4l; namingsysrem, 58; neutronstars,272:quadrant,4l;Sirius,182; southern,76, 145:spectroscopic binaryshrs, 209; spectroscopicparallaxtechnique,244; stellarevolution,240, 308, 384;V ega,149 sraricelecrricity, 71, 83, 90 Statisticalmechanics,202 Statistics,71; use in psychological measurements, ;v i t a l ,4 , Staudinger, Hermann,255 Stauffer,John,358 108, I I 7, 12O:firsroceanvoyage, Steamboats, I 24; transatlantic crossings, l5l, 148 Steam-drivenpump (coalmining),80 Steamengine,2l, 65,97-98; double-acting rotary, 104; Newcomenengine,83-84 Steamlocomotives, 106, 121, 127 Steamturbine,203 Steel:manufacturing, 175, 313:Sheffield, 89; rungsten,185 Steenbock,Harry,257 Stefan,Josef,I 95 law (pHys),202 Stefan-Boltzmann 195,202 Stefan'slaw (PHYS), Stein,WilliamHoward,300 Steinhardt,Paul,358 Steinmetz, CharlesProteus,214 Stellarphotometry,195 Steno,Nicolaus,74, 80 George,127, 133 Stephenson, Steptoe,Patrick,354 Stern,Otto,272 Sternback,Leo,325 S t e r n b e r gC,h a r l e H s - , 1, , $a Stevens,SranleySmith,247 Stevinus,Simon,54-55 Steward,Julian,315 Stocke, John,358 Stoichiometry, principleof, I t0 stokes,GeorgeGabriel,161-62 Stokes,William,130,137 Stonehenge, Stoney,GeorgeJohnstone,212 Strasburger, EduardAdolf, 199 Stratigraphy,96, 132-33 Stracosphere, 227 Streptococcus, I 98 Strite,Charles,250 Strohmeyer,Friedrich,128 Struft,JohnWilliam (5rd BaronRaleigh),2 t 4, 224.232 Sturgeon, William,135, 140 Sturtevant,Alfred Henry,24O,246 Submarines, 65, lO2, 117,224,246:elecrric, 2O4:nuclear,Sl3 Suess,Eduard,203 SuezCanal,184 S u g a r , 73,4 , , 6 Sulfurdioxide,98-99; liquified,I O6 Sulfuricacid.37.lO2 Sullivan,Harry Stack,274 Sullivan,Thomas,230 Sumner,JamesBatcheller,260 Sumner,WilliamGraham,19O.234 Sun,253;ageof, 163;compositionof, I 74; distancefrom the Earth,69, 177: radio waves f r o m ,2 8 ; X r a y sf r o m , l Sundials,9,11,28 S u n s p o t s1,9 , 1, 1, : M a u n d em r inima, 214,340 Superconducting SuperCollider,375, 389 Superconductivity, 24O,3O7, 372; BCStheory, 3l 8; in ceramics,569 Superfluidiry, 268 $upernova,15,24, 32, 50,53, 58, 203,253, 273, , 8 iC r a bn e b u l a3, 3 Surveys,use of questionnaires, 95 Sutherland,Earl,Jr., t Sutton,Walter,227-28 Svedberg,Theodor,256 Swammerdam, Jan,7l, 88 S w a nJ, o s e p h1, ,1 199 Swift,Gustavus, Swimmingreflexin children,285 Thomas,64, 72, 74, 78 Sydenham, Sylvester, JamesJoseph,160, 163 Symbols:African,328; cultural,347:equalssign, 52; Greekletterpi, 83; mathematical,65, 71: squareroot, 48; systemof chemicalsymbols, :z e r o ,1 , O Synge,Richard,291 Syphilis,43, 177:distinguished from smallpox, 52; reatmencs,48-49, 238 (MArH), 196 Systemof vectoranalysis Systemsanalysis, 312 Szilard,Leo,27 l, 282-83 ItDlx T Tableof atomic and molecularwei$hts,150 Tachermak,Erich,223 Tacke,ldaEva,258 Talbot,William Henry Fox, l5l T a l l y i n gl,, Tamm,lgorY.,273 Tampon,277 Tartaglia,Niccolo,48 Tartaricacid,99 Taturn,EdwardLaurie,283,319 Taubes,Clifford,356 Tauon,348 Tay, Warren, 198 Taylor,AugustusDeodat,144 Taylor,Brook,84 Taylorseries(MArH),84 Tea,28 Teabag,2SO 280 Techniqueof magneticresonance(PHYs), Tedesco, EdwardF.,364 Teflon,281 227 de Bort, Leon-Philippe, Teisserenc Telegraph:elecrric,133, l47i magnetic,147, 154: transatlantic,17O,182 Telegraphone, 222 209; Telephone,190;cellular,362; coin-operated; dial,251; switchboard,193;Touch-tone,550; transatlanticservice,265 Telescope,59-60, 75, 133,277; coronagraph, 267: Hale,298; HubbleSpace,376, 379, 384, 588; Keck,564; meridian,82; radio,277, 329, 73, 1O8,249,341, 35Oi 341; reflecting, refracting,2O5,219; Schmidt,267; Yery large Array (VLA)radio, 556 Teletypemachine,246 263, 277, 294;color,508: Television, transistorized,322 Teller,Edward,278, 283 Telomerehypothesis(Bto),342 T e m i n ,H o w a r d , Temperaturescale:Celsiusscale,90; Centigrade scale.90; Fahrenheitscale,84 Tennant,Smithson,l0l, t 20 Terman.L€wisMadison.250 Terms coined: acoustics,82: albedo,95: (psychiatry),24O:anion, 144: ambivalence anode,144; autumation,296' baryon,5 15; behaviortherry, 320: biochemistry,| 92; biology,ll7ibiopsY, 195;bipolardisorder (manic-depressivepsychosis), 528; blachhole, 325; brainwashing,3Q4; catalysis,125, 146; ca.thode, 144:cation,144;ceII,72;chemistry,25i' chromosomes, 206; cogredient,| 6O: conffavartant,| 60: covariant, | 60: dilferential calculus,TT; ecology,18O;electrode,144; eleetroly sis, 144 ; electrolyte, 144 i electr on, | ; entropy,l6O; eugenics,20O: evolution,81; fluorescence,| 62:fractals, 50:gas, 64;genes, 256:genetics,232;geology,lO3: hadron,328; homeostasis, 260: id (Psychoanalysis), 235; integralcalculus,77 i intelligenceguotimt, 25 | : internalsecretion,| 66: invarianf, t 60; invertebrate,127' ion, 144i IQ, 231: isomerism, 14 I ; isosfds/,208' isotopes,245; herosene,162; kineticenery, l4O: lepton,295: IinesofJotce, 65: masochism,I 88; fiteson,275; mesotron,275; mitochondria,209: molecules,125',morphotogy, | 24 negative(photography),I 50; neutrino,27Qi photon, 256; pltylum, 1| 3; physics,86; pragmatism,222i protein, | 47i proton, 245, psychedelic,330: psychology, 55, | 45i guantics, | 63: quasar,529; radioactivity,222: Rheumatism,54: robot, 252: schtzophrmia,24O; scimtist, 140;seismology,160:sociologt, 148: suwivaloJthefittest, 177; syzygy, 16O; taxonomy,| 25: thermodynamics,| 59: trigonometry,55: vertebrate, 127: vitamin, 242 Terpenes,202 Tesla,Niloka,201 Tetrud,JamesW., 575 Textiles:Dacron,288;Jacquardloom, I 19; linen, 9; nylon,279,286;Orlon,307; rayon,201; spinningframe,9Stspinningjenny, 99;steampoweredplant, 107; terylene,288; woven cloth, SeealsoSilk TheAlmagest(Ptolemy),24, 29, 34 123, l3O Th6nard,Louis-Jacques, N.,370 Theophilou, 15, 17 Theophrastus, of Eresus,17 Theophrastus TheoremofThales,I0 TheOrigin oJSpecies(CharlesDarwin), 124, 167, - 71 Theoryof Prototypesand BasicLevelCategories, 359 Thermite,222 Thermodynamics,laws of, 134, 158; law of absolutezero, I 58, 253:law of conservationof energy, 157-58: law of entropy, I 58, 160 Thermoelectricity,| 32 Thermometer:air, 8l: clinical,182; mercury,84 Thermopile,160 Thermosbottle,214 Thermoscope,55 Thevet,Andr6, 51 Thewissen, J G M., 590 Thiel,Ferdinand,359 T h i t o r i e rC, S , Thimmonier,Barth6lemy,I 4l Thomsen,ChristianJorgensen,I 45 Thomson,GeorgePaget,262 Thomson,JosephJohn, 199,220, 222, 23O,233, 239.242 Thomson.William,159, 162-63, 165, 175, 232, 240 Thorndike,EdwardLee, 189 Threshingmachine,107;Case,152;steampowered,147 Tide theories,238 Timekeeping,8-9; Needleof Cleopatra,9; sundials,9, I l , 28: Towerof Winds,2 Seealso Clocks Timoni,Emmanuel,84 451 tlrDtx T i n g ,S a m u e l , 3 , Tirynsexcavation,2Oj Tiselius,Arne 278 Titchener,Edward8., 230 Toaster,pop-up,250 Tobin,James,559 Tombaugh,ClydeWilliam, 267 Tomonaga,Shin'ichiro,i0 I T o p o l o g yt,6 , Z t Top quark,391 Torricelli,Evangelista, 67-68 Torsionbalance,103 Touch,study of, 1I Townes,CharlesHard,i|2 Townshend,Lord Charles.86 Tractor,224 Trademarks.35 Transformarions, rheoryof (MAT),l6g Transformer,204 Transistors, 502; silicon,3 13 Transmitter, 204 Transportation: cable-carstreetcar,187; Conestoga wagon,93; elecrrictrolleycars,2OT:ErieCanal, 131,134,Hansomcabs,145:LondonUnderground,176;publicin New YorkCity, 1J9 Traumaticshock,effectsof,256 Trautner,T A 33 I Travel:inJapan,58; stagecoaches in England,67; t o l lr o a d s3, , 1 Travers,MorrisWilliam 221 Trembley,Abraham,88-89 Trendelenburg, Friedrich,184 T r e v i t h i c kR, i c h a r d1, ,1 Z l , t Z T Tribolites.133 Trigonometric tables,19, 51 Troposphere,227 Trudeau,Edward,202 Trumpler,RobertJ., 267 Tryon,EdwardP.,346 Tsiolkovsky, Konsrantin, 221,228 Tsipursky,Semeon,386 T s u g i t aA, , Tsvett,MikhailSemenovich,252 Tully,R Brent,369 Turing,Alan Mathison,278, 3O7 Turner,Victor,328 Turok,Neil, 564 Tuule,o F., 300 Twort, FrederickWilliam, 246 Jycho Brahe,50, 53,57 Tylor,EdwardB., 179, 185 Tyndall,John,176, 184 Tyndalleffect(psys),184,227 Typesetring, 133,203 Typewriter,183,194 Typography,97 Tyrrell,Josephburr, 2O2 U Uhlenbeck,GeorgeEugene,258 Ultracentrifuge, 256 Ultramicroscope, 227 Ultrasound, 263,32O Ultraviolet radiation,I 19, 180 Uncertaintyprinciple(pYys),126,262 Underwaterexploration:glassgoggles,172; rubberfins, 268; snorkels.268 Undulator,357 Uniform convergence(MArH),166 Uniformitarianism, principleof (EARTH), 141 UniversalProducrCode(UPC)sysrem,j4T Universe,radio maps of, 288 Universe, theoriesof,346;Aristotle,15; Empedoclesof Acragas,l2; geocentricrheory, , :h e l i o c e n t r ri ch e o r y ,1 , ,4 ,5 - , 55, 61;mechanistic model.126 Universeorigin,theoriesof,352, i58: BigBangtheory,262, 266, i3t, 384, 388 Upsilonparticle,553 Uranium-2ll.275 Uranium radiation,220 Uranus,104-5, 1O7,l6t, 298,SSe;space exploration,354,367 Urbain,Georges, 232 Urey,HaroldClayton,252,270,iO9 Uric acid,102 v Vaccines: anthrax, 198; chicken cholera, 19g; leprosy, 354; mumps, 336; pertussis,256: poliomyelitis, 31 1; serum hepatitis, 359; whooping cough, 256 Vacuum cleaner,226 Vacuum production, 165 Vacuum tube 190 Vail, Alfred, 147 154 Valence, theory of (cHeu), 161-62 van Ceulen, Ludolph, 56 van de Hulst, Hendrik, 290 van der Meer, Simon, 362 van Helmont, Jan Baptisra, 64,68 van Leeuwenhoek, Anton, 66, l, 76-77 van Musschenbroek,Pieter, 86, 90 van Snell, Willebrord 62-63 van't Hoff, Jacobus Hendricus, 188.203.219 van't Hoff factor (cHeu), 203 Vauquelin, Louis-Nicolas, I l3-14, 122 Veksler, Yladimir 1., 292 Vetocipede, 175 Venn,John,199 Venn diagram (MArH),199 Ventris, Michael, 508 V e n u s , | , , , , , 10 , , , 3 , 386; space exploration, 327, 335, 340-41, 346,353,355, 360,376 379.385 Vernier, Pierre, 65 Vernier scale (EARTH),65 Vesalius,Andreas, 46,50, 169 Vespucci, Amerigo, 43-44 Videotape'recording machine, 16 Villard, Paul Ulrich, 224 Virchow, Rudolf, 156, 167, 170, 189 Virology, 260 432 lltDtx Viruses,275: bactefia distinguished,260; 246, 288, 292; size,269 bacteriophage, Vitamins,254, 271,278,288iroleof,242: synthesized,272 V o e y k o vA, , O Vogel,HermannCarl,208-9 Volkoff,George,280 102, l17-18 Volta,Alessandro, Volragemultiplier,265 von Alberti,Friedrich,145 von Baer.Karl Ernst,136 von Baeyer,Adolf, 176 von Behring,Emil,219 von Braun,Wernher,262, 270, 289, 292-95 von EggersDoering,William, 291 von Euler,Ull,275 von Fraunhofer, Joseph,126, 131, 133 von Frisch,!{.arl,253 von Gesner.Konrad,52,99 von Goethe,JohannWolfgang,I 12 von Graefe,Albrecht,164 von Guericke,Otto, 68, 70 von Helmholtz,HermannLudwi$Ferdinand, - ,l l , von Huene,Friedrich,235,245,260 von Klitzing,Klaus,357 von Kolliker,RudolfAlbert, 150 von laue, Max TheodorFelix,242 von Liebig,Justus,134 von Linde,CarlPaulGottfried,2l6 von Lindemann,Ferdinand,200 von Meduna,ladislas,271 von Neumann,John,263, 291 von Opel,Fritz,266 von Parrot,JohannJacob,140 LeoPold,188 von Sacher-Masoch, von Sachs,Julius,175, 183 von Siemens,ErnstWerner,182 von Struve,FriedrichWilhelm, 149 von Waldeye?Hartz,HeinrichWilhelm Gottfried, 206 von Weizsicker,CarlF., 28O,29O von Welsbach,Carl Auer,232 von Wolff, BaronChristian,86, 145 von Zeppelin,CountFerdinand,225,238 w waage, Peter,182 Waitz,Theodor,156 walcorr, CharlesDoolittle,191,257, 344 walkie4alkie,273 Wallace,AlfredRussel,153, 17O,183-84, 190 Wallach,Otto.2O2 W a l l i sJ, o h n , , , W a l l sD a n i eF l 391 Walton, ErnestThomas,265, 271 Walton,Frederick,174 Wankel,Franz,319 Wantsel,Pierre,147 Warburg,Otto,257.260 Ward Patrick,335 Ward, Steven,587 Waring,Edward,368 Warren,John,156 Water:chlorination,I l7; composition,106' I l7; 293,356 fluoridation, Water closet,57 Water power, 19 Water wheel,45 Watson,James,310 Watson,JohnBroadus , 194,244,251 Watson,Thomas,192 Watson-Watt,RobertAlexander,276 watt, James,97-98, 104, 106, 118 Watterson,John,580 Weapons:bow and arrow, 2; catapult,13; Colt revolver,146;crossbow,52; Greekfrre' 28; 4l l 5; harquebus' guns,36, 175,201;harpoons, muskets,52, 107, I l5; needlegun, 151; rifles, , , l l , , 2 ; s p e a r l,; s p e a rt h r o w e r3, weaving: flying shuttle,87; Jacquardloom, I l9 Weber,ErnstHeinrich,115 Weber.Max, 177,25O Weber,Wilhelm Eduard,156 I l5 Weber'slaw (PsYcH), Wechsler.David,219, 283 Wedgwood,Thomas,119 Week,seven-day,3l wegener,AlfredL., 168,242 Karl,166, 186 Weierstrass, Weil,Andre,294,348 Weinberg,Steven,558 Weinberg,Wilhelm,235 Weiner.Norbert,300 Weiskrantz,Lawrence,541 W e i s m a n nA, u g u s t , 2 Weiss,Hawey,367 Weiss.Pierte,254 Weissman,August,125 Weizenbaum,Joseph,530 Welcherof Malvern,34 Weller,ThomasH.,299 Wellman,Beth,272 went F.W.,273 Werner,AbrahamGoalob,105, 110, 126, 13O Wertheimer,Max,239 westinghouse,George,183, 204 Westphal,AlexanderKarl Otto, 210 Weyl,Hermann,245 Wheatstone,Charles,147, 152 Wheatstonebridge,152 Wheel,6 Wheelbarrow,25 Wheeler,JohnArchibald,323 Whewell,William, l 40, 144 Whinfield,John Rey,288 Whipple,FredL., 302 w h i r e ,T i m , Whitehead,Alfred North, 258 Whitney,Eli, 110, I 14 whitrington, Harry,544 Whittle,Frank,268 W i e n ,W i l h e l m , , 2 Wien formula (PHYS\, 224 455 IltDlX Wiesel,TorstenNils.324 Wigner,EugenePaul,264, 277, 28i Wilcke,JohanCarl, 104 Wilcox,Stephen,182 Wildt,Ruperr,275 W i l e sA , ndrew,67,389 Wilkes,Charles.150 Wilkins,Maurice,310 Wilkinson,David,109 Williams,CharlesThomsonRees.240 Williams,HughC., 333 Williams,Stanley,590 Williamson,WllliamCrawford,185 Willstafter,Richard,230, 232 Wilson,Alexander.92 Wilson, Pllan.363 Wilson,CharlesThomsonRees.218 Wilson,EdmundBeecher, 218 Wilson,EdwardO., 335, 343 Wilson,RoberrWoodrow,351 Windmills,8.28 Wingquist,SvenGustav,234 Winkler,ClemensAlexander.204 Winnicott,Donald,533 Winograd,Terry,346 Winston,Norman,378 Winthrop,John,Jr.,69 Wistar,Caspar,89, 108 Witelo,56 Withering,William,I 07 W0hler,Friedrich,154 139 Wolf Maximilian.210 Wollaston, WilliamHyde,114, 120.126 Wolpe,Joseph,355 Woodall,John,60 Woodward,RobertBurns,291 Woodworth,RobertSessions, 255 Woodworthpersonaldata sheet,253 Woolley,Leonard,249, 254 Worcester, PeterF., 358 Wozniak,Stephen,549 352-53 Wrangham,Richard,385 Wren, Sir Christopher,70 Wright,Orville,228, 23O Wright,Sewall,335 Wright,Wilbur,250 Writing:Chinese, 9; cuneiform,5, 155,367: h i e r o g l y p h i c6s,, , 1 , L : i n e a rB , ; symbolsfor syllables,6 wundt, wilhelm, 195 199 x Xerography,279 Xerox machine,SOT X r a y s ,1 , , O , , C:o o l i d gteu b e , 244 Y Yale,Linus.179 Yalelock, 179 Yalow,RosalynSussman, 301, 308 Y a m a g i w aR, , Y a n g ,C h e nN i n g ;5 ,5 Yang-Millscauge invariantfields(pHys),i13 Yeager,CharlesE.,298 Yeager,Jeana,369 Yearlength,30 Yeast.146 YoichiroNambu,553 Y o u n gJ, o h nW , 3 , Y o u n gT , h o m a s 1, , ,l O Yukawa,Hideki,271 275 z Z e e m a nP i e t e r Zeemaneffect(PHYS), 218 Zermelo,Ernst,229 Zermelo'saxiom of choice(MArH),229 Zernike,Frits,280 Ziegler,KarlW., 3ll-12 Zieglerprocess,312 Ziesel,5.,204 Zieselreaction(cHEM), 204 Zipper,257 Zirkel,Ferdinand,181, 187 Zonerefining,509 Zsigmondy,tuchard Adolf,227 Zuckerkandl,Emile,327 Zuckerman,Benjamin,569 Zwicky,Fritz,273 434 ...Forthcomlngboohsin the same series: ' ,' : , ' ,'t,.' 1" TheTimeline Boohof the Arts TheTimelineB@k of Greatldeas ' TheTimelineQoohof History The flmellne Book of Sclence George Ochoaand MelindaCorey... microwaveovens,television,computers ,the theory of relativity,and the model of rhe atom are productsof scientificknowledge;it may be tessobvious that so are bread, the do$, the pipeline, the concept of angles,and the year The TimelineBoohoJ... standardweightsand measures,includingsuch uni$ aSthe shekel, tlcrl the mina, the log, the homer ;the cubit, and the foot -2 500 -2 540 -2 400 -2 300 -2 296 The oldest written story, the SumerianEpic oJ Gilgamesh,may