Health Psychology Health Psychology Theory, Research & Practice 5th Edition David F Marks Michael Murray & Emee Vida Estacio SAGE Publications Ltd Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP SAGE Publications Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B 1/I Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road New Delhi 110 044 SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd Church Street #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 © David F Marks, Michael Murray, Emee Vida Estacio 2018 First edition published 1999; reprinted 2002, 2003 Second edition published 2005; reprinted 2008, 2009, 2010 Third edition published 2010; reprinted 2011, 2013, 2014 Fourth edition published 2015; reprinted 2016, 2017 This fifth edition published 2018 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers Library of Congress Control Number: 2017946015 British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-5264-0823-5 ISBN 978-1-5264-0824-2 (pbk) Editor: Amy Jarrold Editorial assistant: Katie Rabot Assistant editor, digital: Chloe Statham Production editor: Imogen Roome Copyeditor: Sarah Bury Proofreader: Leigh C Timmins Indexer: Elske Janssen Marketing manager: Lucia Sweet Cover design: Wendy Scott Typeset by: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, India Printed in the UK Contents Author Biographies Copyright Acknowledgements Preface Online Resources Acknowledgements PART HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF BIOLOGY, SOCIETY AND METHODOLOGY Health Psychology: An Introduction The Nervous, Endocrine and Immune Systems and the Principle of Homeostasis Genetics, Epigenetics and Early Life Development Macro-social Influences Social Justice Culture and Health An A–Z of Research Methods and Issues Relevant to Health Psychology PART THEORIES, MODELS AND INTERVENTIONS FOR HEALTH BEHAVIOUR CHANGE Theories, Models and Interventions Sexual Health 10 Food, Eating and Obesity 11 Alcohol and Drinking 12 Tobacco and Smoking 13 Physical Activity and Exercise PART HEALTH PROMOTION AND DISEASE PREVENTION 14 Information, Communication and Health Literacy 15 Lay Representations of Health and Illness 16 Screening and Immunization 17 Health Promotion PART ILLNESS EXPERIENCE AND HEALTH CARE 18 Illness and Personality 19 Medicine Taking: Adherence and Resistance 20 Pain and Pain Control 21 Cancer 22 Coronary Heart Disease 23 HIV Infection and AIDS: The Pinnacle of Stigma and Victim Blaming 24 Long-term Conditions: Diabetes and ME/CFS 25 End-of-Life Care, Dying and Death Glossary References Author Index Subject Index Author Biographies DAVID F MARKS was born in Petersfield, England and lives in Provence, France David graduated from the University of Reading and completed his PhD in mathematical psychology at the University of Sheffield He held positions at the University of Otago, New Zealand and at University College London He served as Head of the School of Psychology at Middlesex Polytechnic, and as Head of the Department of Psychology at City, University of London, UK As a Visiting Professor, he carried out research in the Department of Neurosurgery at Hamamatsu School of Medicine and in the Department of Psychology at Kyushu University in Japan, at the Universities of Oregon and Washington in the US, and taught health psychology at the University of Tromsø in Norway In addition to four previous editions of this book, David has published 25 books including: The Psychology of the Psychic (1980, with R Kammann), Theories of Image Formation (1986), Imagery: Current Developments (1990, with J.T.E Richardson and P Hampson), The Quit For Life Programme: An Easier Way to Stop Smoking and Not Start Again (1993), Improving the Health of the Nation (1996, with C Francome), Dealing with Dementia: Recent European Research (2000, with C.M Sykes), The Psychology of the Psychic (revised edition, 2000), The Health Psychology Reader (2002), Research Methods for Clinical and Health Psychology (2004, with L Yardley), Overcoming Your Smoking Habit (2005), Obesity: Comfort vs Discontent (2016) and Stop Smoking Now (2017) David served as Chair of the British Psychological Society’s Health Psychology Section and Special Group in Health Psychology and as Convenor of the European Task Force on Health Psychology He was instrumental in establishing the first postgraduate health psychology training programmes at Master’s and Doctoral levels in the UK With Michael Murray, David is a founding member of the International Society of Critical Health Psychology He is also the Founder and Editor of the Journal of Health Psychology and Health Psychology Open and is a specialist in theories, methods, clinical trials and psychometrics MICHAEL MURRAY is Professor of Psychology at the University of Keele, UK Previously he was Professor of Social and Health Psychology in the Division of Community Health, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada, and has held positions at St Thomas’ Hospital Medical School, London, UK and at the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland His previous books include Smoking Among Young Adults (1988, with L Jarrett, A.V Swan and R Rumen), Qualitative Health Psychology: Theories and Methods (1999, with K Chamberlain) and Critical Health Psychology (2004, 2015) Michael is Associate Editor of Psychology and Health and an editorial board member of the Journal of Health Psychology, Health Psychology Review, Psychology, Health and Medicine and Arts and Health His current research interests include the use of participatory and arts-based methods to promote social engagement among older people EMEE VIDA ESTACIO is a Lecturer in Psychology at Keele University She completed her Bachelor’s degree in Psychology (magna cum laude) at the University of the Philippines, and her MSc and PhD in Health Psychology at City, University of London Emee specializes in health promotion and community development and has facilitated action research projects in some of the most deprived areas in the UK and in the Philippines As a scholar activist, she became actively involved in supporting activities for Oxfam, the Association for International Cancer Research, CRIBS Philippines and Save the Children UK Emee is a steering group member of Health Literacy UK and sits on the editorial board of the Journal of Health Psychology, Health Psychology Open, Community, Work and Family and the Philippine Journal of Psychology Copyright Acknowledgements The authors and publishers wish to thank the following for permission to use copyright material: overweight, 87, 238 see also obesity PACE Trial, 603–606 pain, 374–375, 485, 487–513 assessment, 490–492 biopsychosocial model (BPSM), 492–493 chronic, 487 at end of life, 614 experience of, 488, 489 gate control theory, 485, 494–496 interventions, 503–510 acceptance commitment model (ACM), 506, 509 behavioural strategies for, 503–505 cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), 505 cognitive strategies for, 505 imagery, 507 interdisciplinary pain rehabilitation programmes, 508–509 mindfulness meditation, 505–506 pharmacological strategies, 507–508 physical strategies, 508 neural correlates of, 496, 497 pattern theory, 494 psychological factors, 497, 498–503 specificity theory, 493–494 in torture and interrogation, 510–511 treatment issues, 509–510 types of, 489 pain questionnaires, 490–491 palliative care, 615, 617–618, 652 palliative treatment, 522, 652 pancreatitis, acute, 269 pandemics, 92 pangenesis, 66 pansexual, 234, 652 pap test, 652 Papua New Guinea, 130 paradigms, 25, 27 parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), 40, 652 parental rejection, 255 parental stress see prenatal maternal stress (PNMS) parenting support, 86 participant observation, 162 participatory action research (PAR), 147–148, 169, 579, 652 participatory learning, 652 passive smoking see second-hand smoke (SHS) pathological laughter and crying (PLC), 44–45 “pathways to disengagement,” 379 patient empowerment see empowerment patient informatics, 350, 653 patient safety, 653 patient satisfaction, 467, 471, 653 “patient” terminology, 460 patient-centred communication (PCC), 345–347, 653 “patient-controlled analgesia,” 485 patient-physician relationship, 467–468, 471–472 pattern theory of pain, 494 Paul VI, Pope, 98 Pavlov, I.P., 277 peer pressure, 221, 653 penis size, 213 peptides, 36, 653 perceived behavioural control, 189, 653 “Perceived Experience of Breathlessness” scale, 369 “perceived self-efficacy,” 195 percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), 550–551, 653 periventricular system (PVS), 42 persistence of erroneous theories, 204–205 personal responsibility, 14–15, 94, 335 personal validation, 661 personality, links with physical illness, 442–447 cancer, 452–453, 456 coronary heart disease (CHD), 446–448, 449–452, 545, 550–551 longevity, 453–455 positive psychology, 455–456 support of the tobacco industry, 448–449 personality traits, 255–256, 298–299, 445 pessimistic explanatory style, 653 pets, 335–336 p-hacking, 446, 653 pharmaceutical industry, 172, 478–480 pharmacists, 472 pharmacological strategies for pain management, 507–508 phenomenological approaches to illness, 371–380 phenomenological research, 165–166 phenomenology, 653 phenotype, 71 Philippines, 148, 426 phosphodiestrase type (PDE5) inhibitors, 215, 653 PhotoVoice, 155 physical activity, 245, 309–337, 653 alternative forms of, 333–335 among adults, 321–324 among children, 324–325 among young people, 325–326 environmental context, 314–315, 320–321 extent of, 309–310 and health, 312–313 healthism, 431 impact of social media on, 350 participation, 310–312 in people living with diabetes, 592 promotion, 327–333 clinic-based programmes, 331–333 community-based strategies, 328–329 population-based strategies, 327–328 school-based activities, 329–331 psychological models, 315–321 self-concept, 319–320 self-determination theory, 317 social cognitive theory (SCT), 316–317 theory of reasoned action (TRA), 315–316 transtheoretical model (TTM), 317–319 relationship between social cohesion and, 126 socio-cultural context, 313–314 physical dependency, 653 physical education (PE), 330, 431, 654 physical environment, 314–315 physical self-concept, 319–320 physical side effects, 654 physical strategies for pain management, 508 physician-assisted death (PAD), 620–623, 654 physician-patient relationship, 467–468, 471–472 physiological homeostasis, 59, 60 Picasso, P., 488 placebo, 654 placebo control, 654 placebo effect, 62–63, 145, 157, 301, 302, 508, 654 plasma cell myeloma, 517 policy, 93–95 political identity, 479 political rhetoric, xiv popular health beliefs, 140–145 population growth, 97–98 population pyramid, 98, 654 pornography, 229, 231 Portman Group, 280–281 positive psychology, 455–456, 537–538 positivism, 136, 654 post-traumatic growth (PTG), 528–530, 654 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 79, 521, 654 post-traumatic stress symptoms, 550 poverty, 92, 99–101, 119, 654 power, 127–130, 169, 329, 470, 565–566 power analysis, 169, 654 pre-contemplation stage, 654 pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), 576–577, 654 pregnancy alcohol during, 270–271 HIV transmission during, 566 in teenagers, 220–223 see also prenatal development prenatal development, 76–78 foetal alcohol syndrome, 270, 640 obesity, 247–248 prenatal maternal stress (PNMS), 79, 80 preparation stage, 655 prevalence, 655 preventive health behaviours, 655 process evaluation, 428, 655 processed food, 96–97, 251–252 “professionalization creep,” 427 “Project Ice Storm,” 79, 80 prospect theory, 351, 655 prospective studies, 442, 444, 655 Prospective Studies Collaboration, 239 prostate cancer, 403–404, 516 prosthesis use, 373 protection motivation theory (PMT), 187–189, 419 protein, 244 protein leverage hypothesis, 655 Protestant Reformation, 136 Protestantism, 314 proxy-efficacy, 316–317 psychological dependency, 655 psychological homeostasis, 59, 60–62, 206–207, 655 psychological intervention, 440–441 “psychological pain,” 489 psychology measurement in, 22–25 social justice, 119–120 psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), 32, 57–59, 655 psycho-oncology, 518–519, 655 psychosocial care, 530–531 bibliotherapy, 538 case study, 531–538 psychosocial explanations, 117, 655 psychosocial health problems, 568 psychosomatic disorder, 655 psychosomatic medicine, 442–446, 655 psychotherapy, 452 public health psychology, 656 publication bias, 225–226 punishment and reward, 42, 43 punishment circuit, 656 qualitative research, 153, 154 qualitative research methods, 170, 656 quality of death and dying (QoDD), 611–613, 615, 656 quality of death (QoD), 613 quality of life (QoL), 9, 10, 100, 518, 656 quantitative research, 153, 154 quasi-experimental design, 656 questionnaires, 170–171, 656 Quit For Life (QFL) Programme, 656 race see ethnicity racism, 107, 148–149, 352, 656 radiotherapy (RT), 521–522, 524, 656 Raleigh, Sir W., 288 randomized controlled trials (RCTs), 171–172, 656 rape, 106, 223, 231–233 Rasch analysis, 656 reactance theory, 470, 656 RE-AIM framework, 429 Realshare, 349 reflexology, 657 refugees, 149–150 reinforcement, gradient of, 277 rejection, 255 relapse, 657 relapse prevention therapy, 657 relaxation, 507 religion, 202, 314 see also specific religions religiousness, 572 repeatability, 172–173 replication, 173, 657 reproductive health, 98 research, 153–154, 171, 350, 479, 551–552 resistance to medicine taking, 476–477 responsibility, 14–15, 94, 335 responsible consumer (RC), 93, 657 rest, 56–57 restenosis, 657 revascularization, 657 reward and punishment, 42, 43 reward circuit, 657 rheumatoid arthritis (RA), 376 ribonucleic acid (RNA), 69, 657 right-to-die, 124 risk, 391–392, 408–409, 420 risk compensation, 562, 657 risk factors, HIV, 564–566 risk society, 391 risk-taking, 203, 229 road traffic accidents, 272, 287, 314 role ambiguity, 657 role conflict, 657 role demand, 657 Roman Catholic Church, 98 Rush, B., 275 Russia, 267 safer sex practices, 657 sampling methods, 174 sarcoma, 516 Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), 9–11, 24 school-based activities, 329–331 science, 384 Scotland, 114, 130, 131 screening, 391, 392–407, 657–8 cancer screening, 392–394 experience of, 400–401 and health beliefs, 394–396 health service organizations, 402–403 meaning, 398–400 in men, 403–404 psychological consequences of, 401–402 social variations in participation, 396–397 genetic, 404–407 secondary gains, 499 second-hand smoke (SHS), 292, 293, 294, 658 sedentary, 658 self-actualization, 7, 658 self-concept, 319–320, 658 self-control, 141, 197 self-determination, 658 self-determination theory (SDT), 8–9, 317 self-efficacy, 195–196, 277–278, 316–318, 319, 331, 658 self-esteem, 658 self-help books, 538 self-management education, 595–596 self-observation, 492 self-regulation, 472–474, 658 self-regulatory model of illness, 366, 473, 658 see also common-sense model (CSM) of illness self-report measures, 202 self-reporting, 444–445 Seligman, M., 510, 511 semi-structured interviews, 167, 646 sensation seeking, 298, 299, 658 sense of coherence, 455, 658 sense of community, 658 “serial section electron microscopy,” 34 serosorting, 568 serotonin, 39 sex, 50–51 see also biological sex sex, unprotected, 561, 562–563 sex chromosomes, 67 sex survey, 658 sex workers, 578–579 sexology, 658 sexual abuse, 230–233 sexual behaviour, 189–190, 191, 224–225, 658 intervention study, 226–228 sexual dimorphism, 50–51, 658 sexual health, 98, 209–236 clitoris, 215 definitions, 211 erectile dysfunction (ED), 213–215 female genital mutilation (FGM), 220 orgasms and anorgasmia, 215–220 penis size, 213 role of social media, 228–229 scope, 211–213 sexual behaviour intervention study, 226–228 sexual violence and abuse, 230–233 sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 224–226 typical sexual health concerns, 212 unsafe abortion, 223–224 sexual identity, 399 sexual meanings, 659 sexual neutrality, 51 sexual violence and abuse, 230–233 sexuality, 659 sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 224–226, 235, 659 “Cuídate” intervention study, 226–228 see also AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome); HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) shared-decision-making (SDM), 346, 356, 522–523 siblings, 324, 606 sickle-cell patients, 509 side effects, 472, 523–524, 563 Siem Reap Citizens for Health, Education and Social Issues (SiRCHESI), 579 Sierra Leone, 91 simple random sampling (SRS), 174 single case experimental design, 173, 659 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 73, 659 single-blind control, 161 skin cancer, 379–380 skin fold thickness, 659 sleep, 56–57 sleeping patterns, 249 sleep/waking cycle, 47–50 smartphone apps, 596 smoking and alcohol dependence, 270 health effects, 290–292 history, 287–289 prevalence, 300 prevalence and distribution, 289–290 smoking cessation, 199–200, 300–307 “cold turkey,” 300, 306 electronic cigarettes, 306–307 pharmacological approaches, 301–302 psychological approaches, 302–305 social approaches, 305–307 theories of biological theory, 296–297 homeostasis theory, 300 psychological theory, 298–299 social theory, 299 see also tobacco smoking cessation, 199–200, 300–307 social approaches to illness, 380–387 social capital, 125–127, 425, 426, 659 social class, 321, 330 social cognition, 659 social cognition models (SCMs), 134, 202, 315–321, 464, 659 and behaviour change, 418–420 social cognitive theory (SCT), 195–196, 316–317 social cohesion, 126 social constructionism, 659 social context, 374, 375, 468, 471 Social Darwinism, 112, 659 social determinants of health, 101–105 social epigenetics, 79 social homeostasis, 207 social inequalities in health, 111–114 explanations for, 115 ways of tackling, 124–125 social inequality, 313–314, 659 social justice, 118–120, 659 social marketing, 660 social media, 350 impact on body image, 350 impact on physical activity, 350 role in sexual health, 228–229 role in smoking cessation, 307 use by patients with CHD, 556–558 see also internet; m-health (mobile health) social problems, 485 social representation (SR) theory, 141, 384–386, 660 social segregation, 431 social setting, 477–478 social side effects, 472 social support, 320, 548–549, 573, 660 socio-economic status (SES), 102, 104, 111, 660 behaviours and experiences associated with low SES, 115–116 and cancer screening, 294–295, 395 effect on adherence, 469 effect on physician-patient relationship, 467–468 and ethnicity, 107, 108 “intention-behaviour gap,” 197–198, 420 soft drinks, 96–97 somatic nervous system, 36, 38, 660 somatoform disorder, 655 South Africa alcohol industry, 268 health beliefs, 140 HIV/AIDS, 385, 561–562, 569, 574 subjective well-being (SWB), 126 South Korea see Korea Spain, 141–142, 227, 620 specificity theory of pain, 493–494 spinal cord tumours, 517 Spirit Level, The (Wilkinson and Pickett, 2010), 117 spirituality, 8, 572, 616, 660 spleen, 55 sports, 121–122 see also extreme sports; physical activity squamous cell carcinoma, 516 stages of change, 192–195, 660 Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes (ADA), 594 State of the World’s Human Rights, The (Amnesty International), 564 State Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI), 548 statins, 660 stereotyping, 146, 147, 223 Sternberg, R., 511 steroid, 660 stigma, 122–123, 564, 660 see also stigmatization stigma amplification, 576 stigmatization, 122–123, 660 diabetes, 593 healthism, 431 HIV/AIDS, 564–566, 571, 575–576, 581–582 LBGTQ (lesbian, bisexual, gay, transgender, queer) individuals, 233–235 obesity, 252–254 teenage mothers, 223 Stop Smoking Now (Marks, 2017b), 199–200, 303–305 storybooks, 361 stratified sampling, 174 stress, 52, 660 association with CHD, 450, 451 association with smoking, 298 occupational stress, 652 prenatal maternal stress (PNMS), 79, 80 from racism, 148 related to HIV/AIDS, 570–571, 580–581 work stress, 103, 545 stress innoculation training (SIS), 660 stress management (SM), 552 stress management workshop, 660 structured interviews, 167, 646 students, 567 “Study to Understand Prognoses and Preferences for Outcomes and Risks of Treatments” (SUPPORT), 614–615 subjective norms, 661 subjective validation, 661 subjective well-being (SWB), 9, 10, 11, 126, 661 homeostasis, 11–13 sub-Saharan Africa, 101, 104–105, 140 sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 292, 294, 661 suffering, 621 causal ontologies of, 631 moral discourse of, 649 sugar, 246–247 suicide, 95, 124, 287 Suicide Act 1961, 620 Surgeon General’s Vision for a Healthy and Fit Nation, The (2010), 94 surgery, 521 surveys, 173–174, 661 susceptibility testing, 404 swine flu vaccine, 410 Switzerland, 409, 431, 620 symmetry rule, 661 sympathetic nervous system (SNS), 40, 661 synapses, 33, 34–35 synaptic connection, 661 syphilis, 661 systematic reviews (SR), 175, 661 systems theory, 115, 661 T cells, 51, 55, 661 “talking cures,” 282–283 Taoism, 137, 661 tautological theories, 202 tautology, 662 taxation, 279, 288 taxonomies, 175–176, 177, 662 teenage pregnancy, 220–223 teleworking, 662 temperance societies, 266–267, 662 tension reduction hypothesis, 662 testosterone, 46, 50 Thailand, 126 “Theatre of the Oppressed,” 328 theoretical case studies, 158 “Theoretical Domains Framework” (TDF), 197 theoretical integration, 196–197 theory, 662 theory of planned behaviour (TPB), 134, 189–190, 662 adherence, 464 clinic-based physical activity programmes, 331 health promotion, 419 procedural issues, 203 sexual health, 228 unfalsifiability, 202 theory of psychological reactance, 470 theory of reasoned action (TRA), 189–190, 202, 315–316, 419, 662 therapeutic alliance, 346–347, 662 therapeutic citizens, 479 therapeutic writing, 378–379 therapists see behaviour change agents (BCAs) thermodynamics, 244 “thick description,” 157 thin ideal, 252–253, 662 thymus, 55 thyroid hormone, 48 tickling, 44 tobacco and alcohol dependence, 270 consumption, 96–97, 289 history, 287–289 prevalence and distribution, 289–290 promotion, 294–295 tobacco industry, 292–295, 448–449 top-down research approach, 176–178, 662 Torres Strait Islanders, 146 torture, 510–511 total body irradiation (TBI), 522, 662 toxic environment, 662 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), 137–138 trans fat, 252 transgender, 51, 234, 662 transitional cell carcinoma, 516 transparency, 178–179, 663 transport, 128, 314 transtheoretical model (TTM) of change, 192–195, 202, 317–319, 328–329, 395–396, 663 treatment fidelity, 198 TREND guidelines, 172 triangulation, 663 triglyceride, 663 Trotter, T., 275 tuberculosis (TB), 140, 386, 442, 560, 567 tumour, 663 TV shows, 222 twelve-step facilitation programme, 663 twin studies, 72, 73–74, 243, 274, 297 Twitter, 556–558 Type diabetes mellitus (T1DM), 663 Type diabetes mellitus (T2DM), 663 Type A and B personalities, 446–448, 663 Type I errors, 179 Type II errors, 179 unconditioned stimulus (UCS), 663 uncontrolled variable, 179, 663 under-5s mortality, 91, 104–105 undernourishment see malnutrition unemployment, 95 United Arab Emirates, 141 United Nations (UN), 65 Development Programme, 99 indigenous groups, 146–147 “Millennium Development Goals,” 101 sexual health, 211 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 120 universal right to health, 120–122 unprotected sex, 561, 562–563 unsafe abortion, 223–224 urges, 299, 421 urothelium, 516 vaccination see immunization varenicline, 302, 663 variable, uncontrolled, 179 vegan, 663 veganism, 259–260 vegetarian, 664 vegetarianism, 15, 259–260 venous thromboembolic disease (VTE), 372 verbal memory, 46 very low CHO diets (VLCDs), 246 Villermé, L.-R., 112 violence, 106, 121–122 viral challenge studies, 664 visceral fat, 664 vitamin D, 51–52, 53, 664 waist circumference, 239, 664 walking, 336 walking groups, 333–334 water, 92 weight bias see body image well-being, 664 “cognitive” and “affective,” 11 eudaimonic, 13 General Theory of Well-Being (GTWB), 14 Homeostasis Theory of Well-Being (HTWB), 13 see also subjective well-being (SWB) Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, 664 Western health belief systems, 135–137 Whitehall Studies, 102–103, 117 Wilkins, M., 69 withdrawal symptoms, 664 within-participants design, 158, 635 work stress, 103, 545 see also occupational stress World Health Organization (WHO) “3 by Initiative,” 99 alcohol, 267, 279, 281 Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, 101 definition, 664 health definition, xiii health literacy, 353 health promotion, 418 Healthy Cities Movement, 362 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), 574 physical activity, 312 quality of life (QoL), right to health, 120 sexual health, 209, 211 sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 224 smoking, 290, 300 sugar guidelines, 247 unsafe abortion, 223–224 writing, therapeutic, 378–379 Zambia, 385 Zimbabwe, 127, 567 ... meaning of the concept of ? ?health? ?? and the development of health psychology as a field of inquiry Health and health psychology are defined and issues of measurement and the scaling of subjective... member of the Journal of Health Psychology, Health Psychology Review, Psychology, Health and Medicine and Arts and Health His current research interests include the use of participatory and arts-based... living in different parts of the world, showing how context, culture and the environment affect health and behaviour Key terms are identified by bold and defined in the Glossary at the end of the