AGGRESSIVE OFFENDERS’ COGNITION Theory, Research, and Practice Edited by Theresa A Gannon University of Kent, UK Tony Ward Victoria University of Wellington, NZ Anthony R Beech University of Birmingham, UK and Dawn Fisher Llanarth Court Hospital & University of Birmingham, UK AGGRESSIVE OFFENDERS’ COGNITION WILEY SERIES IN FORENSIC CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY Edited by Clive R Hollin Clinical Division of Psychiatry, University of Leicester, UK and Mary McMurran School of Community Health Sciences, Division of Psychiatry, University of Nottingham, UK For other titles in this series please visit www.wiley.com/go/fcp AGGRESSIVE OFFENDERS’ COGNITION Theory, Research, and Practice Edited by Theresa A Gannon University of Kent, UK Tony Ward Victoria University of Wellington, NZ Anthony R Beech University of Birmingham, UK and Dawn Fisher Llanarth Court Hospital & University of Birmingham, UK Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England 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publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Anniversary Logo Design: Richard J Pacifico Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Aggressive offenders' cognition : theory, research, and practice / edited by Theresa A Gannon [et al.] p cm – (Wiley series in forensic clinical psychology) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-470-03402-6 (cloth : alk paper) – ISBN 978-0-470-03401-9 (pbk : alk paper) Cognitive therapy Emotions and cognition Sex offenders–Counseling of Sex offenders–Mental health Sex offenders–Psychology Violent offenders–Counseling of Violent offenders–Mental health Violent offenders–Psychology Criminal psychology I Gannon, Theresa A RC489.C63A43 2007 616.89'142–dc22 2007029097 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-470-03402-6 (ppc) 978-0-470-03401-9 (pbk) Typeset in 10/12pt Palatino by Thomson Digital, New Delhi, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production To my parents, Fiona and John Gannon for making my education possible – TAG To my mentors: Bill Marshall and Richard Laws – TW For my Mother and Father – AB To my family – human, canine and equine – DF CONTENTS About the Editors List of Contributors Series Editors’ Preface Preface Acknowledgements Introduction Theresa A Gannon, Tony Ward, Anthony R Beech and Dawn Fisher PART I SEXUAL ABUSERS ix xi xv xix xxi The Cognitive Distortions and Implicit Theories of Child Sexual Abusers Joanne Thakker, Tony Ward and Shruti Navathe 11 The Implicit Theories of Rapists and Sexual Murderers Dawn Fisher and Anthony R Beech 31 Cognitive Distortions as Belief, Value and Action Judgments Tony Ward, Kirsten Keown and Theresa A Gannon 53 Child Sexual Abuse-Related Cognition: Current Research Theresa A Gannon and Jane Wood 71 Rape-Related Cognition: Current Research Calvin M Langton 91 Changing Child Sexual Abusers’ Cognition Christopher Dean, Ruth E Mann, Rebecca Milner and Shadd Maruna 117 Cognitive Treatment “Just for Rapists”: Recent Developments Lynne Eccleston and Karen Owen 135 viii CONTENTS PART II VIOLENT OFFENDERS 155 Theoretical Explanations of Aggression and Violence Marc A Sestir and Bruce Bartholow 157 Violence-Related Cognition: Current Research Rachael M Collie, James Vess and Sharlene Murdoch 179 10 Moral Cognition and Aggression Emma J Palmer 199 11 Treatments for Angry Aggression Clive R Hollin and Claire A J Bloxsom 215 12 Alcohol and Aggressive Cognition Mary McMurran 231 13 The Cognition of Domestic Abusers: Explanations, Evidence and Treatment Elizabeth Gilchrist 247 Index 267 260 AGGRESSIVE OFFENDERS’ COGNITION leading to anger arousal and set out to increase the individual’s ability to inhibit angry physiological response (for example using competing relaxation techniques to inhibit arousal) This fell out of favour with the increase in awareness of the possibility that some or all of the offending might not simply reflect high anger and poor impulse control but rather might be controlling and controlled This work was even seen as dangerous as, if the abuse has been misconceptualised as linking to angry thoughts when in fact it reflected a pattern of purposeful controlling behaviours, this would be dangerous for the victims as it is likely to increase skill in control rather than challenge offence-related cognitions and emotions More recent work, based on broadly feminist informed theory, sought to address domestic abuse by challenging biases in cognitive content, which are seen as being linked to broad and culturally supported patriarchal beliefs One of the most influential programmes, the Duluth model (Pence & Paymar, 1993) proposes that domestic violence has at its core two complementary beliefs, linked to masculinity and patriarchy; those of entitlement and power Indeed, many of the cognitive-behavioural programmes developing from the Duluth model, focus on the thoughts linked to both general domestic violence and individual offending behaviour (Scourfield & Dobash, 1999) assuming that altering these beliefs will reduce the abuse For example within an intervention of this type, the entitlement of any man to control his partner, or to have his needs served by his partner are explored and challenged, the “truth” of rigid sex role beliefs are evaluated and alternative views proposed; the cultural specificity of the views are acknowledged and the role of societal learning in the development and maintenance of these views discussed Furthermore, for individual offenders the thoughts they held about themselves and their partners generally, and the specific thoughts and interpretations of their offending situations and their partner’s behaviours and expectations around both are made explicit and explored Many of programmes in the UK incorporate a component of addressing general beliefs and values and some also address more specific abuse-related thoughts Scourfield and Dobash (1999) identified a range of interventions in the UK, most of which were broadly psycho-educational interventions based on the Duluth model, but some of which were more psychodynamic in their approach Bowen, Brown and Gilchrist (2002) also identified a range of approaches in the intervention for domestic violence in the UK but pointed out that the distinction between the cognitive behavioural groups and the feminist informed programmes may be less important in practice than previously suggested That is, both types of programmes utilised concepts derived from feminist theories of domestic violence and techniques of anger management and behavioural change suggested by cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) These programmes generally hold that men are led into offending through concepts of male entitlement and appropriate gender role behaviour and that, having offended, men minimise and justify their behaviour through common techniques of neutralisation (Sykes & Matza, 1957) Men are described as making external and exculpatory attributions of blame, blaming their partners or factors such as alcohol or drugs and situational stress to avoid taking responsibility for their behaviour Thus even with interventions which hold that cultural beliefs and societal structures are key features in domestic violence offending, there THE COGNITION OF DOMESTIC ABUSERS 261 is some assumption that the thoughts of intimate abusers are relevant to their offending The offence-supportive beliefs are held to reflect male entitlement and traditional views of masculinity and femininity Within tools designed to address domestic violence risk two items related to cognition have been identified: “Extreme minimisation or denial or spousal assault history” and “Attitudes that support or condone spousal assault” These cognitions are linked to higher likelihood of further domestic abuse (Spousal Assault Risk Assessment – Kropp et al., 1999) In terms of the effectiveness of individual programmes, Edleson (1995) reported that success rates varied from between 53 % to 85 % and Gondolf (1997) identified that dropouts from such programmes were approximately 13 % more likely to have reassaulted their partners, thus implying some limited success for those who complete the programmes The actual effectiveness of domestic violence offender programmes remains unclear As has been stated elsewhere, the majority of evaluations have at best employed a quasi – experimental design (Dobash et al., 1999) Also, the majority of participants in domestic violence offender programmes have been court referred and therefore represent a skewed sample and additionally face alternative sanctions if they not complete the programme (Fagan, 1996) There is typically no random allocation of participants to treatment and no treatment conditions as it has been considered that this would be unethical and few true experiments have been conducted so the true impact of any programme is hard to judge Overall the effect sizes calculated in terms of impact varied from between 0.02 and 0.54 The effect sizes of quasi- and true experimental evaluations were moderate when police reports of reoffending were used (d ϭ 0.32), but smaller when partner report was used within a true experimental design (d ϭ 0.11) (According to Cohen, 1988, an effect size of r ϭ 0.10 is small, r ϭ 0.30 is medium, and r ϭ 0.50 is large) These results provide some evidence of the success of treatment, perhaps not as much as one would like, but these studies also emphasise the importance of appropriate research designs, comparison groups and measurements (Babcock & LaTaillard, 2000) Additionally, the work that has considered the content of the programmes as well as competing or not completing a treatment, can find no difference between feminist, CBT and other therapies in terms of outcome It is clear that we should not be complacent about current interventions However it is also clear that there is limited information on which to build change A review of characteristics of domestically violent men in the UK concluded by suggesting that the presence of “sexist” attitudes, problematic attachment styles, alcohol and mental health issues and anger suggested that attitudinal components might be appropriate targets for intervention but that abusers with particular profiles, suggesting more emotionally driven offending might also benefit from anger intervention (Gilchrist et al., 2003) However, in the light of the material reviewed here, it is suggested that these proposals might be mistaken This study shared methodological limitations of many of the reviewed studies in that it did not have a comparison group and as such the foci identified for intervention merely reflected the cognitions present within the group without evidence that these would separate them from nonabusive men and without evidence directly relating these cognitions to their abusive behaviours 262 AGGRESSIVE OFFENDERS’ COGNITION SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH From the review of current literature and research in this area, it appears few key cognitive features of domestic violence offenders have been unequivocally established However, many further methodological and conceptual issues have been raised as issues to be addressed Qualitative data suggests that abusive men tend to justify and minimise their behaviours and make reference to culturally available beliefs about masculinity and femininity to this Cognitions or the access to cognitions may alter under arousal conditions and in response to perceived provocation it is suggested that we need to employ more sophisticated methodologies to tap into these more temporally and emotionally relevant cognitions Such methods have already been used in the areas of general violence and sexual offending, and so it is important that the domestic violence literature makes use of these methodologies For example, the implicit association test (Greenwald, McGhee & Schwartz, 1998) could be used to identify structural features of domestic abusers’ cognitions and interpretation tasks could be used to establish whether domestic abusers actually perceive and encode women’s actions and communications differentially Also, it may not just be the content of the cognition that differs but as suggested by McFall (1982) it may be at the enactment stage of processing that there are differences It may be that we should look for differences in communication skills, conflict resolution skills, and support behaviours Such aspects could be tested in more sophisticated ways using the “online processing” techniques as discussed previously (see review of Eckhardt and Dye’s work on articulated thoughts, above) but focusing on the step after the conflict and the arousal, or perhaps looking at behavioural responses to even nonrelationship specific problem solving or communication tasks following the exposure to a relationship conflict situation Some key questions remain For example, abusive men develop a set of overarching beliefs, which then mediate their responses to novel situations in a topdown way? Do they learn a series of scripts which more directly link to previously encountered situations and then re-enact them when exposed to the same situation, or generalise them to novel but similar situations? Or, they develop a set of idiosyncratically linked concepts which if one is activated, then the others are too, leading to increased accessibility of certain cognitions in preference to others and an increased likelihood of abusive behaviours? How far would any distortions in these areas differentiate abusive from conflictual men? A further question raised by previous researchers in this area (Eckhardt & Dye, 2000) is whether and to what extent are any of these processes under conscious control and to what extent any differences reflect unconscious or automatic processes which are more immediate, less open to conscious control, and less easy to access both for research purposes and intervention? 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Parental conflict in men’s family of origin and conflict management in dating couples Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 623–38 Sonkin, D J., Martin, D & Walker, L (1985) The Male Batterer: A Treatment Approach, New York: Springer Stets, J E & Pirog-Good, M A (1987) Violence in dating relationships Social Psychology Quarterly, 50, 237–46 Straus, M (1979) Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: the conflict tactics (CT) scale Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, 75–88 Sugarman, D B & Frankel, S L (1996) Patriarchal ideology and wife-assault: a metaanalytic review Journal of Family Violence, 11, 13–40 Sykes, G M & Matza, D (1957) Techniques of neutralization: A theory of delinquency American Sociological Review, 22, 664–70 Tweed, R G & Dutton, D G (1998) A comparison of impulsive and instrumental subgroups of batterers Violence and Victims, 13, 215–30 Williamson, G & Silverman, J (2001) Violence against female partners: Direct and interactive effects of family history, communal orientation and peer-related variables Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 18, 535–49 Wood, J (2004) Monsters and victims: Male felons’ accounts of intimate partner violence Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 21, 555–76 INDEX abandonment 257 abusive behaviour inventory (ABI) 258 Acceptance of Interpersonal Violence (AIV) 101 action-based judgments 56 actions 54, 55 active responsibility 123 obstacles to 124–5 adaptive coping strategies 107 addressing cognitions vs challenging cognitions 127 methods 128–30 Adversarial Sexual Beliefs (ASB) 101 affect, extreme 15 affect-oriented (AO) groups 104 aggression alcohol and 232–5 definition 158, 219 Aggression Questionnaire (AQ) 182 Aggression Replacement Training (ART) 210, 223–4 aggressive cues 170 alcohol 102, 164, 231–43 aggression and 232–5 aggressive cognition and 235–41 executive functioning and 162 treatment 241–3 alcohol-aggression outcome expectancies 237–9 Alcohol Expectancies Questionnaire – Adolescent Form (AEQ-A) 239–40 alcohol myopia 237 Alcohol-Related Aggression Questionnaire (ARAQ) 239, 240 Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) 232, 236, 240 anchoring effects 218 anger 105, 107, 140 definition 219 determinants and consequences of 216 anger control training 210, 224 anger management 48, 141, 220–3 application phase 221–2 assessment 220 cognitive preparation 221 effectiveness with offenders 222–3 intervention 221–2 multimodal context 223–4 pre-intervention 220 skills acquisition and rehearsal 221 anger model, Novaco’s 215–19 anger-motivated rapists 46 anger schemas 217 antisocial personality disorder 137, 140, 162, 234 anxiety 84 appraisal of emotion 26 articulated thoughts and simulated situations (ATTS) 256 assertiveness training 222 attentional cueing 218 attitudes supporting aggression 101 attributable fraction 231–2 attribution error 119 AUDIT 232, 236, 240 autonomous reasoning 200 Bakker Assertiveness-Aggressiveness Inventory 252 beat or be beaten schema 190 behaviour 94 behavioural experimentation 129 behavioural intent 105 behavioural observation 220 behavioural response selection 165 belief-based judgments 56, 65 belief-driven violent assaults 184–5 beliefs 32, 54, 59 benign memory distortions 81 binocular rivalry task 187–8 blameworthy behaviour 256 borderline personality disorder 145, 146 Bumby Rape Myth Scale 143 268 INDEX California Sex Offender Treatment and Evaluation Project 137 categories 32 catharsis theory 158 change recognition 130 child Internet pornographers 137 Child Molester Empathy Measure 78 Child Molester Scale 76, 77 child sexual abuse 11–28 cognition: research evidence 73–84 cognitive content and structure 74, 82–4 cognitive products 74–9 socio-cognitive processing 74, 79–82 treatment 136–7 children as sex objects 33, 35, 49 children as sexual beings 61, 63, 120 chronically accessible schemas 73 Cognitions Scale (CS) 13–14, 75, 76 cognitions that increase vulnerability to offend 130 cognitive associative networks 191–2 cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) 48, 117, 136, 168, 173, 260 in anger treatment 222 cognitive content 179, 180, 181–6 domestic violence and 248 questionnaire studies 181–4 aggression or violent attitudes 181–2 general criminal attitudes 183–4 impression management 184 interview studies 184–5 cognitive control system, alcohol and 234 cognitive deconstruction theory 125 cognitive defence mechanisms 13 cognitive distortions 12–23, 31, 32, 60, 74, 92–3, 119, 120, 135, 137 as belief, value and action judgments 53–68 critique and elaboration of early ideas 14–16 origins and early conceptualisations 12–14 origins of sexual offenders’ cognitive distortions 54–6 schema model of offenders’ cognition 16–18 cognitive labelling 216 cognitive miser 73 Cognitive Neoassociationist Aggression Model (CNA) 163–5, 174 cognitive operations 218 cognitive processing 92, 94, 179, 180, 186–90 experimental studies 187–9 questionnaire studies 186–7 cognitive products 32, 73, 78, 95, 181 cognitive propositions 218 cognitive restructuring 128–9 cognitive risk factors 254 cognitive structures 16, 94, 179, 180 domestic violence and 248 collective violence 215 common couple violence 247 Communications Patterns Questionnaire (CPQ) 258 conditioning 13 condoning of violence 253 confidence, alcohol and 239–41 conflict resolution 157, 258 Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) 257 connectionist learning 104 constellation of abuses 248 control 17, 36, 96, 142 Control of Violence for Angry Impulsive Drinkers (COVAID) 241–3 conventional reasoning 201 coping 15, 107, 257 core beliefs 56 core schemas in sexual offenders 33–5 Correctional Drug Abuse Treatment Effectiveness (CDATE) project 243 Corrections Victoria Sex Offender Programme 142–8 assessment strategies and protocols 143–4 cognitive-driven process issues 146–7 content 144–6 logistics 144 therapists’ reflections on reframing cognitive distortions 147–8 Criminal Attitudes to Violence Scale (CAVS) 182 Criminal Sentiments Scale Modified (CSSM) 182, 183 criminal violence, definition 219 cue for punishment system 234 cue for reward system 234 cued recall paradigm 188, 189 cultivation theory 160–1 culture of honour schema 189 dangerous world 33, 34, 35, 37–8, 40, 43, 47, 48, 49, 61, 62, 96, 120, 125, 141, 142, 145 decision skills 81 deep cognitions 32 defence mechanism 13 Defining Issues Test (DIT) 206–7 denial 13, 59, 100 depression 12, 84 desires/goals 32 deviant arousal 137 deviant sexual arousal 92 deviant sexual coping 15 deviant sexual fantasising 107 dialectical behaviour therapy 145, 146 dichotomous listening paradigm 188 dichotomous thinking 257 disadvantaged schema 120 INDEX 269 discriminative validity studies 97–8 disrespect for certain women 14, 36, 96 disruptive thoughts 12 distorted attitudes 136 domestic violence 247–63 attitudes 251–3 cognitive content and structure 248 cognitive features 248–9 cognitive processing 248–9 experimental studies of cognition 256–7 inferred cognition and 249–50 relationship-specific beliefs 254–6 self-reports 253–4 typologies 250–1 ‘doomed to deviance’ script 119 Drinking Expectancy Questionnaire (DEQ) 240 Duluth model 259 dynamic risk factors 124 dysfunctional anger 217–18 consequences 218–19 dysfunctional guilt 122 dysfunctional social cognitions 135 Effects of Drinking Questionnaire (EDQ) 238–9 ego defences 13 egocentricity 208, 210 emotion, moral reasoning and 204 emotion-driven assaults 185 Empat-A scale 78 empathy see victim empathy enactment skills 81 encoding 94 entitlement 17, 33, 34, 35, 36, 39, 41, 43, 49, 61, 63, 96, 120, 141, 142 Equipping Youth to Help One Another (EQUIP) 210–11 evidential disconfirmation 107 executive cognitive functioning (ECF) 162–3 alcohol and 235–7 exhibitionism 137 EXPAGG-M 181, 182 experiential disconfirmation 108 exposure-oriented (EO) groups 104 expressive beliefs 181 Extended Treatment Programme (England and Wales Prison Service) 48, 49–50 fairness orientation 200, 201 faking-good responses 98 false beliefs 57 false conclusion 59–60 false consensus 218 fantasy retraining 138 faulty beliefs 54 frustration–aggression hypothesis 158 fundamental attribution errors 135, 218 general aggression model (GAM) 161, 169–73, 174 long-term and extraneous effects 172 outcomes 172 person inputs 170 routes 170–1 situational inputs 170 genocide 215 Go/No Go task 236 goals 58 good lives model 123 goods 58 grievance 1, 36, 96, 142 grounded theory 184, 190 guided imagery 105 guilt 122, 126 Hanson Sex Attitude Questionnaire 75–6 Heinz dilemma 205 heteronomous moral reasoning 200 Heterosexual Perception Survey (HPS) 102, 104 hostile attributional biases 234 hostile attributions 257 Hostile Interpretations Questionnaire (HIQ) 186–7 hostile masculinity 99, 101 Hostility Toward Women scale 101 hot thoughts 259 humiliation 107 hypermasculinity 92, 99 Hypermasculinity Inventory 106 hypersexuality 92 I am the law schema 190 I get out of control schema 190 ideal self-orientation 202 identity, protection of 126 imagery 131 impersonal sex 101 Implicit Association Test (IAT) 82–3, 96, 190–1 implicit theories 31–50, 55, 95, 118, 120, 125, 141–2 convergent utility of identified groups of sexual murderers and rapists 45–7 in child sexual abusers 63–4 definition 36 motivations for sexual murder and rape by 40–5 in rapists 35–6, 64–5 in sexual murderers 36–40 in sexual offenders 33–5 270 INDEX impression management 59 impulse control 249 impulsivity hypothesis, alcohol and 236–7 incidence of rape 105 information acquisition 165 instrumental beliefs 181 intergenerational transmission of violence 249–50 Interpersonal Cognitive Distortions Scale (ICDS) 255 Interpersonal Reactivity Index 143 interpersonal skills training 141 interpersonal violence 215 intrusive and disruptive thoughts 12 Inventory of Specific Relationship Standards (ISRS) 255 IQ 200, 237 Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) 255 jealousy 256 judgment model of cognitive distortions (JMCD) in sexual offenders 54, 56–60, 61 actions 59 beliefs 57 clinical implications 67 implications 65–7 interaction between beliefs, values and actions 59–60 research implications 66–7 values 58 judgment see moral cognition justice 200 justice moral reasoning, theory of see moral reasoning, Kohl’s theory of justice or fairness orientation 200, 201 justifications 59, 96 juvenile offenders, aggression beliefs and problem-solving deficits in 187 knowledge, provision of 129 Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning 200–3 lexical decision task 66, 81 life maps 106 life through a different lens technique 131–2 Likert scale 14, 80 logical reasoning 200 loneliness 107 maladaptive coping strategies 15 male sex drive is uncontrollable 34, 35, 36, 38–9, 40–1, 43, 47, 48, 49, 96, 141, 145 marital conflict 255 Marital Opinion Questionnaire (MOQ) 258 masculine ideology 99 masculinity, domestic violence and 251–2, 253 Massachusetts Treatment Center: Revision (MTC: R3) 45 masturbation 107 mean world syndrome 161 Measure of Criminal Attitudes and Associates questionnaire (MCAA) 183–4 memory recall task 66 Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) 36 minimisation 59, 96, 99–100 MOLEST scale 75 moral cognition 199–211 Moral Judgement Interview (MJI) 204, 205, 206 moral reasoning aggression and 207–9 assessing 204–7 interventions for aggressive individuals 209–11 Kohlberg’s theory of 200–3 Piaget’s theory of 199–200 production measures 204–6 recognition measures 206–7 stages 207 training 224 multifactorial models studies, rape and 100–1 Multiphasic Sex Inventory 76, 143 Cognitive Distortions and Immaturity Scale (CDIS) 76 Justifications Scale (JS) 76 naive scientist 73 nature of harm 33, 61 Negative Intentions Questionnaire (NIQ) 257 Negative Masculinity scale 101 network analysis 191 neuropsychological deficits 16 neutralisation 119, 260 nonsadistic sexual rapist 46 normalisation of violence schema 190 normative order orientation 202 Novaco Anger Scale (NAS) 220 Novaco’s model of anger 215–19 offence minimisation 84 offence-supportive cognitive distortions 14–15, 74, 75–9, 84, 85–6, 97, 100, 106, 249 treatment 127–9 offence-supportive manner 80 INDEX 271 offender-relevant cognitions, accessing and recognising 118–20 opportuistic rapist 46 pain system, alcohol and 234 parasocial interaction 169 parenting variables, social cognition and 209 passive responsibility 123 patriarchal attitudes 251, 252 patriarchal terrorism 247 Pedophile Cognition Scale 56 perceptual biases 103–4 perceptual insensitivity 103–4 perceptual matching 218 personality disorder 49 perspective-taking 129 pervasively angry rapist 46 physiological arousal 216 physiological monitoring 222 Piaget’s theory of moral reasoning 199–200 post-conventional reasoning 201 post-hoc judgment about actions 65 pre-conventional reasoning 201 prediction studies of rape 98–100 Pride in Delinquency (PID- scale 183 Attitudes Toward Offences subscale 183 Criminal Subculture subscale 183 primary human goods 58 Problem Solving Inventory 252 prosocial script 67 protection of others 190 protective mechanism 14 prototypes 94 proximity bias 218 psychoanalytic theory 13 Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) 186 Denial of Harm 186 Interpersonal Hostility 186 Proactive Criminal Thinking 186 Reactive Criminal Thinking 186 Psychopathy Checklist Revised (PCL-R) 188 public embarrassment 256 rape attitudes 105 rape knowledge 105 Rape Myth Acceptance (RMA) 101, 143 rape myths 139, 140 rape-related attitudes 105 rape-related cognitive processes 101–5, 107 rape-related cognitive products 97–101, 105–7 discriminative validity studies 97–8 multifactorial models studies 100–1 prediction studies 98–100 rape-related cognitive structures 95–6, 105–7 RAPE scale 98, 106 rape-supportive attitudes 92 Rapid-KPI 258 rapists antisocial attitudes, beliefs and behaviours 140–1 cognitive distortions and implicit theories 141–2 treatment of 107–8, 136–7, 137–42 rationalisation 13 reaction formation 13 receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve 83 recidivism 99, 120, 125, 130 predictors of 98–100 reciprocity 200 redemptive script 67 rejection 256, 257 Relationships Beliefs Inventory (RBI) 255 relaxation training 221, 222, 260 Responsibility Attribution Questionnaire (RAQ) 257 responsibility for offending, taking 119, 122–3 retrieval 94 Risk-Needs-Responsivity Model 138 role-plays, use of 129–30, 131, 221 sadism 48 sadistic sexual rapist 46 schema accessibility 73 schema-based model of sexual assault 17 schema-focused therapy 131–2 schemas 31, 32, 55, 72, 94, 118, 120, 180, 190–2, 216 definition 36 model of offenders’ cognition 16–18 script theory (social-cognitive informationprocessing model) 159–60, 168 scripts 32, 92, 94, 180 selective attention 217 Self-Appraisal Questionnaire (SAQ) 183 self as victim 17, 36, 96, 142 self-deception 59 self-directed violence 215 self-enhancement 190 self-esteem 18, 84, 122, 126 self-harm 215 self-image 84 self-instructional training 221, 222 self-management 136 self-monitoring 131, 220 self-pity 36 self-preservation 190 272 INDEX self-report beliefs, limitations 117–18 self-report questionnaires 16, 32, 220 selfish motivation 256 sentence-recognition tasks 187 Sex Offender Treatment Programme (SOTP) 37 sex role stereotyping 99 sexual assault 46 sexual entitlement 106 Sexual Experiences Survey 91 sexual fantasies 12 sexual homicide 46 sexual interests 136 sexual interference after death 41–3 sexual murder, motivations for 40–5 sexual mutilation 41–4 sexual pre-occupation 92 sexual priming 79–80 sexual promiscuity 101 sexual reconditioning 138 sexually coercive fantasies and planning 92 sexually motivated murderer 47 sexually motivated rapists 46 sexually triggered/aggressive control sexual murderer 47 sexually triggered/aggressive dyscontrol sexual murderer 47 shame 61, 122 signal detection theory 104 situational cues 170, 171 skillstreaming 224 social cognition 71, 72–84, 93–5 development of 208–9 knowledge content and structure 72 social information processing 72–3 social cognitive information processing (SCIP) 165–8, 174 clarification of goals 166 encoding and interpretation of cues 166 response access 166 response evaluation and self-efficacy 166–7 social cognitive theory 168–9, 193 social facilitation, alcohol and 239–41 social information processing model, six-step 161, 208–9, 259 social learning model of behaviour 15 social learning theory (SLT) 13, 168 social perspective-taking, theory of (Selman) 201–2 social problem solving 236–7 socioaffective functioning 136 sociomoral reasoning, Gibbs’ theory of 203–3 Sociomoral Reflection Measure (SRM) 204, 205–6, 207 Sociomoral Reflection Measure-Short Form (SRM-SF) 204, 206, 207 Sociomoral Reflection Objective Measure 207 Sociomoral Reflection Objective Measure-Short Form 207 Socratic questions 122, 127, 128, 129 Spousal Assault Risk Assessment 261 statements of cognitions 118, 120–7 empowering active responsibility for cognitive change 122–3 functions of cognitions 121–2 lower priority cognitions 125–7 obstacles to active responsibility 124–5 offence-supportive attitudes 124, 126 prioritising cognitions in treatment 123–7 schema-related beliefs 125 toxic cognitions 125 State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) 220 stepping stones technique 131 stereotypes 94 stigma 61, 122, 126 strangulation 42 stress 84 stress inoculation therapy 221 stress management 107, 141 Stroop Test 96 structural equation modelling 171 subliminal priming 83 suicide 215 surprise memory task 80 Survey of Personal Beliefs (SPB) 256 suspiciousness schema 120 Test of Reading Affective Cues (TRAC) 102 thematic networks 55, 60, 61 beliefs, values and actions 61 common to rapists and child sexual abusers 61–3 theories 32 thought-stopping 221 toxic cognitions 125 trait hostility 169 uncontrollability 33, 35, 49, 61–2, 120 utility consequences orientation 202 value autonomy 58 value-based judgments 56, 65 values 54, 56 victim blaming 140, 145 victim empathy 129 development 130 lack of 84, 101–2, 137, 138 training 48, 138, 139 Victim Empathy Distortion Scale 78 victim-impact statements, use of 129 victim videos, use of 129 INDEX 273 victimisation 138 video mediated recall procedure 258 vignette studies 80–1, 101, 102, 181, 188, 256 vindictive rapists 46 violence, definition 158, 219 violence-related cognition 179–94 weapons effect 164 women are dangerous 34, 35, 40, 49, 64–5, 96, 141 women are unknowable 34, 35, 36, 40, 49, 61, 64–5, 95, 141, 145, 148 women as deceitful 106 women as gatekeepers 65 women as sex objects 34, 35, 36, 39–40, 43, 47, 48, 49, 61, 65, 95, 141, 142, 149 women as sexual beings 145, 148 women, disrespect for 17 word pair evaluation task 191–2 world is a dangerous place 148 worthlessness, sense of 18, 19 ... and Dawn Fisher have focussed on cognition and, even more precisely, cognition in the context of aggressive offenders They have gathered and edited a collection of contributions, written by researchers... (e.g., concept formulation) and memory processes (e.g., retention, retrieval) These processes have been investigated by Aggressive Offenders Cognition: Theory, Research and Practice Edited by T A... Aggression and Violence Marc A Sestir and Bruce Bartholow 157 Violence-Related Cognition: Current Research Rachael M Collie, James Vess and Sharlene Murdoch 179 10 Moral Cognition and Aggression