GRAMMAR SUMMARY SIMPLE PRESENT (a) Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen. (b) The world is round The simple present says that something was true in the past, is true in the present, and will be true in the future. It is used for general statements of fact. (c) I study for two hours every night. (d) He always eats a sandwich for lunch. The simple present is used to express habitual or everyday activity. (e)I have only a dollar right now. (f) I don’t recognize that man. Certain verbs are not used in the progressive tenses. They indicate a situation that exists right now. INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS 1. Some common verbs followed by infinitives agree determine manage promise appear forget mean refuse prepare happen offer remember learn hope plan seem decide learn pretend try 2. Some common verbs followed by gerunds admit fancy imagine object (to) avoid finish keep risk deny mind forgive excuse dislike suggest save stop enjoy prevent practise miss 3. Some common verbs followed by either gerunds or infinitives advise like intend stop allow love start try begin permit regret mean continue propose remember agree hate recommend prefer want PAST PERFECT (a) My parents had already eaten by the time I got home. (b) Until yesterday, I had never heard about it. The past perfect expresses an activity that was completed before another activity or time in the past. (c) Sam had already left when we got there. (d) Sam left before we got there. (e)After the guests had left, I went to bed. (f) After the guests left, I went to bed. If either before or after is used, the past perfect is often not necessary because the time relationship is clear. The past tense may be used then. USED TO 1 (a) Jack used to live in Chicago Used to expresses a habit, activity, or situation that existed in the past but which no longer exists. Using which to modify a whole sentence (a) Tom was late. That surprised me. (b) Tom was late, which surprised me. The pronoun that refers to the idea of a whole sentence which comes before. Similarly, which modifies the idea of a whole sentence. PRESENT PERFECT (a) They have moved into a new apartment. (b) Have you ever visited Mexico? The present perfect expresses the idea that something happened before now, at an unspecified time in the past. (c) We have had four tests so far this semester. (d) I have met many people since I came here in June. The present perfect also expresses the repetition of an activity before now. The exact time of each repetition is not important. (e) I have been here since 7 o’clock. (f) We have been here for 2 weeks. The present perfect also, when used with for for or since, expresses a situation that began in the past and continues to the present. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (PP) TO EXPRESS FUTURE (a) My wife has an appointment with a doctor. She is seeing Dr. North next Tuesday. b) Sam has already made his plan. He is leaving at noon tomorrow. The present progressive may be used to express future time when the idea of the sentence concerns a planned event or definite intention. c) A: What are you going to do this afternoon? B: After lunch I am going shopping with a friend of mine. The future meaning for PP is indicated either by future time words in the sentence or by the context. BECAUSE OF and INSTEAD OF (a) We were late because of the rain. b) I’m happy because of you. Because of is used as a preposition to show cause. It is used before a noun or a pronoun. c) We went out in spite of the rain. (=… although it was raining.) d) In spite of having a headache, I enjoyed the film. In spite of is used as a preposition which have the same meaning as although. It can be followed by a noun or an –ing form. 1 e) She passed the exam in spite of her teacher. (She had a bad teacher.) f) She passed the exam because of her teacher. (She had a good teacher.) In spite of is the opposite of because of. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES Meaning of the “IF clause” Verb form in the “IF clause” Verb form in the “result clause” Examples True in the present/ future (Type 1) Simple present Simple present Simple future - If I have enough time, I write to my parents every week. - If I have enough time tomorrow, I will write to my parents. Untrue in the present/ future (Type 2) simple past would + simple form - If I had enough time now, I would write to my parents. Untrue in the past (Type 3) Past perfect would have + past participle If I had had enough time, I would have written to my parents yesterday. REPORTED SPEECH Reported speech refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has said. No quotations marks are used. Verb forms also change from direct speech to reported speech as follow. DIRECT SPEECH a) She said, “I watch TV every day.” b) She said, “I am watching TV.” c) She said, “I have watched TV.” d) She said, “I watched TV.” e) She said, “I will watch TV.” f) She said, “I am going to watch TV.” g) She said, “I can watch TV.” h) She said, “I may watch TV.” i) She said, “I might watch TV.” j) She said, “I must watch TV.” k) She said, “I have to watch TV.” l) She said, “I should watch TV.” m) She said, “I ought to watch TV.” n) She said, “Watch TV.” o) She said, “Do you watch TV?” REPORTED SPEECH She said (that) she watched TV every day. She said she was watching TV. She said she had watched TV. She said she had watched TV. She said she would watch TV. She said she was going to watch TV. She said she could watch TV. She said she might watch TV. She said she might watch TV. She said she had to watch TV. She said she had to watch TV. She said she should watch TV. She said she ought to watch TV. She told me to watch TV. She asked (me) if I watched TV. Direct speech: She said, “Watch TV.” Reported speech: She told me to watch TV. If the reporting verb (e.g., said) is in the past, the verb in the noun clause will usually also be in a past form. In reported speech, an imperative is changed to an infinitive. Tell is used instead of say as the reporting verb. SHOULD 1 a) You should study harder. b) Drivers should obey the speed limit. Should is used to express advisability. The meaning ranges in strength from a suggestion – (a) (“This is a good idea”) to a statement about responsibility or duty (b) (“This is a very important thing to do.”). c) You shouldn’t leave your keys in the car. Negative contraction: shouldn’t. PASSIVE VOICE ACTIVE: (a) Mary helped the boy. S V O PASSIVE: (b) The boy was helped S V by Mary. Form of the passive: Be + past participle In the passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb: “the boy” in (a) becomes the subject of the passive verb in (b). (a) and (b) have the same meaning. ACTIVE: (c) The boy slept. PASSIVE: (d) (none) Only transitive verbs (verbs are followed by an object) are used in the passive. It is not possible to use verbs such as happen, sleep, come, and seem (intransitive verbs) in the passive. ACTIVE PASSIVE (a) Mary helps Joe. (b) Mary is helping Joe. (c) Mary has helped Joe. (d) Mary helped Joe. (e) Mary was helping Joe. (f) Mary had helped Joe. (g) Mary will help Joe. (h) Mary is going to help Joe, (i) Mary will have helped Joe. Joe is helped by Mary. Joe is being helped by Mary. Joe has been helped by Mary. Joe was helped by Mary. Joe was being helped by Mary. Joe had been helped by Mary. Joe will be helped by Mary. Joe is going to be helped by Mary. Joe will have been helped by Mary. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE TYPE 3 1 (a) If I had had enough time, I would have written to my parents yesterday. (In truth, I did not have enough time, so I did not write to them.) Conditional sentence type 3 is used to talk about past situations that did not happen. Verb form in the if-clause: had + past participle Verb form in the “result clause”: would have + past participle TO –INFINITIVE TO SHOW PURPOSE (a) I sat down to rest. (b) I’m going to Britain to study English. (c) To switch on, press red button. We often use an infinitive to talk about a person’s purpose – why he/she does something. (d) I moved to a new flat in order to/so as to be near my work. (e) I’m going to leave now, so as not to be late. We can also use in order to or so as to. We normally use in order/so as before a negative infinitive. (f) I went to the store for some food. (g) I went to the store to buy some food. NOT I went to the store for buying some food. For is sometimes used to express purpose, but it is a preposition and is followed by a noun object, as in (f) ADJECTIVES ENDING IN -ING AND -ED 1 You can say: boring. interesting. - My job is tiring. satisfying. depressing. The -ing adjectives tell you about the job. Compare these examples: interesting - Kate thinks politics is very interesting. surprising - It was surprising that he passed the exam. disappointing - The film was disappointing. I expected it to be much better. shocking - The news was shocking. You can say: - I’m bored with my job. - I’m not interested in my job. - I’m often tired when I finish work. - I’m satisfied with my job. - My job makes me depressed. The -ed adjectives tell you how somebody feels (about the job). interested - Kate is very interested in politics. surprised - Everybody was surprised that he passed the exam. disappointed - I was disappointed with the film. I expected it to be much better. shocked - We were shocked when we heard the news. WILL vs. BE GOING TO (a) According to the weather report, it will be cloudy tomorrow. (b) According to the weather report, it is going to be cloudy tomorrow. When the speaker is making a prediction about future, either will or be going to is possible. There is no difference in meaning between (a) and (b) (c) A: Why did you buy this paint? B: I’m going to paint my room tomorrow To express prior plan, only Be Going To is used. In (c) Speaker B has made a prior plan. She decided to paint her room last week. She intends to paint her room tomorrow. (d) A: The phone is ringing. B: I’ll get it. To express willingness, only WILL is used. In (d), speaker B is saying: “I am willing, I am happy to get the phone.” DEFINING VS. NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES 1 The man who is wearing a red tie is my father. Defining relative clauses a. follow words of imprecise or general meaning which need further definition; b. are essential parts of a sentence, which makes incomplete sense without them; c. can be used with that; d. are not used with commas; e. are spoken without a pause or a tone change. My father, who is wearing a red tie, is doing his business in Japan. Non-defining relative clauses a. follow words of precise meaning which need no further definition; b. are additions to a sentence, which makes complete sense without them; c. cannot be used with that; d. are between commas or a comma and a full stop; e. are spoken after a pause and with a tone change. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 1. Short adjectives (1 or 2 syllables) old big long large early heavy -(i)er … older bigger longer larger earlier heavier the -(i)est … the oldest the biggest the longest the largest the earliest the heaviest 2. Long adjectives (2/3 or 4 syllables) modern serious expensive interesting comfortable more … more modern more serious more expensive more interesting more comfortable the most … the most modern the most serious the most expensive the most interesting the most comfortable 3. irregular adjectives good bad far (irregular form) better worse further/farther (irregular form) the best the worst the furthest/farthest 1 . GRAMMAR SUMMARY SIMPLE PRESENT (a) Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen. (b)