Companion encyclopedia of geography

COMPANION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY COMPANION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY the environment and humankind EDITED BY IAN DOUGLAS, RICHARD HUGGETT and MIKE ROBINSON London and New York First published 1996 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.s Routledge is an International Thomson Publishing company © 1996 Routledge Paper manufactured in accordance with the proposed ANSI/N150 Z 39.48–199X and ANSI Z 39.48–1984 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Companion encyclopedia of geography: the environment and humankind/ edited by Ian Douglas, Richard Huggett, and Mike Robinson p cm Includes bibliographical references and index (hb: alk paper) Geography I Douglas, Ian II Huggett, Richard J III Robinson, M.E (Michael Ernest) G116.C645 1996 910–dc20 96–6097 ISBN 0-203-41682-1 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-72506-9 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-07417-7 (Print Edition) CONTENTS Preface The Contributors General Introduction Richard Huggett and Mike Robinson ix xiii PART I: A DIFFERENTIATED WORLD Introduction Richard Huggett and Mike Robinson Planet Earth Cliff D.Ollier The ever-changing climate Andrew Goudie The biosphere Alfred G.Fischer Human evolution Bernard Wood The geography of language William C.Brice Religion: nature and origins E.Geoffrey Parrinder The modification of the earth by humans in pre-industrial times I.G.Simmons PART II: A WORLD TRANSFORMED BY THE GROWTH OF A GLOBAL ECONOMY Introduction Richard Huggett and Mike Robinson European settlement, 1450–1750 Len Guelke and Jeanne Kay v 11 15 44 67 86 107 120 137 159 162 CONTENTS 10 11 12 13 14 15 European expansion and land cover transformation Michael Williams The origins of the capitalist world economy John Langton Industrialization and world agriculture Brian W.Ilbery and Ian R.Bowler Changes in global demography John I.Clarke Origins of modern environmentalism J.M.Powell The saviour city: beneficial effects of urbanization in England and Wales Brian T.Robson From a ‘cultural’ world to a ‘political’ one Paul Claval PART III: THE GLOBAL SCALE OF HABITAT MODIFICATION Introduction Richard Huggett and Mike Robinson 16 Unity and division in global political geography Peter Taylor 17 The geography of conflicts and the prospects for peace John O’Loughlin 18 A new ‘geo-economy’: patterns, processes, problems Peter Dicken 19 Third World urbanization Alan Gilbert 20 From riches to rags: the international debt crisis Stuart Corbridge 21 Monitoring, modelling and mothering the environment: the impact of science and technology since the Second World War Richard Huggett 22 Environmentalism on the move Timothy O’Riordan PART IV: A WORLD OF QUESTIONS Introduction Richard Huggett and Mike Robinson 23 Climatic variation and global change F.Kenneth Hare 24 Ocean uses, environment and management Alastair D.Couper vi 182 206 228 249 274 293 310 329 332 353 370 391 408 430 449 479 482 508 CONTENTS 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Water: confronting the critical dilemma Peter Crabb Surface instability and human modification in geomorphic systems Jonathan D.Phillips and William H.Renwick The tropical rain forest John R.Flenley Humanity’s resources I.G.Simmons Environmental hazards John Whittow The sustainability of sustenance: land and agricultural production in the Third World William C.Clarke Famines and surplus in world food production David Grigg The nature of Third World cities David Drakakis-Smith Western cities and their problems David T.Herbert Changing countrysides Hugh Clout The quality of life: human welfare and social justice David M.Smith PART V: CHANGING WORLDS, CHANGING GEOGRAPHIES Introduction Richard Huggett and Mike Robinson 36 The expansion and fragmentation of geography in higher education R.J.Johnston 37 Achievements of spatial science Arild Holt-Jensen 38 Geography and humanism in the late twentieth century Anne Buttimer 39 Structural themes in geographical discourse Richard Peet 40 Challenging the boundaries: survival and change in a gendered world Janice Monk 41 Place Edward Relph vii 526 553 573 599 620 651 677 702 730 752 772 793 794 818 837 860 888 906 CONTENTS PART VI: GEOGRAPHICAL FUTURES Introduction Richard Huggett and Mike Robinson 42 Concern for geography: a case for equal emphasis of the geographical traditions Adetoye Faniran 43 Home and world, cosmopolitanism and ethnicity: key concepts in contemporary human geography Yi-Fu Tuan 44 Palaeoenvironmental narrative and scenario science Frank Oldfield 45 Geographical futures: some personal speculations Peter Haggett 925 926 939 952 965 974 Index viii PREFACE This encyclopedia sprung from a meeting in 1990 between Jonathan Price, then at Routledge, and Ian Douglas Ian invited us to form an editorial team and we immediately set to work planning the structure of the volume Routledge gave us carte blanche to express a personal view of geography We decided to present the view that geography is, and at root always has been (despite excursions into spatial science and other exotic themas), about the interdependence of people and their environment, and about the evolving intercourse between humans and their earthly, and to a lesser extent celestial, habitat Some geographers would doubtless choose to distance themselves from this view of geography, and would argue that the heart of geography lies elsewhere That, it seems to us, is a healthy state of affairs It reflects the rich diversity of the subject, the wide range of approaches it embraces, and the many and varied interests of its practitioners However, we would claim that a large and growing number of geographers focus on the people-and-environment theme; and that, in doing so, they bring different approaches to bear on the same fundamental issue of interrelationships between the human species and its habitat The contributors to the encyclopedia were alerted to, and asked to write within the spirit of, the editors’ view of geography They were also encouraged, however, to employ a style more personal and discursive than is usual in encyclopedic works Happily, we can report that our grand theme is evident in most of the chapters: many contributors take a global view of their subject and stress humanenvironment interdependencies The chapters are grouped into six parts Part I focuses on the evolution of the earth through geological, and up to historical, time It explains how earth became more differentiated by physical and biological transformations, how stores of mineral resources were built up in the process, how it was changed by the lifeforms that it supported, and how in turn the evolving life-forms responded to the changing physical environment of the planet It then considers the origins of the human species—whose activities eventually led to the first great transformation of ix INDEX plant communities 74, 77, 138, 139 plantations 172, 195 American 172, 174, 190 foreign-owned 235–6 forestry 592–3, 594 output exported 236 specialized 236 state-owned 235, 236 plants 68, 151, 485 affected by pesticides 698 ancestors 40 breeding 143–4 dispersal 77 domestication 14, 142–4, 280, 584 extinction 145, 606 flowering see angiosperms as food 13, 127, 138, 139 herbaceous 51, 56, 57 higher 70 hybridization 75 introduced 176, 186, 187, 189 land 79 leguminous 71 and magic 164 managed 140 marine 517 migration 138, 145, 152, 176, 179 native 176, 186, 187, 280, 285 pioneer 51 productivity 604–5 as sources of drugs 586–7 symbiotic 71 threatened 463 varieties 233 see also crops; weeds plateaux 30, 61 plate tectonics 24–5 activity 32, 35, 74 cycle 27 gravity 34 uplift, 31–3 Plato 1–2, 122, 275, 907 Pleistocene epoch 44, 48, 62 forests 582–3, 584 refuges 584 plesiosaurs 77 Pliocene 48 plough 153 pluvials 52, 56, 58 Poa pratensis 187 podzols 51 Poland 645 polar regions 73, 74 politics authority 321, 323 and economics 312, 347–8 and environmentalism 453 and geography 849 organization 321, 324, 332 power 160, 255, 323 realignment 330 systems 291, 310, 311, 321 see also geopolitics pollen 77 analysis 582 arboreal 55, 56, 57 records 56, 57, 58, 59 pollination 581 pollution 646 air 151, 235, 276, 404, 644 chemical 176, 239, 645–6 control 460, 644, 716 environmental 288, 460, 463 marine 509, 518, 523, 646 nitrate 231 oil 518, 646 penalties 404, 523 urban 714–16 water 231, 234, 235, 404, 462, 480, 534–9 Poor Law 296, 297, 298, 299 poor relief 219, 295–6, 297–9 population 438 adaptation 82, 105–6 ageing 260, 268–9, 966–7 censuses 249 ‘checks’ 249, 250 coastal 508 composition 251, 271 concentration 264, 270–1, 272, 284, 736 demands 83 demographic transition 251, 256, 257, 260, 265, 267–9, 404, 735 density 209, 250, 253, 254, 264–5 density gradients 253, 265 distribution 5, 250, 251–2, 253, 254– 5, 264, 271, 967 employed 206 and environment 255, 289 ethnic minorities 742 fall 217 female 260 1007 INDEX and food supply 243, 247, 249, 654, 657, 665, 667, 672–3, 677, 689–90 fragmentation 250 future growth 594, 601–2, 665, 667 government influence 255 growth 13, 81, 106, 142, 143, 153, 160, 176, 179, 191, 194, 198, 217, 250, 252, 266, 271, 280–1, 289, 486, 503, 593, 601, 617, 651, 966 history 249–51, 970 inner-city 737, 742–3 Islamic 268 limitation 594, 657, 667 location 252–3, 508 low growth 256 middle-class 724, 737 mixed-race 165, 178, 189 mobility 252, 265, 967–8 natural decrease 256 natural increase 257, 263, 265–7, 272 Old World 250 polarized 737 pressure 486, 558, 593, 617, 658, 666, 667 purchasing power 192 rate of growth 255, 256, 260, 265, 266, 517, 593, 665, 966 redistribution 251–2, 253, 264, 269– 71, 289, 735 reduced by disease 173, 186, 217 restricted 83, 143, 249 retired 742, 762 rural 161, 250, 256, 262, 270, 271, 284, 303–4, 394, 709, 752, 753, 756–7, 761 sex ratio 396 spread 198 stability 593 Third World 256, 265, 391, 394, 651, 714, 723 urban 161, 215, 250, 253, 256, 264, 270, 271, 284, 303, 304, 391, 396, 397, 400, 714, 723, 967 Portugal 190 emigration 262 Empire 163, 165, 167, 173, 178–9, 182 explorers 185 positivism 793, 824, 826, 827, 831, 833, 834, 841 post-modernism 774, 809, 810, 833, 842, 880 and gender 897–8 post-structuralism 880 potato 142, 145, 186, 192, 239 poverty 472 culture 739–40 and environmental hazards 715–16 inner-city 742, 744–7 line 780, 781 rural 238, 294, 296–7, 298, 304, 756 and self-reliance 708 trap 654 and undernutrition 690, 721 urban 294, 296, 298–9, 304, 330, 706, 715–16, 723–4, 732, 743 youth 744–5, 747 pragmatism 808 prairie 57, 58, 179 Precambrian 19, 20, 40, 41 precipitation see rainfall predation 81 predators 150 priests 134, 135 Prigogine, Ilya Primates 77, 86, 87 printing 115, 212 producer organisms 71, 72 production 182 capitalist 207, 216, 222, 223, 870 chains 378 colonial 169 concentrated 378 dispersed 313–14, 374, 378 ‘domestic’ 220 efficiency 207 and finance 373–4 host-market 378 international organization 378–80 means 219, 310 mechanized 222 phases 871–2 pre-capitalist 215 reorganization 385 and reproduction 894, 895, 896 rural 219 strategy 378–9 surplus 210, 211, 212 systems developed 190, 191, 215, 378 profit 206, 207, 208, 222 progress: European view 278–9, 281, 282, 283 prokaryotes 40, 41 proletarianization 220 1008 INDEX proletariat 215, 218–19, 220 property private 214, 217 rights 464, 465 Proterozoic time 76 Protestant Churches 133, 135 missions 134, 166 rural 220 and women 135 Protoctista 70, 71, 73 proto-industrialization 220 protozoa 70, 71 Prussia 190 pterosaurs 77, 80 public health 283, 284 in Britain 300–1, 302 occupational 284 Puerto Rico 265 quality of life 772, 773, 784, 788 comparisons 774, 775–8, 781 criteria 782 index 779–80 indicators 775, 776–7, 778–9, 781, 782–3 process model 785 satisfaction of needs 784, 785 unequal 786, 787 quartz 15, 80 Quaternary period 35, 48, 51, 582 Quebec 166, 171 race 793, 897 radar 430, 431–2, 433 radiation 645 and climate 61 infra-red 63 solar 48, 60, 69, 78 Rafflesia 574 railways 198, 334, 556, 752 rain forest, tropical 582–4 as air conditioner 464–5, 587, 588, 608 clearance 153, 189–90, 200, 501–2, 584, 585 and climate 501–2, 577, 582–3, 584, 608 conservation 588–9 decline 584, 588, 590 distribution 573, 576, 577, 582, 583–4 diversity 573, 574–5, 577, 588, 606 drugs from plants 586–7 fires 586 as food source 139, 580–1 inhabitants 580–1, 584, 588 loss 586 lowland 575, 583, 606 monsoon 577 montane 578–9, 582–3 products 586–7 re growth 586 reserves 590–1 seasonal 577 structure 573, 574, 583–4 sub-tropical 189 threatened 665 timber 584–5 tropical 56, 74, 83, 138, 152–3, 189, 311, 456, 573, 573–7 worth 456 rainfall 58, 490 annual 484 patterns 60, 64 Ramayana 128 rat 145, 151 rattans 573, 587 Ratzel, Friedrich 3, 315–16, 317 raw materials 194, 235 Ray, John 278 Reagan, Ronald 340, 342, 344 Redfield, Robert 317–18, 319 redwoods 77 reforestation 555 refugees 255, 263, 355, 365 regionalism 920–1, 942 relativism 774 religion 11, 12, 78, 120–36, 250, 479 and art 121 Asian 127, 943 and colonization 165 conversion 165 decline 135, 947, 948 definitions 120, 121, 134 and diet 125, 126, 127 festivals 125, 128 future 135–6 intellectualized 210 international 132–4 and language 114–15 local 132 missions 132, 133, 134–5 ‘mystery’ 124 national 124, 125, 132 of native peoples 164, 318 1009 INDEX origins 120–1 repression 135 revival 136 rituals 131–2 sects 135 Semitic 127 social 134 solitary 134 symbolism 124, 125 varieties 120, 944, 945, 947 views of nature 278 and writing 121 see also the names of individual religions remote sensing 430, 432, 434, 441, 642, 807, 813 Renaissance 214 rents 216–17, 218 repatriation 260 repopulation, rural 757, 759, 760–1, 762, 763 reproduction 68, 69, 76, 128 reptiles 75, 76, 77 reservoirs 284, 533 resources access 338, 600, 602 allocation 464, 593, 594, 741 biological 604, 605–10 of colonies 169, 187 consumption 612, 967 demand 600 and developed world 593, 594 distribution 338, 341, 467 economics 611 exploitation 161, 183, 185, 187–8, 281, 287, 480 future 616–17 local 325 management 288, 289–90, 467 marine 509, 510, 513–16, 523, 968 mineral 252 natural 183, 252, 287, 341 non-renewable 602, 611–12, 614 ownership 207, 221, 290 and population 601–2 price 612, 614, 616 processes 616–17, 618 recycling 611 renewable 602, 614 satellites 432 substitution 614 sustained yield 288 transfer 471, 472 retirement 759–60 Rhine, River 542 rice 110, 127, 142, 143, 188, 238 exported 244 yields 239, 240, 660, 661 rimland 338, 339, 341, 359 Rio Conference see United Nations: Conference on Environment and Development Rio de Janeiro 215 Ritter, Karl rivers 58, 75 age 34 basins 547–8 diversion 275, 533 modified 639 pollution 536, 537 as source of water 527 roads 152 construction 555–6, 737 de-icing 644 rockets 431, 432 rockfalls 637, 638 rocks 15, 16, 17 basement 41 continental 30 cycle 17–18, 20, 36 dating 20, 22 erosion 30 folding 33, 34 magnetism 25 oceanic 30 sedimentary 20, 36, 38 Roman Catholic Church 128, 133, 134 in America 135 churches 130 independence 214 influence 212 missions 134, 165 in South America 317, 318 tithes 217 and women 135 Roman Empire 151, 322 aqueducts 149 circuses 149 influence 212, 946 religion 133, 134 Romance languages 113 romanticism 282, 283 Rome 149, 151, 275, 735 Rorig, Fritz 321 1010 INDEX Royal Geographical Society 798 rubber 153, 160, 236, 238, 587 rural areas see countryside Russia 335 arms sales 359, 360 debt 425 ecological disaster zones 463 expansion in Asia 334 emigration 260 famine 683 forests 188, 194 instability 347 in pan-region 335 and UN 363 and USA 363 wars 355 see also Soviet Union Russo-India 335 rye 143 sacred places 124, 129–32, 164 Sahara 53, 58, 59, 74 Sahel development 666 drought 44, 60, 667 famine 683 hunger 667 limit 58, 59 Sahul 105 St Kitts 189 saints 130 salinization 202, 545 salt 38, 45, 137, 515 sanctuaries 130 sand 20 sand-dunes see dunes sand seas 52 sandstone 20, 36 Sangiran (Indonesia) 98, 100 sanitation 535 urban 256, 284, 300, 301–2, 716 Sanskrit 109, 115, 119 São Paulo 271 Sapir, Edward 110 Sartre, Jean-Paul 863 satellites 432, 461 artificial 430, 432, 433, 807 communications 432 geopositional 432, 433 meteorological 432 Saudi Arabia 360, 534 Sauer, Carl O 3, 316–17, 818, 972 savannah 58, 77, 152, 199, 578 savings 305 Scaliger, Joseph Justus 107 Scandinavia 48, 50 conservation 291 emigration 261 forests 188 Schaefer, Fred 826 Schelling, F.W.J Schultze, Benjamin 107 science 78, 479, 806 applications 329, 617, 802, 806 biological 329 civic 469 development 430 distrusted 793 environmental 430, 456, 460, 461–2, 479 and geography 430, 802, 803, 804 Enlightenment 837 interdisciplinary 470 Islamic 185 languages 118 medieval 184 methods 804, 831, 955–7 paradigm 824, 827–8, 957 physical 803, 822 post-modern 958 potential 329 purpose 278 and technology 444, 445, 461 scientism 948 Scotland 34 scrublands 51 sea-floor 21, 22 age 27 animals 509 spreading 25, 27, 29, 30, 509 sea-levels 32, 33, 78 change 138, 804 fall 50, 104 rise 65, 253, 494, 510, 519, 520 sea-power 167, 332, 334, 340 seas see oceans SEATO see South-East Asia Treaty Organization Second World (East) 342 Second World War 329, 336, 353, 355 aftermath 313, 330, 333, 342, 361, 370 axis 336 ‘Big Three’ alliance 336 1011 INDEX science and technology 430, 431, 443–4, 802 sedimentation 202 sediments 17, 18, 20, 40, 560 semiotics 864 Semitic-Hamitic languages 109, 112 Seoul 271 Serbia 364 serfdom 216, 217 servants 173 settlements 13 attractive 759 colonial 169–70, 178 commuter 767 fortified 167 nucleated 170 patterns 821, 822, 823 permanent 105, 142, 143 Puritan 170–1 small 161, 759 squatter 713 system 265 see also communities sewage 151, 306, 536–7 treatment 536, 541 shale 20, 36, 73 Shanghai 271, 707–8 sharecroppers 199, 217 shatterbelts 341, 358 sheep 142 breeding 144 sacrifices 125 tax 217 transfer 145, 187 Shinto religion 124, 127, 132, 133 ship-building 148, 188, 191 shipping 516–17 ships and colonization 166 owners 191 for slaves 166 and trade 191, 516 shipwrecks 509–10, 517–18 shorelines 30, 511 destabilized 560 recession 557 shrines 124 sial 21, 30 Siberia 41, 105 Sikhs 134 silica 27 silicon 15 silicon dioxide 15 silk 212 Silurian 76 silver 169, 191 sima 21, 30 Singapore 313 housing 717 human rights 722 industrialization 374, 710 population 265 privatization 709 Sino-Tibetan languages 108 slavery 195 abolished 287 in European colonies 164, 172–3, 174, 178–9, 212, 213 and sugar production 173, 175, 179, 189, 190, 191, 195, 235 slaves African 163, 172, 173, 174, 175, 189 Amerindian 178–9 death rates 175 female 165, 172 Indian Ocean 174 mixed-race 173 religion 165 transport 166, 175 Smith, Adam 281, 295 Smith, Thomas Southwood 284, 300 smog 643, 644 Smuts, J.C snow see avalanches social disorder 724, 730, 744–7, 748, 786 social indicators see quality of life: indicators social justice 772, 787 social problems 738, 739–41 social sciences 805, 806, 808, 813, 824, 829–30 social welfare 313, 786–7 access 741 components 785 inadequacy 742–3 state involvement 708, 714, 717, 743 subsidy 714 voluntary 743 socialism 787–8, 862 municipal 302, 303 sociality 852 society 159, 941 African 175 agricultural 209, 241, 311 1012 INDEX civil 708 colonial 164–5, 166, 170, 705–6 deployment 878–9 differentiation 809 European 163, 165 evolution 319 fields of action 879 intermediary 320–1, 323–4 marginal 942 medieval 319 mixed-race 166 modernized 315–16, 319, 324 native 166, 316, 317 nomadic 311 organization 310, 317 patrician 210 peasant 316, 317–18, 319 post-industrial 733, 758 ‘primitive’ 315, 316, 317, 320, 323, 324 rural 236 survival 810 traditional 310–11 tributary 209 sociology 3, 805 sodium 20, 38 soils 803 conservation 275, 276, 568, 588, 671 degeneration 501 degradation 555 denudation 556–7 desert 45 deteriorating 51 erosion 235, 239, 275, 461, 555, 557, 560, 588, 606, 698–9 as female 128 fertile 51 mapped 434 mineral 51 poor 657 tropical 579–80 volcanic 636 waterlogged 141 solar constant 496 Somalia 354, 363, 364, 683 Somerville, Mary sorghum 239, 240 South Africa 170 animals 176–7 cities 730 colonization 167, 174–5, 193 farm belts 166 farming 171, 240 immigration 262, 281 migration to cities 402 quality of life 777 South America 12, 74, 359 animals 179 colonization 163, 174, 178, 185, 188, 277, 332 environment 279 farm land 659 farming 147 immigration 260, 281 labour supply 172, 175 population 186, 189, 250, 253 rain forest 56 states 358 sub-Orinoco 347 trade 194 South Carolina 173 South-East Asia 12 colonization 167 conflict 358 crops 142 ‘dragons’ 313, 374 economies 374 forests cleared 200 immigration 260 industrialization 313, 374, 375 Pidgin languages 117 trade 167 undernutrition 686 urbanization 391 wars 359 South-East Asia Treaty Organization 339 South Korea 313, 969 debt 415, 420, 424 industrialization 374, 710 land loss 656 population 265, 267 Soviet Union (former) 329 alliances 339, 363 Asian part 367 and China 339 decline 345 debt 425 dissolution 330, 344, 346, 373, 969 economy 312, 313, 345, 346, 371 foreign policy 342, 346 and geopolitics 337, 339, 340, 342 religions 134–5 satellite countries 339, 371 sphere of influence 313, 330, 339, 1013 INDEX 340, 363, 371 and Third World 363 and UN 363, 365 and USA 342, 343, 345 wars 336, 355, 356, 359 space 432, 801, 805, 819 plastic 825 private 891 public 891, 941 and society 866–7, 868–9, 871 structured 864, 866 Spain 190 civil war 354 emigration 262 Empire 163, 173, 182 explorers 185 finance 217 fossil hominids 101 Muslim 133, 150 overseas settlements 169–70 and UN 363 spatial mismatch 740 spatial science 805, 807–8, 813, 824, 829, 834 analysis 825, 827, 830, 833, 928, 971 criticism 830–1 dialectics 868, 871 feminist 889–90 multidisciplinary 828–9 patterns 830, 831, 834, 867 spatial statistics 813 speciation 74, 75 species diversity 576 endemic 75 indicator 461 tropical 576 vanishing 463, 606 Speenhamland System 296, 297 Spencer, Herbert spice trade 167, 169, 195 sponges 76 spruce 57, 58, 74, 593 Spykman, Nicholas 337, 338, 342 squashes 142, 186 squids 73 Sri Lanka 265, 267 stadials 50, 51 states 208, 311 alliances 354, 361 boundaries 357 capitalist 357 coastal 511, 513, 521–2 and colonization 253 competition 349, 381 concept 250, 312 control 208, 214 co-operation 362 development 190, 191, 212, 316 economic role 312, 349, 387 European model 253, 312, 347, 357 federal 264 intervention 228 isolation 361 making 357 military power 357 modernized 311–13, 322, 348 new 342, 357, 373 power 213, 215 revenue 213 ‘rolling back’ 708 security 361 size 254 Third World 347, 357 unitary 264 at war 212, 213 weaknesses 314 statistics 436–7, 441 steam power 220, 221, 252 steamships 197, 198 steppe 74 Sterkfontein (South Africa) 93 Stoddart, David storms 642–3 Stowe, Harriet Beecher 287 strangler figs 573 strata 17, 20, 34 stratigraphy 20, 75–6 streams see rivers stromatolites 76 structuralism 808, 842, 861, 862, 863–4, 881 and freedom 883 Marxist 865–9 reconsidered 880–1 regulation school 869–72 structuration 831, 833, 873–5, 876, 878, 882 subduction 27, 29, 33 suburbs 219, 221 succession Sudan 354, 364 Suez Canal 201 sugar 170, 188, 192, 212, 236, 238 1014 INDEX in Africa 173 in Caribbean 172–3, 188, 189, 190, 191 exported 244 for gasohol 394 imported 242 production 173, 190, 195, 235, 237, 394 sulphates 41 sulphur cycle 82 Sumerian language 109 Sun 21 Sundaland 104 supercomputers 438, 441 supercontinents 34 superpowers 342, 345, 346, 363 allies 362, 363 frontline 340 influence 371 surrogates 344 and war 344, 356 surveying 431, 807 sustainability see development: sustainable Swahili 117 swamps 580 Swartkrans (South Africa) 94 Sweden 34, 190, 361 debt 427 farming 693 and UN 363 ‘Swing’ riots 297 Switzerland 361 symbiosis 70, 71 symbolism 124, 125, 128 Syria 116 systems theory Tacitus 275–6 TAFTA see Trans-Atlantic Free Trade Agreement taiga 74 Taiwan 313, 969 industrialization 374, 710 land loss 656 population 265 Tajikistan 50 Tanganyika, Lake 75 tanning 151 Tansley, A.G 484 Tanzania: fossil hominids 92, 95–7 Taung skull see Australopithecus africanus taxation 198, 213, 217 Taylor, Griffith 289, 337, 338–9 tea 188, 192, 195, 236, 237, 238 imported 242, 244 teak 593 technology 141, 153, 182 agricultural 228, 230–1, 239 appropriate 283 development 430 for drainage 201 dynamic 221 enabling 372, 617 European 166, 179, 186 new 375, 444 nineteenth-century 183, 196, 201 post-war 329, 370, 444, 802 ‘primitive’ 315 purpose 278 and science 444, 445 transfer 240, 241 see also information technology tectonics see plate tectonics tektites 80 television 444 temperature 60 changes 46, 48, 49, 58, 486 decline 44, 47, 48, 50, 56 extreme 643–4 rise 64, 82, 138, 488–9, 494, 520 and tree cover 279 variation 489, 490, 491 Tennessee Valley Authority 290, 431 terranes 27, 28 Tertiary era 19, 44, 45, 77 climatic decline 582 warmth 48 tetrapods 76 Thailand cities 400 debt 415 population 265, 268, 269 Thatcher, Margaret 344 thermoregulation 77 Third World 208, 342 arms imports 360 cities 397, 399, 400–1, 404, 702–24 composition 343 conflicts 359 debts 410, 421, 422, 714 and democracy 353, 723 1015 INDEX environment 714–16 farming 666 food supply 651, 653, 663 industrialization 313, 394, 709 modernization 394, 723 population 394, 651, 723 rural areas 394, 398 states 357 and superpowers 344, 363 trade 663 and UN 365 urbanization 391–3, 394, 397–8, 402, 403, 404, 702, 703, 705, 723 wars 344 Thoreau, H.D 285, 287 Thünen, J.H von 4, 438 Tierra del Fuego 120 tiger, Sumatran 587 Tilly, Charles 357–8 timber see wood tithes 217 TNCs see corporations, transnational tobacco 145, 169, 172, 178, 188, 192, 195, 237 Tocqueville, Alexis de 293 tomato 145, 186 tools 12, 153, 159 metal 141, 168, 189 stone 77, 95, 102–3, 168 wooden 141 topography 30 topophilia 912, 913, 921 topophobia 912–13 tornadoes 642–3 totemism 120 tourism heritage 734, 737, 916–17 marine 517 rain forest 588 rural 756, 767, 768 towns colonial 171, 215 and country 752, 767, 768 development 209, 211, 214, 215, 264 hierarchy 215 industrial 221, 253, 281, 303 market 281 new 307 satellite 265 size 215, 264 see also cities toxins, synthetic 82 trade 159, 179 agricultural products 243–4 alliances 330, 347 in arms 359–60 barriers 375, 385, 388 and colonies 163, 165–6, 167, 169, 189, 198, 213, 215, 222, 373 commodities 143, 169, 182, 183, 213, 214 creation 385 development 190, 194, 212 distorted terms 617 distribution 373 diversion 385, 386 and finance 373–4 in food 241–4, 247 free 312, 313, 338, 371, 382, 384, 617 friction 375, 388 global 183, 184, 189, 191, 194, 211– 12, 214–15, 223, 241, 663 growth 252, 313, 347, 366 international 322, 323, 325, 361–2, 366, 377, 663 land-based 183, 184, 192, 214 liberalization 247, 401 manufactured products 244, 375 profits 215 regional blocs 347, 378, 382–6 sea-borne 183, 184, 185, 191, 192 systems 312 terms 467 within colonies 168 trade unions 300, 400 trading-posts 167 traffic control 731 Transatlantic Free Trade Agreement 384 transport 159, 160, 250, 310, 315, 317 accidents 646 air 313, 314 car 731, 760, 761 marine 516–17 networks 825 public 731, 761, 762 road 644, 731 rural 762 urban 265, 403, 708, 709, 731, 732 travel 337, 967–8 tree ferns 76 tree lines 74 trees 56 coniferous 148, 592, 593 as crops 195, 592–3 1016 INDEX cultivated 145, 592–3 deciduous 148 distribution 56–7, 75 dominant species 500 indigenous 195 migration 501 planting 151, 279, 280 rain forest 574, 579, 581, 591 removal 141, 200, 591–2, 594 sacred 589 selection 594 Triassic 35, 77 tribute 209, 210, 212 trilobites 76, 77 Trinil (Indonesia) 98 tropics 52, 72 Truman, Harry 339 tsunamis 635 tuberculosis 285 tundra 50, 64, 74 and hunting 153 replaced 51 Turing, Alan 435 Turkana, Lake 94, 95 Turkey 116, 312, 339 see also Ottoman Empire Turkish (language) 108, 112, 116 vocabulary 113, 114–15 typhoons 642 underclass 737, 740, 742 underdevelopment 420 undernutrition 13, 665, 683 causes 654, 688–9, 690 defined 686 in developed countries 688–9 in developing countries 651, 654, 686, 688, 721 distribution 686–8, 696 unemployment benefit 263, 299, 615 growth 308, 714 high rates 270, 735 inner-city 737, 740–1 male 741 urban 734–5, 735 United Kingdom see Britain United Nations 329, 348 Afro-Asian caucus 343 Commission on Sustainable Development 472 Conference on Environment and Development 458, 462, 463, 466, 470–3, 485, 510, 523–4, 549, 615 Conference on the Human Environment 485, 510 Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 239 Convention on the Law of the Sea 510, 511, 516, 522 and development 343, 472, 778–9 Environment Programme 462, 472, 518, 523, 534 established 338, 361 future 365–6 General Assembly 362, 363 and global issues 343, 344 and human rights 723 marginalized 344 membership 362 military operations 345, 363–4, 365–6 monitoring 364 peace-building 364 peacekeeping 354, 363–6 power 362 precursors 312, 338, 348, 361 ‘preventive stationing’ 364 protection of minorities 365 role 364–5 Security Council 362, 363, 364, 365 support 365 and Third World 362, 365 and world order 345, 348 United States of America 34, 191, 329, 335 agricultural protection 680–1 alliances 339, 359, 362, 363 arms sales 359, 360 banking 408, 409, 412, 413, 418 and China 363 cities 264, 731–2, 733, 734, 736, 738, 742, 743, 744 coastlines 560 colonization 166, 169–70, 193, 196 conservation 285, 290, 291 continental shelf 522 currency 347, 371, 375, 411, 413, 763 deficit 410–11, 425 drought 642 Dust Bowl 290, 642 English settlers 169 economy 312, 346, 371, 373, 375, 420, 421–2 1017 INDEX ethnic minorities 742 exploration 168 farm crisis 763–4 farm land 655, 656 Federal Reserve Board 414 and food aid 244, 246, 680–1 food surpluses 682 foreign investment 376–7, 386 foreign policy 342 forestry 288, 289–90 forests cleared 200 French settlers 169 frost belt 734, 736 and geopolitics 337, 339, 342, 969 hurricanes 642–3 immigration 260, 262, 733, 736 irrigation schemes 202 and Japan 339, 367, 375 malnutrition 683 manufacturing 373, 734 military operations overseas 345, 346, 354, 363 money supply 414 national parks 288, 290 New Deal 290 Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance 623 old people 742 overseas aid 339 in pan-region 335 plains 140, 185, 764, 845 population 736, 757, 763–4 quality of life 781–2 rainfall 60 religions 135 reserves 285 rural areas 762, 763–4 social problems 738, 742, 743 soil erosion 699 south-west 53, 56, 893 Spanish settlers 169–70 sphere of influence 371 sun belt 734, 736 and Third World wars 344 tornadoes 642–3 urbanization 730, 764 and UN 343, 362, 363, 364, 365 and USSR 342, 343, 345, 363 warming 489 wars 336, 356, 359, 410 water 533, 534, 541 western 61, 202, 642 wildfires 644 withdrawal 367 United States Geological Survey 431 universe 121–3 Unstead, J.F Upanishads 122 Ural-Altaic languages 108, 109, 111–12 uraninites 37, 41 urban bias 402 urbanism 865–6 urbanization 11, 214, 222, 223, 264, 265, 831 and colonization 705 and consumption 209 criticism 398 in developed countries 391, 392 development 307–8 effects 259, 270–1, 291, 296, 300, 304 in England 219, 250, 264, 296 increasing 330 and industrialization 398 and land use 665 level 252, 271, 392, 393, 394, 402 measurement 392–3 pace 393, 394, 402, 704 patterns 398 planning 709 and pollution 715–17 problems 271, 296, 397 resisted 397–8 selective 710 spreading 704 sustainable 724 Third World 391–3, 394, 397–8, 402, 403, 404, 702, 703, 704, 705, 709, 716, 723 Urdu 117 Uruguay 265 USSR see Soviet Union Vail curves 31, 33 valleys 30 Vedas 121, 122, 123, 132 vegetarianism 125, 126 vegetation 12 affected by pesticides 698 burning 138, 139, 315 of dry areas 74 change 192, 203 and climate 485, 499, 500 colonization 145 dynamics 434 1018 INDEX European 51 forest 44 gradients 74, 437 Holocene 57–8 North American 57 phases 51 regeneration 177 temperate 48 tropical 56 types 3–4 zones 56 Venezuela 36, 392 debt 419, 422, 424 oil boom 394, 395 urbanization 394–5 Venice 152, 185, 215 Venus 37 Versailles 150 conference 334, 335, 336 Vidal de la Blache, Paul, 3, 317, 818, 819, 838, 846 Vienna 152 Vietnam 319–20 farming 668–9 pollution 716 war 339, 344, 354, 356, 410 violence 163 Virginia 169, 172, 177, 186 vivisection 287 volcanoes 20, 27, 635–7 distribution 25 dormant 636 dust 62, 636 eruptions 63, 489, 557–8 monitoring 636–7 outgassing 36, 37, 38, 636 prediction 636 under-sea 509 Volcker, Paul 414, 418 von Neumann, John 435 wages 305 rural 394 rates 296 rising 688, 689 urban 394 Wales 116 Chartist rising 300 cities 264, 308 local government 303 moorlands 141 rainfall 484 Wallerstein, Immanuel 321, 347 Walter, Eric 907, 917, 918 war 145, 148, 150–1, 161, 330, 945 battle-deaths 354–5, 356 casualties 354 causes 338, 355–8 civil 354, 355, 357–8 classification 355 and colonization 166, 213 conduct 361 and economics 356–7, 359 effects 289, 357 feudal 212 finance 213, 357 global 354, 356, 357 ideological 355 impact 354 imperialist 355, 356 interstate 353, 358 invasion 358 large-scale 353, 354 length 356 local 354, 355 nationalist 353 nuclear 349 and oceans 510 post-colonial 357–8, 359 regulated 361 small-scale 353 state-making 355, 357 territorial 213, 355, 358 in Third World 344, 354, 355 see also First World War; Second World War Warsaw Pact 339, 361 waste 614–15 disposal 463, 502–3, 518, 540, 716 management 186 radioactive 518, 523 recycling 614–15 toxic 518, 612 water 15, 526, 548 availability 462, 527, 528, 529, 531, 549 conflict 546–8 conservation 275, 540, 549 control 149, 319–20 costs 533 crisis 526, 531, 549 demand 531, 536, 539, 540, 544, 549 desalination 533, 609 1019 INDEX distribution 30, 527 exchange 498–9 in gardens 150 leakage 542 and life 67, 72, 605 management 145, 186, 282, 284, 539– 40, 542–4, 546, 549, 550 origin 38 and population growth 529, 549 polluted 231, 234, 235, 462, 534–9, 542 power 149, 202, 220, 221 pricing 540–1, 542 properties 38, 39 quality 535, 539, 542, 544 recycling 540, 609–10 resources 527–9, 530–1, 549 scarcity 480, 529, 531–2, 542, 548–9, 609 sluggish 203 supply 149, 256, 284–5, 300, 301, 303, 462, 529, 531, 532–3, 535, 536, 608–10, 716 transfer 50, 149, 533–4, 539 treatment 535, 536–7 use 529, 531, 532, 556, 608–9 vapour 488 wasted 534, 540, 545 waterlogging 202 watermills 149 wealth accumulation 480–1 inequality 331 movable 210 pattern 209 private 281 and state power 213, 481 weapons 168, 197 for hunting 141 metal 186 nuclear 347 trade 359–60 weather change 480, 482 forecasting 643 prediction 492–3 satellites 432 severe 643 variety 492 weathering 34, 82, 554, 557 Webb, Beatrice 303 Webb, Sidney 302, 303 Weber, Alfred weeds 176, 186, 671 Wegener, Alfred 22, 958 welfare see social welfare West Africa 165 and slave trade 172–3, 174, 175 West Indies 195 Creole languages 117 wetlands boreal 501 drained 201–2 reclamation 666 whales 610 hunting 149, 523, 610 oil 137, 188, 610 wheat 142, 143, 171, 238 exported 680–1 as food aid 680–1 imported 243 research 239 varieties 606 yields 239, 240, 660, 661 Wheeler, W.M White, Gilbert Whitehead, A.N Whittlesey, Derwent Whorfe, Benjamin Lee 115 wildfires 643, 644 Wilkins, John 118 willow 74 Wilson cycle 78, 79 windmills 149 winds 185 storms 642–3 trade 185, 519 wolf 150 Wolpert, Lewis 445 women 793 and agriculture 128, 890 change in status 255–6, 472 as colonists 165, 170 differences 890 education 259 emigrants 165 employment 170, 259, 740–1, 893–4 environmental activism 896–7, 898–9 experiences 888, 898 indigenous 165, 168–9, 178 as mothers 891–2, 895 political activism 892–3, 896–7 and religion 135 responsibilities 891, 894–5, 896 1020 INDEX rights 889, 891 rural 890 sexist bias 889 as single parents 740–1 slave 165 in society 809, 889–90, 949 Third World 894 urban 890, 893–4 wood chips 592 for construction 148, 170, 189, 195, 200, 276, 281 for export 590 as fuel 138, 148, 189, 200, 462, 607, 896 ownership 221 products 607–8 from rain forests 584–5, 586, 588 for ship-building 188, 191, 195, 276 shortage 276 trade 169, 195, 584, 585, 590 tropical 584, 588 woodlands 51, 74, 141, 148, 199, 276 wool 160 WOCE see World Ocean Circulation Experiment Wordsworth, William 912, 940 workhouses 297, 298 world 939–41 as society 941–2 World Bank 371, 413, 420, 421, 422, 425 and debt relief 426 and development 706, 708, 713, 714 estimates of undernutrition 686 Global Environment Facility 472 loans 590, 719 social programmes 718, 719 World Development Report 462, 716, 717 World Commission on Environment and Development 510, 654 World Conservation Strategy 464 World Ocean Circulation Experiment 496–7 world order 344 future 348 geopolitical 340, 347, 348 new 339, 343–4, 345, 346, 348 World Trade Organization 388 World Weather Watch 643 world-island 334, 340 Wright, Wilbur 431, 838 writing 107, 118–19, 153 alphabetic archives 318–19 development 210, 318 ideographic 118–19 pictographic 118–19 and religion 121 WTO see World Trade Organization yam 110–11, 188 Yiddish language 117–18 Younger Dryas stadial 51, 63 Yucatán 80 Yugoslavia (former) 355, 359, 364 Zaïre 364, 410 Zelinsky, Wilbur Zen 282 Zhoukoudian (China) 101 Zimbabwe 415, 717, 718, 721 Zinjanthropus 95 Zoroastrian religion 121, 122, 132 1021 ... Secretary of the International Geographical Union Commission on the History of Geography and member of Academia Europaea JOHN I.CLARKE is Emeritus Professor of Geography of the University of Durham,... editor of six books, including the edited volume The Geography of Agriculture in Developed Market Economies (Longman, 1992) WILLIAM C.BRICE is Emeritus Professor of Geography of the University of. . .COMPANION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY COMPANION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY the environment and humankind EDITED BY IAN DOUGLAS, RICHARD