A study of signal functions of reporting verbs in english and vietnamese

ABSTRACT This study investigates similarities and differences of using reporting verbs between an English novel “The Lost Symbol” and its Vietnamese translated version from four signal f

VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Hoàng Tú Uyên

A STUDY OF SIGNAL FUNCTIONS

OF REPORTING VERBS

IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

MA THESIS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Hoàng Tú Uyên

A STUDY OF SIGNAL FUNCTIONS

OF REPORTING VERBS

IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

Field: English Language

Assoc Prof Dr Hoàng Tuyết Minh

Date:………

I am deeply grateful to my family who always give me warmth and support

Thanks also to my friends who helped me a lot with my data collection Thanks to all

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page number

2.2.3.1 Direct Quote Structures 11

2.4.4 Showing What was Said through the Reporting Verb 23 2.4.5 Indicating How the Message Fits in 24

2.4.6 Drawing Attention to the Speaker’s or Writer’s Words 25

2.4.7 Showing Your Attitude towards What You Report 26

2.4.8 Showing that You Do Not Accept Responsibility 27

2.4.9 Showing Your Attitude through Reporting Adjuncts 27

2.4.10 Showing the Effect of What is Said 28

2.4.11 Showing whether a Report is of Speech or of Writing 29

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 31

4.1 Signal Function of Neutral Reporting in English and Vietnamese 42

4.2 Signal Function of Showing Speaker’s Purpose in English and

4.3.3 Signal Function of Showing Speaker’s General Behaviour in

English and Vietnamese

52

4.3.4 Signal Function of Showing Speaker’s Manner in English

and Vietnamese

55

4.4 Signal Function of Indicating How Message Fits in in English

ABSTRACT

This study investigates similarities and differences of using reporting verbs between an English novel “The Lost Symbol” and its Vietnamese translated version from four signal functions: neutral reporting, showing the speaker’s purpose, showing the manner of speaking and indicating how the message fits in The methods applied in the study are description and contrastive analysis 193 reporting verbs are collected from an English novel and ít Vietnamese version, among which 113 verbs are in Vietnamese corpus and 80 verbs are in English corpus Findings of this study can be used as a basis for investigating why Vietnamese learners of English use reporting language differently compared with native speaker of English, and also can shed light on pedagogical implication of teaching and learning translation to Vietnamese learners of English

LIST OF TABLES

Page number

Table 3.1: Number of reporting verbs classified into signal functions 33

Table 3.2: List of the excerpted neutral reporting verbs from The Lost

Table 3.3: List of the excerpted reporting verbs which show the

Table 3.4: List of the excerpted reporting verbs which show the

Table 3.5: List of the excerpted reporting verbs which indicate how

Table 4.1: Number of occurrences of reporting verbs in English

corpus and Vietnamese corpus to the extent of neutral reporting 42

Table 4.2: Number of occurrences of reporting verbs in English

corpus and Vietnamese corpus to the extent of showing the speaker’s

Table 4.3: Number of occurrences of reporting verbs in English

corpus and Vietnamese corpus to the extent of showing the speaker’s

Table 4.4: Number of occurrences of reporting verbs in English

corpus and Vietnamese corpus to the extent of showing the speaker’s

Table 4.5: Number of occurrences of reporting verbs in English

corpus and Vietnamese corpus to the extent of showing the speaker’s

Table 4.6: Number of occurrences of reporting verbs in English

corpus and Vietnamese corpus to the extent of showing the speaker’s

Table 4.7: Number of occurrences of reporting verbs in English

corpus and Vietnamese corpus to the extent of indicating how

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

One of the special features of a human language is that it can talk about itself No other communication system has this power, which refers to the ability

to report- to build into the talk a reference to other talk English like all other languages provide its speakers and writers with a large number of options to report someone else’s language The terms such as “indirect speech” or “reported speech” and “direct speech” are so widespread that we can hardly find any grammar books and language textbooks without mentioning them Theoretically, the study of reporting and its various functions has been a fascinating area of inquiry for researchers such as Swales (1990), Thompson & Ye (1991), Thomas

& Hawes (1996), Thompson (1996) and Hyland (1999) working in discourse analysis Different functions of reported speech have been investigated and discussed in a number of studies in both native and non-native speaker contexts However, the previous researches or theses which focus on the reporting verbs in Vietnamese in general or the signal functions in particular can hardly be found Thus, there have been no comparative analyses of English and Vietnamese to the extent of reporting signals Practically, in Vietnam, the background of teaching and learning English at school has been affected by traditional grammar-translation approach for decades; therefore, it is a general trend in huge numbers

of grammar texts, handbooks, and reference works that try to explain and illustrate changes in pronouns and temporal adverbs, back-shifting of tenses, and the position of the reporting verb Language learners instructed by traditional teachers spend hours and hours doing mechanically such kind of exercises of

changing direct speech into indirect speech Nevertheless, problems like the relationship between a quote and a reported clause cannot be examined from a purely grammatical point of view In terms of reporting verbs, for example, they can perform a number of functions which not only seems appropriate for the meaning the speakers want to convey but also is most likely to have the effect on the listeners that they want (Thompson, 1996) However, it is a fact that young English learners find it difficult to report a language event without grammar rules for fear that the original talk can be distorted

On account of all main points listed, this study will more specifically make an account of the signal functions of reporting verbs in English and compare them with Vietnamese translated version

1.2 Aims of the Study

This study is expected to offer an overview of English reporting structures, reporting verbs and their signal functions in general By means of descriptive and contrastive methods, this paper aims at finding out differences and similarities of using reporting verbs in English and Vietnamese as well as drawing some implications for language teaching and learning In order to gain these aims, some objectives are set up to figure out what signal functions

reporting verbs perform in the novel The Lost Symbol, point out the differences

and similarities between signal functions of reporting verbs in English in the

novel The Lost Symbol and its Vietnamese translated version and imply some

suggestions of translation teaching and learning

1.3 Research Questions

In order to gain these aims and objectives, the study attempts to answer the following research questions:

- What signal functions do reporting verbs perform in English in the novel

The Lost Symbol?

- What are the similarities and differences between signal functions of reporting verbs in the English novel and their Vietnamese translated version?

- What are some implications drawn for translation teaching and learning?

1.4 Scope of the Study

Following functional grammar approach, this study focuses on functions and structures of reporting verbs It also brings out an overview of the theoretical background of reporting verbs, particularly, their signal functions in use based

on Thompson’s basis The paper investigates the signal functions of 80 reporting

verbs in the novel The Lost Symbol by Dan Brown It also examines the number

of 113 reporting verbs in Vietnamese version which is translated by Nguyễn

Xuân Hồng and published by Hội Nhà Văn Publishing House in 2010 In the

framework of the study, it only pays highly attention to four out of eleven signal functions suggested by Thompson (1996), which are neutral reporting, showing the speaker’s purpose, showing the manner of speaking, and indicating how the message fits in the context

1.5 Significance of the Study

Theoretically, although English reporting verbs have not been an unfamiliar subject concerned by plenty of both native and non-native researchers throughout the world, Vietnamese reporting verbs have attracted a rather modest concern In fact, in Vietnamese, a reporting is often categorized into the type of narrative sentences having the features of any other statements; as a result the reporting verbs are not paid as much attention as other aspects Thus, this study attempts to make contributions to investigating the functions of reporting verbs,

especially their signal functions, compared with English ones in order to clarify the similarities and differences between them Practically, thanks to the results of this research, some notifications will be identified to help English teachers and learners avoid the frequent mistakes made in language teaching and learning procedures as well as determine the stereotype of translating English into Vietnamese in general and English reporting verbs into Vietnamese ones in particular

1.6 Research Methods

The main research methods used are description and contrastive analysis which include four techniques namely description, data collection, comparison and analysis Firstly, the descriptive approach is applied to come to the nature of different signal functions of reporting verbs in English Secondly, data collecting procedures are employed to list the reporting verbs used in original and translated version of Dan Brown’s novel in the categories of signal functions Thirdly, the comparison is used in the contrast of signal functions which English and Vietnamese reporting verbs performed in the novel and summarize the differences and similarities between them Last but not least, analytical technique

is exploited to generalize the conclusions and implications in translation teaching and learning

1.7 Structure of the Study

The study consists of five main chapters which are Introduction, Literature review, Methodology, Findings and Discussions and Conclusion

Chapter 1, Introduction, briefly introduces the rationale of the study, the aims of the study, the research questions, the scope of the study, and the methods

of the study Chapter 2, Literature review, reviews the findings of the previous

studies of reporting verbs, clarifies some important concepts and presents Thompson’s basis of reporting structures, reporting verbs and their signal functions Chapter 3, Methodology, identifies the way in which this study is carried out with the detailed procedures described Then, Chapter 4, Findings and discussions, compares signal functions performed by reporting verbs in the

novel The Lost Symbol with its Vietnamese translated version Afterwards,

conclusions and findings of this study are summarized, limitations of this study are stated and suggestions are put forward for the future research in Chapter 5, Conclusion Finally, References comes at the end of the study

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Previous Studies

There has been growing interest in studies on practices of reporting since the publication of Swales’ Genre Analysis (1990) Many scholars have contributed a lot to study of reporting, for example, Thompson & Ye (1991); Thomas & Hawes (1996); Thompson (1996); Hyland (1999)

Swales (1981/1986/1990) is a pioneer in investigating reporting Alongside Swales’ early work on reporting which focused on its structures and forms, intensive studies have been carried out to investigate reporting verbs as the most prominent signal of reporting (Malcolm, 1987; Shaw, 1992; Thompson

& Ye, 1991; Thomas & Hawes, 1996; Thompson, 1996) Most researchers focus

on the categories of reporting verbs, tense and voice of reporting verbs with sentence function A lot of studies have analyzed tense usage of reporting verbs (Malcolm, 1987; Swales, 1990; Shaw, 1992) These studies have examined the use of present, past tense and present perfect Lackstrom, Selinker and Trimble (1970) conclude that present tense indicates a general claim, past tense claims lack of generality and present perfect tense gives a good generalization about past events (cited in Shaw 1992, p 303) Malcolm (1987) holds the similar ideas and she analyzed tense choice in 20 scientific articles from context-independent temporal meanings and context-dependent rhetorical uses Malcolm (1987) found that generalizations tend to occur in present tense, reference to specific experiments in the past tense and reference to areas of inquiry in the present perfect tense (p 36) Malcolm’s study (1987) throws light on the implications

for the teaching of EST; however, this study only analyzed isolated clauses and the data is relatively small (p 41)

Later, Shaw (1992) examines how tense of reporting verbs is used in Ph.D theses and explores the reasons of correlation of tense and sentence function Shaw points out topicalization and topic change should be considered when analyzing the tense of reporting verbs Findings of Swales & Feak (1996, 2004) and Shaw (1992) are similar

According to the mentioned authors, past tense is used when referring to a specific study or experiment which may be close to the current study, and the findings of the study or experiment are limited to the cited study Present tense is used in the findings which are believed as fact or supportive of the current study Present perfect is often used in generalization of research activity in an area or used to indicate continued discussion in the current study

In regard to semantic categories of reporting verbs, the most notable early research is Thompson and Ye’s evaluation (1991) in reporting verbs used in academic papers Thompson and Ye classify reporting verbs in terms of denotation and evaluation In analysis of denotation, they propose three categories: textual, mental and research verbs which are under the heading

‘author acts’ (following Thompson & Ye, we use ‘writer’ to refer to the person who is reporting and ‘author’ to refer to the person who is being reported): Textual: verbs referring to processes in which verbal expression is an obligatory component; for example, state, write, point out, term, deny, etc Mental: verbs referring primarily to mental process; for example, believe, think, focus on, consider, etc Research: verbs referring primarily to the mental or physical processes that are part of research work (and to the author’s descriptions of those

processes); for example, measure, obtain, find, calculate, etc (Thompson & Ye

1991, pp 369-370)

In analyzing the evaluative nature of reporting verbs, they consider three factors: author’s stance, writer’s stance and writer’s interpretation Three options are identified by Thompson and Ye (1991): Factive: the writer portrays the author as presenting true information or a correct opinion; for example, demonstrate, points out, identify, prove, improve, notice, etc Counter-factive: the writer portrays the author as presenting false information or an incorrect opinion; for example, betray, confuse, disregard, ignore, use, etc Non-factive: the writer gives no clear signal as to her attitude towards the author’s information/opinion; for example, believe, claim, examine, propose, generalize, utilize, etc

Although this is a useful study, it is not watertight Some reporting verbs can be classified into two categories because the distinction between each category is not so easily distinguishable Following Thompson and Ye’s study (1991), Thomas and Hawes (1996) analyze reporting verbs in medical journals

by looking at a small corpus of 11 research articles They focus on the semantic categories of reporting verbs and identify function of reports with each category They categorize denotation of reporting verbs in terms of experimental/real-world activities, cognition activities and discourse activities This classification

is similar to Thompson and Ye’s classification of research, mental and textual verbs This study provides useful insights that suggest there is a correlation between choice of verb type and the function of the report in which the verb occurs (p 147); nevertheless, their corpus is relatively small and is restricted to one discipline and the modified categories of denotation are basically the same

as Thompson and Ye (1991) Based on the work done by Thompson and Ye (1991) and Thomas and Hawes (1996), Hyland (1999) investigated a corpus of

80 research articles of eight disciplines Hyland regards Thompson and Ye’s classification (1991) to be an over-complex system and there is no need to distinguish evaluation of reporting verbs in ten sub-categories (p 350) Therefore, Hyland simplified this system by categorizing evaluation in terms of factive, non-factive and counter-facitve

Later, Thompson (1996) collects the evidence obtained from studying corpora of The Bank of English, which contains over 200 million words to draw out in general the range of structures and vocabulary that are used for the purpose of reporting language He at the same time pays attention to the message functions and message types chosen for different purposes and explains the use

of tense, pronouns, and similar features in reported clauses He also concentrates

on the functions of the reporting signal and showed what information could be given about the report by the reporting signal In particular, it shows how speakers can indicate different attitude towards the report through the reporting signal Using the data employed in journalism, conversation, novels and academic writing, he puts forward an opinion that one of the main ways in which the speaker/ writer can use the reporting signal to give information about the report is by their choice of reporting verbs (Thompson 1996, p 33)

The present study is conducted thanks to Thompson’s main conclusions of signal functions of reporting verbs, which are illustrated in the following chapter

2.2 An Overview of Reporting

This part is supposed to give out an overview and clarify some basic concepts of reporting

2.2.1 Definitions of Reporting

Since Swales’ pioneering study (1990) on the typical features in research article introductions, there has been a growing interest in the phenomenon of reporting Reporting is defined by Thomas and Hawes (1996, p 129) as: “The attribution of propositional content to a source outside the author of the article in the current situation, and the marking of this by the presence of any of a number

of signals of attribution”

In terms of signals that determine whether a statement is counted as reporting or not, Thomas and Hawes (1996) differ from Swales (1990) in the way that they consider reporting to be signaled not only by reporting verbs, but also by other elements such as reporting nouns, reporting adjectives, and reporting adjuncts

Sharing the same point of view, Thompson (1996) adds that reports usually consist of two factors: the reporting signal and the message The reporting signal is the part of the report which shows that you are reporting someone else’s words rather than expressing your own ideas The message is the part which shows what was said or written To a structural extent, Thompson (1996) declares that there are two main types of reports: direct quote structures and indirect report structures

This paper applies Thompson’s definition and classification as the framework to analyze some significant aspects of using reporting verbs in the novel

2.2.2 Functions of Reporting

The functions of reporting also attract researchers’ attention Weissberg and Buker (1990) propose reporting has three functions: first, giving readers

background information about your study; second, showing readers your familiarity with the area; third, establishing your study as one link in a chain of research that is developing and enlarging knowledge in your field (p 41) Later, Thompson (1996) claims two main functions of the reporting: reporting signal function and message function

Firstly, reporting signal function is carried out by reporting clause, reporting adjunct, reporting noun, reporting adjective and reporting verb and play an integral role in signaling that someone else’s words are being reported as well as expressing the ways they are reported

Secondly, message function is the way in which the content or the function of the “original” language is presented Thompson suggests five distinguishing ways in which the message may be treated: message can be quoted, echoed, paraphrased, summarized, or omitted (Thompson, 1996)

Based on Thompson’s theory, the present study focuses on exploiting the functions of reporting signal conveyed by reporting verbs, which are clarified in the following part of this chapter

2.2.3 Structures of Reporting

According to Thompson (1996), “In structural terms, there are two main types of reports: direct quote structures and indirect report structures.” (p 1)

2.2.3.1 Direct Quote Structures

Thompson determines, “A direct quote structure is any structure which shows that the writer is reporting what someone said, wrote or thought as if he was using their own words” (p 1) The basic type of direct quote structure consists of two clauses: a reporting clause (the reporting signal) and a quote (the message)

I said, “I’m going out” (Thompson, 1996, p 1)

Reporting clause: I said

Quote: I’m going out

When reading a direct quote, it is not known whether the quote is exactly the same as the words used in the original language event In a newspaper report, the quote may only be roughly what the original speaker said In a novel, there is

no original speaker and language event The words exist only in the writer’s imagination In an academic paper, on the other hand, there is a convention that the words of the quote will be accurately copied from the original piece of writing In all cases, however, the reporter – the person making the report – is implying that the quote does represent the original words The most frequent reporting signal for direct quote structures in writing is the use of inverted commas or quotation marks around the quote In addition, they are also signaled

by a reporting clause containing a reporting verb

‘I’m all right,’ said Jarvis

He paused and asked, ‘How much do you remember?’

Then he said gently, ‘How have you been, Hannah?’

So how’s things with you?’ he asked

(Thompson, 1996, p 2)

To the extent of position of reporting clauses in direct quote structures, they frequently come before or after the quote

‘Get out of here,’ Carlyle said

But Flashman, who at first refused to comment, later said ‘As far as I am concerned Barry has not been sacked.’

(Thompson, 1996, p 2)

However, there are some cases in which reporting clauses are also found

in the middle of the quote A reporting clause can appear after “answer word”, after the first noun group in the quote, after a clause if the quote contains more than one clause, after an adverb or prepositional phrase, after a ‘wh’-word in a question, after a vocative and after an exclamation

‘No,’ I said, ‘I can’t see.’ (after answer word)

‘The problem, ‘ I explained, ‘is quite simple.’ (after the first noun group)

‘You keep it,’ she said, ‘and let’s start.’ (after a clause)

‘Unfortunately,’ he wrote, ‘your portrait of Eula Hall was not very good.’

(after an adverb)

‘In the final analysis,’ he once said, ‘we must rely on man’s ingenuity.’

(after a prepositional phrase)

‘How long,’ he asked, ‘shall I be held hostage?’ (after a ‘wh’-word)

‘Mom,’ she asked, ‘where am I going?’ (after a vocative)

‘Oh hell,’ Castle said, ‘who would ring us at this hour?’ (after an

exclamation)

(Thompson, 1996, p 3) Particularly in written stories, quotes often appear without reporting clauses The change of speaker is shown by starting a new line, as well as by the quotation marks Moreover, thoughts are also sometimes reported using a direct quote structure when characters in a novel tell stories about themselves

He’s never late, she thought, and he always answers his phone

(Dan Brown, “The Lost Symbol”, 2009, p 55)

2.2.3.2 Indirect Report Structures

Based on Thompson (1996)’s definition, an indirect report structure is used to show that the writer is reporting what someone said or wrote in his own words rather than in the words they actually used

Indirect report structures consist of the reporting clause (which carries the reporting signal and contains the reporting verb) and the reported clause (which carries the message) In each following examples, the reported clause is in bold, the rest is the reporting clause:

The nurse said that I could see him

The friend asked what had happened to Clara’s mother

Somebody’s told you to talk to me

(Thompson, 1996, p 9) Indirect report structures consisting of a reporting clause and a reported clause with a ‘that’- clause (‘that’ may be omitted), a ‘wh’-clause, a clause beginning with ‘whether’ or ‘if’, a ‘to’- infinitive clause, and an ‘-ing’ clause The following examples are taken from Thompson’s work (1996, pp 9-16)

The report also points out helpfully that there are more sheep than people

in the north of England (a ‘that’-clause)

Now Osborne claims the mine has shown a lot of profit for the last five

years (a ‘that’-clause, ‘that’ is omitted)

I asked the two men why they were taking the risk (a ‘wh’-clause)

One of the journalists at the Press Conference queried whether sabotage

could have been involved (a clause beginning with ‘whether’ of ‘if’)

I told her to write about Nancy Reagan (a ‘to’-infinitive clause)

Witnesses have reported seeing refugees forced to work as cooks and

manual labourers (an ‘-ing’clause)

Thompson (1996) also supports the idea of that many reports in fact have some features of both direct quote and indirect structures There are two main

‘mixed’ types of reports: partial quote structures and indirect quote structures

Particularly in narratives, it is frequent that there are reports which are not exactly direct quote structures or indirect report structures, but a mixture of the two They are called “free direct speech” (Thompson, 1996, p 18)

How long, Kershaw asked himself, was going to lie here, knowing that he would have to get up and be sick sooner or later?

(Thompson, 1996, p 18)

2.3 An Overview of Reporting Verbs

This part briefly introduces the definitions and classification of reporting verbs which are considered the theoretical basis of the study

2.3.1 Definitions of Reporting Verbs

The Oxford English Dictionary gives out the definition of a reporting verb which is “a verb belonging to a class of verbs conveying the action of speaking and used with both direct and reported speech Reporting verbs may also be used with a direct object and with an infinitive construction.”

In other words, reporting verb is a verb used to indicate that discourse is being quoted or paraphrased In addition to the mentioned function, a reporting verb can also perform other functions in fact They expressed the way messages are reported, the manner of speakers or the implication of speech as Thompson (1996) pointed out

This paper is supposed to base on Thompson’s viewpoint of reporting verbs throughout the research

2.3.2 Classification of Reporting Verbs

The choice of the reporting verb is closely associated with the extent to which reported clause is controlled by reporting clause Various kinds of reporting verbs are used in narrative works and they can be divided into four categories: neutral reporting verbs, mental verbs, manner-of-speaking verbs and speech act verbs (Yamashita, 1998, p 178)

By using the neutral verbs, the writer gives a neutral evaluation of reported event The reported discourse is not controlled by the writer It is presented to the reader objectively

To the extent of mental verbs, the internal states of the subject of reported event is presented to the reader These verbs are frequently used in fiction to report a language event as well as describe the characters’ qualifications in details

When the writer uses the manner-of-speaking verbs like shout, physical

characteristics are given to reported discourse and presented to the reader

Regard of the speech act verbs such as warn or claim, illocutionary force

is given to reported event by the writer Thus, the reader's interpretation of the reported event is controlled by the writer

2.4 Signal Functions of Reporting Verbs

As it is mentioned in the previous part, Thompson (1996) describes two functions of reporting verbs, which are namely signal and message functions This thesis pays attention to the former one and considers Thompson’s theory as guidelines to carry out the research To the extent of signal functions, Thompson

(1996) suggests there are eleven ones which can be performed by reporting verbs

The basic reporting verb is say, which is used as a neutral signal to show

simply that the writer or the narrator is reporting what someone said and that they do not want to add any more information about the speaker’s purpose or

manner The verb say can be used to report any kind of language event –

statements, questions, commands, suggestions, and so on The language event may be spoken or written

‘I’ll talk to them’ Leaphorn said

‘Why are you not Orthodox?’ people said

Basic food aid was an urgent necessity, he said

Other people said they were now afraid to go out at night

I remember the look on his face when I said look I want this

(Thompson, 1996, p 34) Whenever the writers want to not only use a neutral reporting verb but

also mention the hearer, they can use tell The verb tell can be used to report

statements, instructions, and suggestions, but not questions (Thompson, 1996, p 34)

“I am convinced this would be the wrong move,’ he told Eleanor

Anthony told him the proposal was out of question

(Thompson, 1996, p 34)

Professionally, I was told, they all thought it a fascinating story

He told Henry to touch nothing

They were told at first that they should simply expel the refugees

(Thompson, 1996, p 35)

The verb ask can be used as a neutral verb for reporting questions and

requests

‘When can I go home?’ he asked almost daily

I asked them where they were taking her

I was the one who asked her to marry me

they can also use the verbs speak or talk as neutral reporting verbs

As she spoke of her father, her eye reddened and she turned away

Those reports also spoke of two young hijackers

The health care equipment you talk about in this book, is it actually being used somewhere?

(Thompson, 1996, p 35)

If the reporter wants to use a neutral reporting verb, but with the emphasis

on the fact that the speaker put their opinions or feelings into words, express can

be used

The friend expressed her concern that JJ might ‘do something foolish’

(Thompson, 1996, p 36)

2.4.2 Showing the Speaker’s Purpose

There is a large group of reporting verbs which can be used when the writer wants to show the speaker’s purpose These verbs can be followed with a

‘that’-clause, a direct quote structure, ‘to’-infinitive clause, ‘-ing’ clause and

‘wh’- clause

Here is the list of the major verbs which indicate the speaker’s purpose as Thompson (1996) concluded and which can be used in an indirect report structure with a reported ‘that’-clause

brag grumble proclaim teach

(Thompson, 1996, p 36) There are also reporting verbs which can be use to show the speaker’s purpose with a reporting ‘to’-infinitive clause Here is a list of the major verbs which are used in this way

(Thompson, 1996, p 37) There is a small number of reporting verbs which can be used to show the speaker’s purpose which are followed by a reported ‘wh’-clause

A small number of reporting verbs showing the speaker’s purpose can be followed by a reporting ‘-ing’ clause

Some of the reporting verbs which can be used to show the speaker’s purpose can also be used with a prepositional phrase giving a summary of the message Here is a list of the major verbs which are used in this way

(Thompson, 1996, p 38)

2.4.3 Showing the Manner of Speaking

There are a large number of reporting verbs which show the way in which something was said They are most often used in direct quote structures although many of them can also be used in indirect report structures with ‘that’- clauses

‘Let’s see the colour of your money,’ the Admiral cried

‘We still haven’t got a penny!’ Malcolm sighed irritably

(Thompson, 1996, p 39)

These verbs can be divided into four groups according to the main aspect

of the speaker’s manner that they refer to The first group of verbs refers particularly the sound level of talking

(Thompson, 1996, p 40) Another group of verbs refers particularly to the speed of talking

(Thompson, 1996, p 40) Another group refers to the speaker’s general behaviour as they spoke, especially the expression on their face or the other noises they made

chuckle guffaw smirk

(Thompson, 1996, p 41) Almost any verb used to describe the noises made by animals can also be used as a reporting verb

(Thompson, 1996, p 41)

2.4.4 Showing What was Said through the Reporting Verb

There are plenty of reporting verbs which in themselves give some ideas

of what actually said or written These verbs are frequently followed by a prepositional phrase or an ‘-ing’- clause They are mainly separated into two groups which convey negative meaning and positive meaning

The following are the major verbs which mean roughly ‘say something bad about the target’

(as/for)

disparage (as) revile (as/for)

bemoan decry (as) libel slam (for)

(as/for)

Thompson (1996) also proposes that there are other reporting verbs which mean roughly ‘say something good about the target’

applaud (as/for) compliment (on) eulogize (as) laud (as/for)

2.4.5 Indicating How the Message Fits in

Some reporting verbs can be used to show how what is being reported fits

in with the rest of the language event

One group of verbs indicates that what is said is a response of some kind

to something that has already been said, usually by someone else Here are the major verbs that are used in this way

contradict

(Thompson, 1996, p 46)

Some reporting verbs can be used to indicate that what is said has already been said, either by the speaker or by someone else The major ones are given below

(Thompson, 1996, p 47) There are a number of reporting verbs which refer to the progress of the language event – starting, continuing, interrupting, and stopping

(Thompson, 1996, p 48)

2.4.6 Drawing Attention to the Speaker’s or Writer’s Words

A small group of reporting verbs can be used to draw attention to the words used by the speaker or writer to describe or name something These verbs frequently introduce a partial quote With some the partial quote or the report of the words used is given in a prepositional phrase with ‘as’ The following verbs belong to this kind of function

characterize (as) designate (as) name

(Thompson, 1996, p 49)

2.4.7 Showing Your Attitude towards What You Report

When the reporter passes on information or opinions to other people, he is

in a sense responsible for the truth of the information or the validity of the opinions On the other hand, the reporter is not directly responsible for the information or opinions reported

Most reporting verbs do not in themselves show the reporter’s attitude towards what the speaker says However, there are some reporting verbs which show the reporter’s attitude may show a positive attitude (what the speaker says

is true) or a negative attitude (what the speaker says is not true or is open to doubt)

Here is the list of the major reporting verbs which can be used to indicate

or strongly imply that it is believed that what the speaker says is true

(Thompson, 1996, p.50) The reporting verbs in the list below indicate that it is believed that what the speaker says is untrue or at least open to doubt

(Thompson, 1996, p 51)

2.4.8 Showing that You do not Accept Responsibility

If the reporter wants to make it clear that someone else’s opinion is being reported and the reporter do not accept responsibility for the ideas expressed, a clause beginning with ‘what’ can be used The clause contains a reporting verb

By using the ‘what’-clause, the reporter subtly adds a comment of his own, without having to use a separate sentence for the report structure

I was looking at the scallops, or what they claim are scallops

(Thompson, 1996, p 52)

I got myself a table at what was said to be the best restaurant in town

(Thompson, 1996, p 53)

2.4.9 Showing Your Attitude through Reporting Adjuncts

There are other ways in which the reporter can show his or her attitude towards a reported message One important way is by using a reporting adjunct which can be an adverb, a prepositional phrase, a non-finite clause or a subordinate finite clause A very frequent type of reporting signal that can be regarded as a reporting adjunct is a special use of ‘as’-clauses

Many reporting adjuncts are neutral, in that they do not show whether or not the reporter believe what is being reported The reporter can use them to make it clear that someone else’s ideas are being reported, but the reporter does not have to show his or her own opinion

According to Mr Thomas, the addictive sense of achievement offered by gymnastics is unparalleled

(Thompson, 1996, p 53)

If, on the other hand, a reporting adjunct with ‘as’ is used, it is shown that the reporter definitely accept the truth of the reported message In fact, in this

case the reporter is often presenting the other speaker or writer as agreeing with his or her ideas rather than the other way round

As Montaigne wrote, ‘It needs courage to be afraid.’

Or, as Auden put it, there is only a limited number of ways of knocking a nail into a piece of wood

(Thompson, 1996, p 53) Reporting adjuncts with ‘so’ do not have the same meaning as adjunct with ‘as’ A neutral reporting verb in a reporting adjunct with ‘so’ can be used when the reporter do not want to indicate whether the reported message is accepted true or not

2.4.10 Showing the Effect of What is Said

There are a small number of reporting verbs which can be used when it is necessary to report the effect of what the speaker say on someone else, rather than the actual words that the speaker uses

Here is a list of the major verbs which can be used to report what happened as a result of a speaker’s words

There are some other reporting verbs listed below which can also be used

to report the effect of the speaker’s words on someone else’s actions if they are followed by a prepositional phrase, or a preposition and ‘-ing’ clause, with ‘into’

or ‘out of’

Certain other verbs are also used when it is necessary to focus on the result

of what someone says rather than on what they actually say In this case, the results are not actions or opinions but facts