Companion encyclopedia anthropology

COMPANION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ANTHROPOLOGY COMPANION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ANTHROPOLOGY EDITED BY TIM INGOLD London and New York First published in 1994 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003, Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge, Inc 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Structure and editorial matter © 1994 Tim Ingold The chapters © 1994 Routledge All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available on request ISBN 0-203-03632-8 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-19104-8 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-02137-5 (Print Edition) CONTENTS Preface General introduction Tim Ingold The contributors ix xiii xxiii PARTI: HUMANITY Introduction to humanity Tim Ingold Humanity and animality Tim Ingold The evolution of early hominids Phillip VTobias Human evolution: the last one million years Clive Gamble The origins and evolution of language Philip Lieberman Tools and tool behaviour Thomas Wynn Niche construction, evolution and culture F.Jf Odling-Smee Modes of subsistence: hunting and gathering to agriculture and pastoralism Roy Ellen The diet and nutrition of human populations Igor de Garine 10 Demographic expansion: causes and consequences Mark N Cohen 11 Disease and the destruction of indigenous populations Stephen jf Kun itz 14 33 79 108 133 162 197 226 265 297 327 PART II: CULTURE 12 Introduction to culture Tim Ingold 329 V CONTENTS 13 Why animals have neither culture nor history 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 David Premack and Ann James Premack Symbolism: the foundation of culture Mary LeCron Foster Artefacts and the meaning of things Daniel Miller Technology Frangois Sigaut Spatial organization and the built environment Amos Rapoport Perceptions of time Barbara Adam Aspects of literacy Brian VStreet and Niko Besnier Magic, religion and the rationality of belief Gilbert Lewis Myth and metaphor James F Weiner Ritual and performance Richard Schechner The anthropology of art Howard Morphy Music and dance Anthony Seeger The politics of culture: ethnicity and nationalism Anthony D.Smith PART III: SOCIAL LIFE 350 366 396 420 460 503 527 563 591 613 648 686 706 735 26 Introduction to social life Tim Ingold 27 Sociality among humans and non-human animals R.I.M.Dunbar 28 Rules and prohibitions: the form and content of human kinship Alan Barnard 29 Understanding sex and gender Henrietta L.Moore 30 Socialization, enculturation and the development of personal identity Fitz John Porter Poole 31 Social aspects of language use Jean DeBernardi 32 Work, the division of labour and co-operation Sutti Ortiz VI 737 756 783 813 831 861 891 CONTENTS 33 34 35 36 37 38 Exchange and reciprocity C.A Gregory Political domination and social evolution Timothy Earle Law and dispute processes Simon Roberts Collective violence and common security Robert A.Rubinstein Inequality and equality Andre Beteille The nation state, colonial expansion and the contemporary world order Peter Worsley Index 911 940 962 983 1010 1040 1067 Vll PREFACE This volume started life on the initiative of Jonathan Price, at that time Reference Books Editor at Croom Helm His idea was for an Encyclopedia of Human Society whose subject would span the disciplines of anthropology, sociology and archaeology We first met to discuss the project in August 1986, and it was then that he charmed me into agreeing to become the volume's editor It has been a big job, to put it mildly In hindsight, it seems to me that I must have been mad to take it on at all, let alone singlehanded No doubt my motives were in part honourable, since I was strongly committed to the idea of anthropology as a bridging discipline, capable of spanning the many divisions of the human sciences I wanted to prove that the possibility of synthesis existed not just as an ideal, but as something that could be realized in practice No doubt, too, I was motivated by a certain vanity: if a synthesis was to be built, I wanted to be the one to build it, and to reap the credit! Seven years on, I am both older and perhaps a little wiser—no less committed to the ideal of synthesis, but a great deal more aware of the complexities involved, and rather less confident about my own abilities to bring it about Following my initial meeting with Jonathan Price, over a year passed before I was able to begin serious work on the project, which we had decided to call Humanity, Culture and Social Life In October 1987 I drew up a prospectus for the entire volume, which included a complete list of forty articles, divided between the three parts spelled out in the title, and a rough breakdown of the contents for each Then, during the first half of 1988, I set about recruiting authors for each of the articles Meanwhile, Croom Helm had been subsumed under Routledge, from whose offices Jonathan continued to oversee the project My original schedule had been for authors to write their first drafts during 1989, allowing a further nine months for consultation and editorial comment, with a deadline for final versions of September 1990 and a projected publication date of April 1992 As always, things did not go entirely according to schedule, and I soon found that I was receiving final drafts of some articles while a pile of first drafts of others were awaiting editorial attention, and while for yet others I was still trying to fill the gaps in my list of contributors To my great embarrassment, I found that I was quite unable to keep to my own deadlines The inexorable growth of other commitments meant that drafts, IX PREFACE dutifully submitted by their authors at the appointed time, languished for many months—and in some cases for more than a year—before I could get to work on them During the academic year 1990-1, pressures of teaching and administration, coupled with my assumption of the Editorship of the journal Man, grew so heavy that progress on the project more or less ground to a halt, and my deadline for submitting the whole volume to the publishers—set for the end of April, 1991—passed quietly by with most of the articles still at the first draft stage The project was rescued by my good fortune in securing one whole year and two subsequent terms of research leave from the University of Manchester The first year (1991-2) was made possible in part by a grant from the University of Manchester Research Support Fund, for which I acknowledge my profound thanks The two following terms were taken as sabbatical leave, and I should like to thank all my colleagues in the Manchester Department of Social Anthropology for covering my teaching and administrative duties in my absence Shortly before his departure from Routledge to join the staff at Edinburgh University Press, the ever-patient Jonathan Price was finally rewarded for his forbearance At noon on 14 October 1992, he arrived in my office to collect the entire, edited manuscript, and to carry it off to London I had completed work on the manuscript only two hours before! But the editorial introductions had still to be written, and it was not until well into the following spring that they were eventually finished Meanwhile, Mark Hendy was hard at work on the Herculean task of sub-editing the whole volume, which he completed by the beginning of May I owe him a debt of gratitude for his efforts Since Jonathan left for Edinburgh, responsibility for guiding the volume through the press passed to Michelle Darraugh, who has been wonderfully supportive, efficient and understanding Most of all, however, this book belongs to Jonathan, without whom it would never have been conceived in the first place, and whose unflagging enthusiasm kept the project on the rails even during the most difficult of times Looking back, I am surprised how closely the book, in its final form, resembles the original plan drawn up so many years ago Only four of the projected articles have been lost, and the titles and ordering of the majority have been changed little, if at all There have been a few changes in the list of contributors along the way: in particular, I should like to put on record the sad loss of John Blacking, who died before he could begin work on his projected article, 'Music and dance'; and I should also like to thank Anthony Seeger for stepping into the breach at very short notice There have also been some changes in the volume's title All along, I wanted it to be a book to be read, and not merely consulted as a work of reference, and for that reason I was inclined to relegate the phrase An Encyclopedia of Anthropology to the subtitle In many ways, the book is more akin to what might conventionally be called a handbook or a reader, rather than an encyclopedia Be that as it may, after much discussion it was eventually decided to call it a Companion Encyclopedia, a x INDEX regional continuity see continuity hypothesis regional geography definition 480 regional planning spatial organization 480 regulative systems food production debate 10 subsistence modes 204-6 rehearsals hunting 621 performance 641, 642, 643 Reichard, G 864 ReichelDolmatoff, G 375 relationships joking 861 labour 893 law 966-7 sex 821-5 social/biological 739-54 socialization 838 terminologies 804-6 relatives classification 803-6 relativism belief systems 565, 566-7, 581-2 cultural concept 329 human uniqueness debate 29 language 872 linguistics 864 social anthropology 784 religion art analysis 654 Australian Aboriginal 697 belief in 567-72 colonial expansion 1041 division of labour 903, 904 ethnicity 707 labour 894 literacy 528, 537, 543 Marxism 632 politics 712,716-17 ritual 613-16 social evolution 944 temporality 515 remuneration inequality 1019 Renaissance art analysis 652 rent theory of 916 repetition temporality 521 replacement hypothesis art/language 99-100 modern humans 88, 90, 91-2 representation art 664-70 collective 1017 iconicity 386 reproduction collective violence 985 genetic inheritance 178 relationships 741 reservations American Indians 303 residence kinship 794-5 resonance symbolic 377 resources inequality 1010 modern world 753 normative power 990-2 spatial organization 469, 472 time 515 warfare 994 restricted exchange marriage 926, 929 restricted literacy autonomous model 533 retrospective nationalism ethnicity 708 Reuleaux, F 423, 439 reversibility temporality 517, 519-20 revolution technological concept 442 Reynolds, F andV 617 rhetoric literacy 533 rhinoceros hunting debate 85, 86 Ricardo, David 895, 912, 915 Richards, A.I 226, 227 Richerson, P.J 182 Rindos, D 207 rites of passage music 699 ritual adaptation 372 belief systems 568, 577-8 1113 INDEX cultural significance 340-3 nature of 342-3 performance 613-45, 638-9, 640, 641 religious 583 training 641, 642, 643 violence 634 Rivers, W.H.R 10223 Riviere, Peter 792 Robbins,L 915-16 Roberts, Simon 750-1, 753, 962-79 Robertson, A.F 908 Robertson Smith, W 569-71 robotics technology 44 rock art Australia 98 Rockhill, Kate 546-7 role inequality 1022 language 861 language socialization 869 law 968 role settings definition 461-2 Romantic Movement art analysis 649 Germany 724, 725, 864 Rosaldo, Michelle 821 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 697, 1011, 1019, 1054 Rowlands, M 949, 951,953 Royce, A.P 688 Rozin, P 255 rubella Amazonia 308 Rubinstein, Robert A 751, 983-1004 rules kinship 783-808 legal pluralism 978 negotiation 1001 social order 752 Russia ethnicity 716 modern world 723-4 trade relations 1044 Russian Orthodox church literacy 541 Sackett, J 155,670 sacred centres ethnicity 713 sacrifice performance 632-8 purpose of 570 Sadat, Anwar 1002 Sahabi (Libya) fossil records 54 Sahara horticulture 102 Sahlins, Marshall inequality 1020 predatory expansion 1043 reciprocity 920, 923-4, 925, 927, 930-1 significance 378, 390 social evolution 941 Sahul colonization 81 sea transport 94 Saint Cesaire (France) Neanderthals 85, 91, 92 St Thomas Aquinas 563 Salisbury, Richard 900 Salzano, F.M 49 Samuelson, P A 916 San (Bushmen) behaviour debate 275-6 belief systems 575 cultural traditions 67, 98 demography 285 fertility 289 hominid evolution 34, 60 hunting debate 86 population growth 271 ritual 617 vocal tracts 66 sanitation warfare 994 Santillana, G.de 390 Sapir,E 536, 831, 862, 864, Saraswathi, L.S 545 Sartre, Jean-Paul 628, 638 satellites spatial organization 493 Sattenspiel, L 286 Sauer, Carl 205 Saussure, Ferdinand de language 862, 865 linguistic theory 401 S-structures definition 378 1114 INDEX literacy 536 semiotics 368-9, 383 savagery social evolution 1011 scalar stress concept of 273 scale classification 491 spatial organization 485-6 scales of evaluation inequality 1019 scarcity neoclassical economics 916 wealth 915, 929 Schafer, R 849 Schechner, Richard 342-3, 613-45 schemata shame 851 socialization 834-6, 846-7 Schieffelin, B.B 869 Schieffelin, E.L 697 Schneider, D 370, 372 school literacy Iran 541 Schwartz, T 836, 839 science symbolic interpretation 372 temporality 514 Western 565 science fiction technology 421 scientism technology 441 Scotton, CM 862 scribes ethnicity 712 Scribner, S 534 seasonality fallowing 218 food 239, 243 nomadic pastoralism 212 plant cultivation 207 sedentism 273 subsistence systems 202 Second World War 983 secrecy myth 606-8 secularism colonialism 1053 security common 983-1004 ethnocentrism 987-8 modern world 751 sedentarization definition 213 sedentism colonization 101-2 diminishing returns 280-2 disease 284 fishing 205 food selection 238 herding 236 Neolithic 267-8 population pressure 273 prehistoric populations 12 sex 827 subsistence systems 201-2, 207-9 Seeger, Anthony 345, 346, 686-702 Seeger, Charles 693 segmentation inequality 1020-1 selection see also natural selection clonal 185 prefrontal cortex 119 self-induced 165-8 self-awareness human uniqueness debate 27-8 personhood 843 self-rule ethnicity 715 selfhood identity 841-3 selfish gene theory phenotypes 164 semantics art 344 colour 390 music 345 semi-fixed feature elements built environment 463, 491 semiological analysis art 665, 666 semiology origins 865 semiotics anthropological role 371 art analysis 660 cultural behaviour 155 definition 368-9 literacy 527 material culture 335 1115 INDEX spatial organization 337 style 671 tropes 368 sensori-motor intelligence apprenticeship 151 definition 148 sensory effects aesthetics 344 sensory space definition 479 Sequoyah literacy 540 Service, Elman 944, 945, 946, 947 settings definition 461-2, 463 social complexity 490 spatial organization 492 settlements abstract geometrical space 478 ekistics 480 food production debate 10 patterns 482 social evolution 942 spatial organization 469 sex biology 813-16 classification 816-21 culture 813-16 gender 813-28 inequality 821-5 relationships 742-3 subordination 821-5 Western folk model 816-21 sexual division of labour feminist movement 822, 825 sexual receptivity 27 sexuality violence 633-4 Shackley, M 145 Shackley, S 440 Shakespeare, William 628-30, 632 shamans improvisation 613 theatre 624 training 637 shame socialization 851 Shanidar (Iraq) animal domestication 235 vocal tracts 126 Shanks, M 412-13 sharecropping division of labour 908 sharing ethnicity 709 experience 359-61 foraging 228 meals 250-3 national languages 873 subsistence systems 203 symbolism 380 shopkeepers market classification 933 sickle-cell anaemia natural selection 168 Sidi Abderrahman (Morocco) pebble tools 82 Sierra Leone art analysis 666, 676 myth 603 Sigaut, Francois 336, 420-52 sign language art analysis 664 speech comparison 110-11 signs Australian Aboriginal 667 comparative reconstruction 388 definition 369 hunting 620 linguistic 862-3 literacy 527, 528 symbolism 380—1 Walbiri graphics 661 Sikhs ethnicity 713 silence Apache language 867 Sillitoe, P 656 silver colonialism 1046-8 Silverstein, M 373, 875, 878 Simmel, Georg 396, 893 Simon, J 277 Simon, Paul 701 Simondon, G 423 Simpson, G.G 35, 37, 38, 58, 60 singing non-verbal communication debate 63-4 Skelton, R.R 70 Skhul (Israel) 1116 INDEX fossil records 93 vocal tracts 126 interactive nature 342 performance 626-9, 630-1, 632 social ecology definition 480 social evolution politics 940-57 primitive communism 1011-12 synthetic theory 949—57 social field definition 977 social geography definition 480 social learning skill transmission 333 social life biological link 739-44 introduction 737-54 skills art analysis 654 cultural significance 334-40 division of labour 907 literacy 339-40 political economy 747 technical 438-42,445-9 training 359 transmission of 332-3 Skinner, G.W 935 Skolimowski, H 141 Skorupski, J 579-80 skulls remodelling 46 slang linguistic style 877 slavery abolition 1054-5 colonialism 307, 1046-8 technological relationship 449-51 small-group ecology definition 480 smallpox American Indian comparison 311 eradication 301 New World impact 299, 302 Smith, Adam 891, 892, 912, 922 Smith, Anthony D 346-7, 706-28 Smith, P 272, 283 snacks definition 250 food behaviour 252 Snyder, EG 975 social analysis individualism 1017 social anthropology literacy 533 relationships 739-44 relativism 784 spatial organization 481 study of 415 social bonding analogical processing 382 social complexity spatial organization 489-90 social control law 968 social drama law 964 personhood 744-7 political economy 747-50 social mobility inequality 1030 social networks development 101-2 nomadism 474 spatial organization 466, 469 social occupancy spatial organization 482 social parenthood kinship 792-4 social physiology law 963 social policy egalitarianism 1032 social power sources of 951 social production technical skills 445-9 social psychology complex social organization 273 identity 844-5 social relationships anthropological study 402-3, 415-16 biological link 739-44 disease 12 hunter-gatherers 201 social storage cultural transition 87-8 social structure American Indian comparison 302—3, 312-13 1117 INDEX civilization 274 cosmology 583 evolution 941, 950 gifts 918 group systems 794-7 kinship 783-808 labour 893 law 963 literacy 339 order 752 sedentism 272-3 social transmission cultural knowledge 839 information 351-4 socialsymbolic manipulation cultural role 372-3 socialism gift exchange 920 sociality questions of 737-9 socialization cultural identity 399 identity 831-54 kinship 784 language 868-9 literacy 550 personhood 745-6 society concepts of 737-8 definition 274 inequality 1010-35 warfare 992-4 sociocultural tradition tool-use 140-5 sociobiology aggression 985 animality/humanity comparison 22 definition 480 ethnicity 707 evolutionary theory 176 genetic evolution 164-5, 191 natural selection 741 optimal foraging theory 277-83 reproductive fitness 290 sociolinguistics language 862 literacy 533, 536-7 sociology division of labour 1016 meal-sharing behaviour 253 occupational status 1029-30 sociopolitical processes literacy 542-54 solidarity division of labour 903-4 ethnicity 709 language 879 law 965 mechanical 967, 1016 music 697 Solo River (Java) H, erectus 82 song see also music totemism 599-600 sorcery belief systems 568 Palaeolithic 614, 615 Sousa Santos, B.de 976 South Africa inequality 1024-5 South America colonialism 1046-8 South American Indians see American Indians space concept of 478-9 organization see spatial organization Spain colonialism 1046-8 language 873-4 New World impact 303 spatial organization built environment 460-97 conceptual framework 337 material expression 493-4, 495, 496 prehistoric art 384 scales 490-1, 492 study of 479-83 specialization division of labour 899-900, 901, 902-5 free-market economies 906 geography 445 law 964 species concept of 4, 23-4, 27-8 gene pools 25 variation 17-18 specificity artefacts 408-9 speech 1118 INDEX see also language anatomical components 111 childhood 849 evolution 127-9 H, habilis 63 hominid evolution 46 humanity 8, 110-11 physiology 111-16 production 116-19 statistical analysis 688 transmission rate 110 writing comparison 536-7 Spencer, Herbert 142, 944, 946 Sperber, D 370-2, 373 SpethJ 280 spice trade colonialism 1045-6 Spiro, M.E 789, 835 sports efficacy 448-9 skills analysis 440-1 Sraffa, P 914 Stalin, J 1029 Standard English identity 875 standard language identity 875-6 staple finance social power 953, 954 staple foods nutrition 236-7, 239-42 starvation warfare 993 state see also nation states demotic ethnie 720 formation 965 inequality 1020 institutions 750 non-European polities 1041-2 social life 738 society 945-7 theory of origins 274 typology 948-9 warfare 711-12 state level organization health and nutrition 283 sedentism 273-4 stateless societies inequality 1020 world order 1042-4 status see also prestige classification 1029 inequality 1010 labour 894-5 language 861, 869 lateral ethnie 714 music 699 spatial organization 469 stateless societies 1043 status symbols environment 337-8 food 248, 254-5 Stegmiiller, W 521 Steklis, H.D 64 Stengers, I 520 Sterkfontein (South Africa) fossil records 37, 56, 57 Steward, Julian 944, 946 stimulants music 696 Stone Age big-game hunting 279 Stone, R 687 stone technology colonization 94-5 encephalization 81 Late Stone Age, Africa 96 stone tool-makers hominid evolution 63, 69-72 stone tools Acheulean 81 cultural transition 91 H, erectus 82 Stonehenge (England) 411, 514 story-telling hunting 621 Strathern, Marilyn 400, 820, 823 stratification civilization 274 stratification (continued) division of labour 903 inequality 1010 law 973 race 1025 social evolution 946 social order 753 stratified society typology 948 Strauss, Anselm 995-6 Strauss, C 835 1119 INDEX Street, Brian V 339-40, 527-54 structural anthropology definition 374 structural linguistics symbolism 369 structuralism cooking 243 food 226, 246 inequality 1019 language 865 myth 592 ordering process 401 paradigms 373 relationship terminology 784 symbolic role 372 technology 440 style art analysis 670-2 sublimation ritual violence 634 subordination sex and gender 821-5 subsistence see also diet; filter function 114,115 length 116 reconstruction 121,122,123-7 speech components 111, 113 speech production 128 surplus-value theory Marxism 920 Suya music 345, 693-701 swallowing human speech 114 Swanscombe (England) cultural traditions 84 Swartkrans (South Africa) fossil records 56, 57 stone tools debate 71 swidden agriculture Amazonia 308 domestication 208 fallowing 218 home-bases 205 spatial organization 469 West Africa 167 syllabic writing literacy 529 symbolic manipulation concordant structure 379 symbolic mechanism conceptual system 372 definition 371 symbolic resonance meaning 377 symbolism anthropological goals 370-3 art analysis 659 art/language 99-100 artefacts 409 behaviour 101, 381-92 belief systems 567-8 categorization 367-70 collective violence 989 comparative reconstruction 387-9 cooking 245 cultural concept 329, 333-4 cultural relationship 366-92 differentiation 598 division of labour 903 ethnicity 707, 710, 711 ethnology 375 food selection 237-8, 243-5 formal methodology 373-5 food; nutrition demography 10-13 food production debate 11 human species local 220-1 modes 197—221 ownership 953 social evolution 950 Sudan warfare 993 sugar colonialism 1046-8 suicide American Indian comparison 312-13 Sumatra 20 Sumerians ethnicity 709 literacy 528 Sunghir (Russia) Upper Palaeolithic 96 superstructures Marxist theory 141 supralaryngeal vocal tracts animal comparison 119,120, 121 Australopithecine 126 Broca's aphasia 116-17 1120 INDEX human uniqueness debate 27 hunting societies 98 labour 894 language 101, 862, 864-5 latent functions 470 linguistic theory 373 meaning 376-7 nationalism 725 negotiations 1001-3, 1003 ontogenesis 386-7 origins 380-1 prehistoric 383-6 space 478 spatial organization 337, 469 structural concordance 378-9 temporality 519 theatre 614 tool-use 156 symbols definition 366, 369 literacy 528 synchrony modern/traditional debate 504, 522 syntagma definition 373 syntax animal comparison 110 brain mechanisms 116-19 Broca's area evolution 127-9 hierarchy 148 neural networks 108 tool-use 146-7 synthetic theory evolution 162-5 systematics classification 38-9, 58 Hominoidea 35-6 systems ecology environment 198 Tambiah, S 246, 577-8 Tanaka, J 67 Tannen, D 877 Taoism belief systems 584 cooking 245 Taung (South Africa) fossil records 37, 56, 57 Tawney,R.H 1011,1032 taxation alcohol 413 colonialism 1052 world order 1040 taxonomy biological 18, 24 Neolithic 1017 relationship terminologies 804 Taylor, F.W 441 Taylor, R 314 technical intelligence knowledge 438-42 technical lineages concept of 435 workings 434-8 technical paths operational sequences 427-9 technical skills social production 445-9 technics science of 420-4 slavery 449-51 technique concept of 436 technography concept of 336 definition 423 technology 420-52 agriculture 270 big-game hunting 279-80 concept of technography 330 definition 134, 422-3 equipment debate 197 future of 451-2 human context 140—1 human evolution technology (continued) individualism 1017 military 990 music 690-3 population growth 268-9 social evolution 941,941-3,942-3 taboos food 246-50 Tabouret-Keller, A 872 Tabun cave (Israel) stone technology 94 vocal tracts 126 tails genetic modification 18 human uniqueness debate 27 human-animal comparison 15-19 1121 INDEX subsistence systems 200 temporality 515 Western conceptions 136 technonature definition 423 teeth hominization 44-5 impaction 121 Tehuacan (Mexico) agriculture 236 Telefolmin art analysis 664 templates global analysis 390 myth 594 structuralism 378-9 temporality 505-8 tool-making 386 tempo Western time 511 temporality anthropological theory 330 artefacts 409-15 clock time 512—16 dualism 516-22 everyday life 508-12 identity 411-13 organization 465-6 study of 338-9 templates 505-8 terminologies relationship 804-6 territoriality definition 484-6 gift exchange 923 spatial organization 472 territorialization politics 711 territory rootedness715 test-tube babies motherhood 791-2 texts ritual 613 Thailand language 881-2 theatre dramatic role 342-3 functions 613 hunter-gatherers 616-17, 618, 619—^ shamanic techniques 624 theories of mind shared experience 359-61 socialization 850 Thessalia (Greece) animal domestication 235 third parties law 971 Third World collective violence 988 modern nations 722-3 post-colonialism 1062-3 warfare 994 Thomas, Robert J 907 Thomsen, C.J 442 Thoreau, H.D 441 thought modes of 572-5 threat negotiation technique 998 thumbs hand comparison 145 Tibetans ethnicity 715 Tikopia art analysis 653 Tilley,C 412-13 time see also temporality art analysis 664 Hopi 864 Nuer 863 organization 465 perceptions of 503-23 spatial organization 469 time-space definition 617 timing process Western world 509-10, 511 toas art analysis 667, 668 Tobias, Philip V hominid evolution 6, 33-72 Linnaeus interpretation 33-5 speech Tocqueville, Alexis de 1013, 1014, 1016 Tokelau Islands blood pressure study 316-17 tongue human 113, 122,123-4, 125 tool-making Acheulean 383 1122 INDEX human evolution 7-8 iconicity 386 prefrontal cortex 119 stone 69-72 tool-using distinction 134 tool-use agriculture 277 big-game hunting 279-80 foraging 228 seed-processing 266 slavery 450-1 symbolic capacity 382 tool-making distinction 134 tools definition 133—4 human anatomy 145-6 human behaviour 133-5 human cognition 146-50 human culture 151-7 iconic signs 156 indexical signs 155 natural history tradition 137-40 non-human behaviour 133-7, 150, 156 socio-cultural tradition 140-5 Torralba (Spain) hunting 85 Torres Straits expedition 657 totemism food taboos 246-8 language of 341 naming systems 595-8 Toynbee, A 442 traders market classification 933-4 trading see also barter; exchange barter 929 complex social organization 273 demographic expansion 267-8 disease relationship 300 early hominids 220 European expansion 1044-5 fishing 234-5 gold 1046-8 market classification 932—3 market places 931-6 opium 1050 silver 1046-8 slavery 1046-8 social power 955 spices 1045-6 sugar 1046-8 tradition art analysis 657-8 authority 973 colonialism 1051 division of labour 904 environment 337 law 963, 964-5, 975-6 music 699-700 power 991 temporality 514 tool-making 154 transmission of 351 traditional societies anthropological study 504, 517 belief systems 564 traditionalism ethnicity 708 non-infectious disease 314 spatial organization 490 traffic accidents man-made disease 12 Traill, A 66 training division of labour 899 modern humans 359-60 ritual 641, 642, 643 transcience artefacts 413-15 translation belief 575-8 transmission cultural knowledge 839 transportation social evolution 945 treaties ethnicity 713 trial-and error tool-use 150 tribes inequality 1020 social evolution 1013 society 944-5 tribute social power 951 Trinil Qava) Pithecanthropus 82 Trinkaus, E 92 Trivers, R 164, 191 1123 INDEX Trobriand Islanders art analysis 664 belief systems 571-2, 576, 577 exchange 928 fatherhood 789-90, 793, 805 kula 916 law 966-7 social power 951 tropes definition 368 tropical disease see disease tropical rain forests colonization policy 307-9 tuberculosis Amazonia 308 American Indian comparison 311 New World impact 302 Tuc d'Audoubert (France) Palaeolithic 614 Tukano symbolism 375 Turkana (Kenya) see Lake Turkana Turnbull, C 253 Turner, Victor 567, 604, 871, 969, 972 ritual 626-9, 630, 631-2, 639 Tylor, Edward 142 Tyson, Edward 34 Ubediya (Jordan) stone tools 81-2 Uehara,S 138 Uexkull,J.von468 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics collapse of 988 negotiations 1000-1 occupations 1029 power structure 1028 uniqueness human 25-30 United Kingdom colonialism 1047-8 labour 894-5 language 876 United States of America ethnicity 723 foreign policy 990, 1001, 1059 indigenous peoples comparison 13 inequality 1014, 1024-5 309language 875, 876, 877 life expectancy rates 304-6 military involvement 988 music 698 occupations 1029 power structure 1028 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 23 unproductive labour definition 892 unskilled labour capitalism 905-6 gift exchange 930 Upper Palaeolithic abstraction 391 art 383-5 cultural traditions 96-9 cultural transition 93 Europe 92, 94 hunting 86-8, 204, 209 population growth rates 266 symbolic organization 367 uprightness hominid evolution 40, 41-2, 43, 61 Uraha (Malawi) fossil site 57 urban design spatial organization 480 urban ecology definition 480 urban geography definition 480 Urban Revolution concept of 442 demographic expansion 267 social evolution 942 urbanization Third World 723 Ury, William 998, 999 use-value definition 915 utility political economy 748 technological progress 142 wealth 915, 929 uxorilocal residence rules 795, 796, 797 Vai literacy 534-5 value egalitarian 1031-2 inequality 1019-20 1124 INDEX music 698-9 political economy 748 theories of 916-17, 929 variation individuals 1016 inequality 1023-4 natural selection 741 varna caste system 1026-7 vegeculture seed-culture comparison 215-16 verbal art ethnopoetics 870 vernacular literacy education 539 vertical commodities markets 932 vertical ethnie politics 713-17 videotapes technological development 690, 692 700 Vietnam War 983 violence American Indian comparison 312 anthropology of 984-7 collective 983-1004 ethnocentrism 987-8 hormones 813 hunting 621 performance 632-8 power 989-94 social order 751 virgin soil populations Amazonia 308 colonization 300 virilocal residence rules 795, 797 vocal tracts see also supralaryngeal vocal tracts hominid evolution 46, 48 morphology 65, 66 speech debate 63 vocalization definitions 695 Voltaire 1054 voluntaristic nationalism typology 717 Vygotsky, L 833, 868 wage-labour Marxism 913 wages capitalism 905 colonialism 1050 division of labour 899, 907-8 free-market economies 906-7 productive labour 892, 895 Wagner, D 547 Wagner, Roy culture 368, 370, 376-7 myth 594, 609-10 Wahgi dancers 675, 676-7 Wahrhaftig,A 991 Waiapi music 696 Walbiri art analysis 660, 665-6 graphic signs 661 Walens, S 602 Wales, H.G.Q, 882 Wallace, A.R 101 war definition 986 war games collective violence 989 warfare collective violence 985-6 colonialism 1043-4 colonization 753 descent groups 797 health impact 301 inter-state 711-12 lateral ethnie 714 law 972 modern nations 722 politics 711-12 social order 751 social power 951-2 Warner, Lloyd 1025 warriors lateral ethnie 713 water warfare 994 water clocks Egypt 514 Watergate incident 627 Watts, E.S 67 wealth belief systems 573 wealth (continued) Waddington, C.H 165-6,168,190 1125 INDEX civilization 274 commodities 912-15 comparative views 911-12 gifts 915-28 goods 915-28 inequality 1010 political economy 748 social power 953 weaning food selection 238 mortality rates 285 pre-Neolithic diet 289 weapons art analysis 663 collective violence 984 colonialism 1050 weaving division of labour 906 markets 902 Weber, Max booty capitalism 1046 law 964-5, 976 politics 711 religion 570 social evolution 942 states 1041 Weiner,A 411 Weiner, James 334, 341-2, 591-610 Weismann barrier ecological inheritance 189-90 multiple-level evolution 184 Weiss, K 286 Wernicke's area hominid evolution 48 modern humans 62, 63 speech production 117, 118 West Indies language 868 Westcott, R.W 64 Westermarck, E 800 Western nationalism definition 717 Western time comparison 505-7, 508-12 White, Leslie 141, 245, 942 White, Lynn Jr 423, 424, 434 White, M 846 Whitehead, H 822-3 Whiting, J.W.M and B.B 833 Whittaker, E 841 Whorf, B.L 505-7, 864, 868 Widdowson, E.M 227 Wilder, Harrison Hawthorne 36-7 Williams, EE 606 Wilson, E.O 351 Wilson, M 377-8 Winch, P 581 Winnefeld,J.A.989 witchcraft belief systems 572-4, 581-2 Witherspoon, G 664 Wittgenstein, L J.J 787 Wola art analysis 656 Wolf, Eric 1043 Wolpoff, M.H 92 woman marriage alliances 799 women commodities 925 division of labour 899-900, 901, 902-5 food behaviour 247, 252-3 inequality 1022-3 language 876-7 relationships 742-3 sex 814-15, 821,824 warfare 993, 994 Western image 14, 26 WoodburnJ 1012, 1032 words material culture 335 ontogenesis 387 symbolic class 370 written 337 work co-operation 891-908 measurement systems 897-9 political economy 747 workings technology 436 workshops performance 641, 642, 643 World Bank Brazilian development policy 309 world order colonialism 1040-63 world view language 861, 863-5 Worsley, Peter 753, 988, 1040-63 Wrangham, R 355 Wright, H 945 1126 INDEX deer dancers 614, 616 hunting 621 ritual 643 Yayo (Chad) fossil site 57 Yin-Yee Ko 546 Yolngu art analysis 665-6, 674, 675-7 writing built environment 473-4 environmental impact 337 learning 535 letters 539 linguistics 408 origins 5289 social evolution 944 speech comparison 536-7 symbolic categorization 367 systems 529-32 Wynn, Thomas 8, 133-58, 383 Wynne-Edwards, V C cultural models 269-70 Zapotec child mortality rates 304 labour 896, 898 Zawi Chemi (Iraq) animal domestication 235 Zhoukoudian (China) H erectus 82 ornament 98 Zinjanthropus classification 59 Yanagisako, S 816-18, 820, 822 Yanomami disease 308 Yaqui 1127 ... where we are going HUMANITY, CULTURE AND SOCIAL LIFE This is an encyclopedia of anthropology, it is not an encyclopedia about anthropology The distinction is critical, and underwrites both the... relegate the phrase An Encyclopedia of Anthropology to the subtitle In many ways, the book is more akin to what might conventionally be called a handbook or a reader, rather than an encyclopedia Be... COMPANION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ANTHROPOLOGY EDITED BY TIM INGOLD London and New York First published in 1994 by Routledge