THe handbook of crisis communication

The Handbook of Crisis Communication Handbooks in Communication and Media This series aims to provide theoretically ambitious but accessible volumes devoted to the major fields and subfields within communication and media studies Each volume sets out to ground and orientate the student through a broad range of specially commissioned chapters, and also to provide the more experienced scholar and teacher with a convenient and comprehensive overview of the latest trends and critical directions The Handbook of Children, Media, and Development, edited by Sandra L Calvert and Barbara J Wilson The Handbook of Crisis Communication, edited by W Timothy Coombs and Sherry J Holladay Forthcoming The Handbook of Critical Intercultural Communication, edited by Rona Halualani and Thomas Nakayama The Handbook of Global Communication and Media Ethics, edited by Robert Fortner and Mark Fackler The Handbook of Global Research Methods, edited by Ingrid Volkmer The Handbook in International Advertising Research, edited by Hong Cheng The Handbook of Internet Studies, edited by Robert Burnett, Mia Consalvo, and Charles Ess The Handbook of Rhetorical and Public Address, edited by Shawn Parry-Giles The Handbook of Crisis Communication Edited by W Timothy Coombs and Sherry J Holladay A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition first published 2010 © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007 Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell Registered Office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148–5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell The right of W Timothy Coombs and Sherry J Holladay to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The handbook of crisis communication / edited by W Timothy Coombs and Sherry J Holladay p cm — (Handbooks in communication and media) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-4051-9441-9 (hbk : alk paper) Crisis management Communication in management I Coombs, W Timothy II Holladay, Sherry J HD49.H35 2010 658.4′5—dc22 2009041493 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Set in 10/13pt Galliard by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed in Singapore 01 2010 Contents Notes on Contributors Preface Acknowledgments Introduction Robert L Heath Part I Crisis and Allied Fields Parameters for Crisis Communication W Timothy Coombs Crisis Communication and Its Allied Fields W Timothy Coombs Crisis Communication Research in Public Relations Journals: Tracking Research Trends Over Thirty Years Seon-Kyoung An and I-Huei Cheng Part II Methodological Variety Case Studies Organizational Networks in Disaster Response: An Examination of the US Government Network’s Efforts in Hurricane Katrina Gabriel L Adkins Regaining Altitude: A Case Analysis of the JetBlue Airways Valentine’s Day 2007 Crisis Gregory G Efthimiou Textual Analysis The Press as Agent of Cultural Repair: A Textual Analysis of News Coverage of the Virginia Tech Shootings Mohamad H Elmasry and Vidhi Chaudhri ix xxvi xxviii 15 17 54 65 91 93 115 141 vi Contents Content Analysis Are They Practicing What We Are Preaching? An Investigation of Crisis Communication Strategies in the Media Coverage of Chemical Accidents Sherry J Holladay Experimental Examining the Effects of Mutability and Framing on Perceptions of Human Error and Technical Error Crises: Implications for Situational Crisis Communication Theory W Timothy Coombs and Sherry J Holladay How Do Past Crises Affect Publics’ Perceptions of Current Events? An Experiment Testing Corporate Reputation During an Adverse Event J Drew Elliot 10 Crisis Response Effectiveness: Methodological Considerations for Advancement in Empirical Investigation into Response Impact Tomasz A Fediuk, Kristin M Pace, and Isabel C Botero Part III The Practice 11 “We tell people It’s up to them to be prepared.” Public Relations Practices of Local Emergency Managers Robert Littlefield, Katherine Rowan, Shari R Veil, Lorraine Kisselburgh, Kimberly Beauchamp, Kathleen Vidoloff, Marie L Dick, Theresa Russell-Loretz, Induk Kim, Angelica Ruvarac, Quian Wang, Toni Siriko Hoang, Bonita Neff, Teri Toles-Patkin, Rod Troester, Shama Hyder, Steven Venette, and Timothy L Sellnow 12 Thirty Common Basic Elements of Crisis Management Plans: Guidelines for Handling the Acute Stage of “Hard” Emergencies at the Tactical Level Alexander G Nikolaev Part IV Specific Applications Organizational Contexts 13 Oil Industry Crisis Communication Michelle Maresh and David E Williams 14 Educational Crisis Management Practices Tentatively Embrace the New Media Barbara S Gainey 15 FEMA and the Rhetoric of Redemption: New Directions in Crisis Communication Models for Government Agencies Elizabeth Johnson Avery and Ruthann W Lariscy 159 181 205 221 243 245 261 283 285 301 319 Contents Crisis Communication and Race 16 Effective Public Relations in Racially Charged Crises: Not Black or White Brooke Fisher Liu 17 Public Relations and Reputation Management in a Crisis Situation: How Denny’s Restaurants Reinvigorated the Firm’s Corporate Identity Ali M Kanso, Steven R Levitt, and Richard Alan Nelson Part V Technology and Crisis Communication 18 New Media for Crisis Communication: Opportunities for Technical Translation, Dialogue, and Stakeholder Responses Keri K Stephens and Patty Malone 19 Organizational and Media Use of Technology During Fraud Crises Christopher Caldiero, Maureen Taylor, and Lia Ungureanu 20 Organizational Use of New Communication Technology in Product Recall Crises Maureen Taylor Part VI Global Crisis Communication 21 Crisis Communication, Complexity, and the Cartoon Affair: A Case Study Finn Frandsen and Winni Johansen 22 Crisis Communication and Terrorist Attacks: Framing a Response to the 2004 Madrid Bombings and 2005 London Bombings María José Canel and Karen Sanders 23 Negotiating Global Citizenship: Mattel’s 2007 Recall Crisis Patricia A Curtin 24 Celebrating Expulsions? Crisis Communication in the Swedish Migration Board Orla Vigsø vii 335 359 379 381 396 410 423 425 449 467 489 Part VII Theory Development 509 25 Crisis Communicators in Change: From Plans to Improvisations Jesper Falkheimer and Mats Heide 26 Contingency Theory of Strategic Conflict Management: Directions for the Practice of Crisis Communication from a Decade of Theory Development, Discovery, and Dialogue Augustine Pang, Yan Jin, and Glen T Cameron 27 Crisis-Adaptive Public Information: A Model for Reliability in Chaos Suzanne Horsley 511 527 550 viii Contents 28 Communicating Before a Crisis: An Exploration of Bolstering, CSR, and Inoculation Practices Shelley Wigley and Michael Pfau 29 Who Suffers? The Effect of Injured Party on Attributions of Crisis Responsibility Sun-A Park and María E Len-Ríos 30 The Dialectics of Organizational Crisis Management Charles Conrad, Jane Stuart Baker, Chris Cudahy, and Jennifer Willyard 31 Exploring Crisis from a Receiver Perspective: Understanding Stakeholder Reactions During Crisis Events Tomasz A Fediuk, W Timothy Coombs, and Isabel C Botero 32 Credibility Seeking through an Interorganizational Alliance: Instigating the Fen-Phen Confrontation Crisis Timothy L Sellnow, Shari R Veil, and Renae A Streifel Part VIII Future Research Directions 33 Future Directions of Crisis Communication Research: Emotions in Crisis – The Next Frontier Yan Jin and Augustine Pang 34 Complexity and Crises: A New Paradigm Dawn R Gilpin and Priscilla Murphy 35 Considering the Future of Crisis Communication Research: Understanding the Opportunities Inherent to Crisis Events through the Discourse of Renewal Robert R Ulmer, Timothy L Sellnow, and Matthew W Seeger 36 Toward a Holistic Organizational Approach to Understanding Crisis Maureen Taylor 37 What is a Public Relations “Crisis”? Refocusing Crisis Research Michael L Kent 38 Crisis and Learning Larsåke Larsson 39 Pursuing Evidence-Based Crisis Communication W Timothy Coombs Afterword Name Index Subject Index 568 591 607 635 657 675 677 683 691 698 705 713 719 726 728 732 Pursuing Evidence-Based Crisis Communication 723 the crisis response?” and “What is the danger of appearing inconsistent or the risk of trying to force the same response in every area?” Crisis managers must assess the benefits and dangers of both flexibility for local areas and of standardization Business and NGO trends will keep producing more transnational organizations Therefore, it is important for us to examine the challenges created by international crisis communication The challenges of international crisis communication are linked to the demands for effective intercultural communication The new and somewhat unfamiliar contexts are the source of two challenges: (1) to avoid ethnocentrism and (2) to adapt to international stakeholders It is easy to understand why transnational managers might apply principles of crisis communication from the home country when facing a crisis in host countries In times of stress, people rely on the familiar Or managers may simply fail to realize they are being ethnocentric However, such ethnocentric behavior can be problematic if the home and host cultures are dissimilar It is unrealistic to expect crisis communication guidelines developed in the US, or any other home country, to be effective in other cultures (Wakefield 2001) Crisis managers must resist the temptation to apply ethnocentric crisis communication solutions Adapting to international stakeholders may be the more problematic challenge of the two It is difficult enough to manage a crisis when there are no cultural differences to consider Adding more variables to the equation can create greater complexity Culture is a critical variable to study for global crises and international crisis communication If culture shapes crisis communication, we must understand how various cultural factors, such as Hofstede’s (1984) ambiguity tolerance, impact the crisis communication process We must look for differences and similarities in crisis communication between cultures and explanations for why those similarities and differences exist Key concerns to address include: “How does culture shape perceptions of what constitutes a crisis?” “How stakeholders in different cultures react to the same crisis response strategy?” “How does culture affect the selection of crisis response strategies?” “How the expectations of the stakeholders differ?” Conclusion This chapter emphasizes systematic data collection as a means of building evidence with a bias toward formal research methods This approach is warranted because formal methods allow for greater generalizability and fit well with testing propositions and hypotheses derived from theory But informal methods, when rigorous, can be an acceptable form of evidence Researchers need to follow the rigor as it pertains to specific informal research methods Detailed case studies that involve interviews and primary documents, not just public statements and comments, can provide the rigor needed to qualify as evidence An evidence-based approach champions theory-based research rigor, not just a particular method Two 724 W Timothy Coombs areas for further rigorous study include intercultural crisis communication and stakeholder reactions to crisis response strategies in general and within a cultural context Crisis communication research has serious ramifications for stakeholders and organizations Managers will utilize crisis communication research to guide or to improve their crisis management efforts Hence, researchers have an ethical obligation to provide evidence rather than speculation Research must be able to support their claims/recommendations with solid evidence Crisis research often provides recommendations that can be taken as evidence It behooves researchers to provide evidence rather than speculation wrapped in the trappings of evidence We should be confident in the recommendations we are proffering as evidence That confidence should be a function of research rigor if we are to take the charge of evidence-based crisis communication seriously I hope future crisis communication research will embrace the evidence-based research model and expand upon the emerging evidence-based trajectory in the literature References Coombs, W T (2007) Attribution theory as a guide for post-crisis communication research Public Relations Review, 33: 135–139 Coombs, W T., & Holladay, S J (1996) Communication and attributions in a crisis: An experimental study of crisis communication Journal of Public Relations Research, (4): 279–295 Coombs, W T., & Holladay, S J (2002) Helping crisis managers protect reputational assets: Initial tests of the situational crisis communication theory Management Communication Quarterly, 16 : 165–186 Coombs, W T., & Holladay, S J (2007) The negative communication dynamic: Exploring the impact of stakeholder affect on behavioral intentions Journal of Communication Management, 11: 300–312 Dawar, N., & Pillutla, M M (2000) Impact of product-harm crises on brand equity: The moderating role of consumer expectations Journal of Marketing Research, 27: 215–226 Dean, D H (2004) Consumer reaction to negative publicity: Effects of corporate reputation, response, and responsibility for a crisis event Journal of Business Communication, 41: 192–211 Hofstede, G (1984) Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Huang, Y H (2006) Crisis situations, communication strategies, and media coverage: A multicase study revisiting the communicative response model Communication Research, 33: 180–205 Jin, Y., & Cameron, G T (2007) The effects of threat type and duration on public relations practitioners’ cognitive, affective, and conative responses to crisis situations Journal of Public Relations Research, 19: 255–281 Jorgensen, B K (1996) Components of consumer reaction to company-related mishaps: A structural equation model approach Advances in Consumer Research, 23: 346–351 Pursuing Evidence-Based Crisis Communication 725 Klein, J., & Dawar, N (2004) Corporate social responsibility and consumers’ attributions and brand evaluations in a product-harm crisis International Journal of Research in Marketing, 21: 203–217 Lee, B K (2004) Audience-oriented approach to crisis communication: A study of Hong Kong consumers’ evaluations of an organizational crisis Communication Research, 31: 600–618 Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R (2006) Hard facts, dangerous half-truths and total nonsense: Profiting from evidence-based management Boston: Harvard Business School Press Rousseau, D M (2005) Is there such a thing as “evidence-based management”? Academy of Management Review, 31: 256–269 Stacks, D W (2002) Primer of public relations research New York: Guilford Press Wakefield, R I (2001) Effective public relations in the multinational organization In R L Heath & G Vasquez (Eds.), Handbook of public relations (pp 639–647) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Afterword The preceding chapters of this Handbook offer an impressive array of crisis communication research Crisis communication has evolved from a small subdiscipline within public relations and corporate communication to become one of the dominant research areas in these fields, especially public relations Is this interest simply a fad? The answer is, “Doubtful.” Crises are not fading from existence or view Organizations always will have vulnerabilities for crises and crises frequently are highly visible problems News stories and blogs often offer critiques of crisis communication efforts Couple this visibility with potentially serious ramifications for people and organizations and we have a social problem that demands research attention The goal of applied research is to help solve problems Thus, crisis communication is an attractive and appropriate subject for researchers Moreover, online communication and globalization increase the likelihood of crises occurring and drawing intense stakeholder attention Hence, researchers and practitioners have a sustained reason for improving the practice of crisis communication The Handbook is designed to capture the breadth, depth, and diversity of crisis communication research Part II highlights the methodological diversity in research, but the entire collection reflects the various approaches to crisis communication Clearly there is no one way to study crisis communication since there is no one, perfect method for any research Each approach is associated with its own strengths and limitations The key is to develop insights that can be used to address the problems associated with crises, the primary goal noted in the Preface The problems include injuries, death, environmental damage, property damage, financial loss, loss of employment, and reputational damage Effective crisis communication can reduce these problems and, in some cases, prevent them entirely Crisis communication is often equated with protecting management or corporate interests Effective crisis communication will achieve those goals but only if it privileges public safety No crisis can be managed effectively if public safety is not the top priority and reflected in the crisis communication Afterword 727 Crisis communication itself is a complex phenomenon The two broad types of crisis communication are crisis knowledge management and stakeholder reaction management These categories reflect the crisis communication objectives of creating and sharing knowledge and efforts to influence stakeholder perceptions of the crisis, the organization, and the organization’s response to the crisis How these two types of crisis communication are enacted can vary by crisis phase The pre-crisis, crisis response, and post-crisis phases pose varying demands on crisis communication As a result, crisis communication is a multifaceted concept rather than a singular one Crises affect a myriad of organizations including corporations, non-profits, government agencies, and schools Each type of organization presents unique challenges to crisis communicators, as the variations of crises within these categories For instance, K-12 schools have different crisis concerns than colleges and universities Different types of crises present varying challenges to organizations In addition, other situational factors complicate understanding and responding to a crisis, including past crises and whether the crisis is internal or external Understanding crisis communication can be very complex There is solid evidence to support a basic crisis response that emphasizes public safety (refer to chapter with particular attention to the discussion of instructing and adjusting information) But what makes crisis communication effective beyond that point? As contingency theory rightly notes, it depends The chapters in this volume share an interest in helping to explain what “depends” in crisis communication While the crisis communication body of knowledge is expanding rapidly, there is still much more to learn before we can say we have a thorough knowledge of what “depends.” Consider how so many chapters raise new questions while addressing their research questions and hypotheses or the many research opportunities proffered by the chapters in Part VIII Ideas for the future address the secondary goal of this volume, guidance for future crisis communication research Crisis communication is a vibrant sub-discipline that in time may evolve into its own field As noted in the Preface, the tertiary goal of this book is to assist that evolution by providing some scope and form for the movement from a sub-discipline to stand-alone field As readers reflect back on what they have read in this volume, hopefully they will arrive at the same conclusion There is still much research to be done in crisis communication Researchers should be motivated by the fact that this work has real impacts on people Crisis communication can make a difference in how well people are protected during a crisis and how well organizations survive a crisis Crisis communication research matters and researchers should continue the pursuit of elaborating on what makes for effective crisis communication We hope you will agree that the Handbook of Crisis Communication is a useful resource in this process Name Index Allen, M W 33, 325, 360, 427 Anagnos, G 18 Argyris, C 713, 714 Arnold, M 268 Aulds, T J 288, 280, 296 Babin, B J 187, 195 Baker, G F 337, 338, 353 Baldwin, W H 268 Barton, L 18, 268, 360 Bechler, C 534 Beck, D B 437 Benoit, W L 23, 31, 67, 115, 142, 144, 154, 285, 286, 325, 360, 396, 397, 427, 443, 569, 585, 707 Benson, J A 427 Berg, D M Bernays, E 359 Bhattacharya, C B 572 Birch, J 268 Blamphin, J M 68 Blaney, J R 707 Boin, A 445, 713 Bos, C J 445 Boster, F J 239 Botan, C 44 Botero, I 237 Boynton, L 239 Bradford, J L 33, 38 Brazeal, L M 707 Bridges, W 268, 269 Briggs, W 268, 269 Brinson, S L 154 Brody, E W 264, 268 Broom, G M 66, 70, 239, 359, 541, 544 Burke, K 154 Busch, P 412 Caillouet, R H 33, 325, 360, 427 Caldiero, C T 34, 396, 400, 404, 405 Cameron, G 41, 43, 44, 67, 427, 535, 538, 539, 540, 677 Cancel, A E 427, 531, 532, 534 Caponigro, J R 303, 306 Carney, A 268 Center, A H 359 Chaffee, S H 527 Chaiken, S 585 Chase, W H 659 Choi, Y 35, 539 Cipalla, R 268 Compton, J A 579, 583 Consolini, P M 552 Contractor, N 100, 101, 112, 700 Coombs, W T 6, 7, 8, 9, 18, 36, 38, 67, 73, 96, 97, 102, 164, 187, 195, 200, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 214, 224, 225, 235, 237, 247, 267, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 291, 324, 325, 327, 328, 329, 331, 338, 351, 360, 387, 388, 389, 396, 397, 398, 410, Name Index 414, 415, 416, 417, 419, 426, 427, 435, 437, 444, 451, 452, 493, 512, 541, 568, 585, 591, 592, 593, 594, 599, 600, 636, 637, 660, 677, 681, 683, 706, 707 Courtright, J L 429 Cox, R Crable, R E 659 Creedon, P 702 Cropp, F 538, 539 Cummings, T 100, 101, 112 Cutler, A 66, 68, 69, 72, 74, 79, 81 Cutlip, S M 359 Darden, W R 187, 195 Day, R 248 Dayan, D 149 DeFleur, M 528 Dionisopolous, G 30 Doerfel, M I 399, 411 Dougall, E 209 Downing, J R 268 Dozier, D M 532 Druckman, J N 195, 201 Duncan, T E 187, 195 Dunfee, T W 572 Eagley, A H 285 Easton, P 290 Einsidel, E 382 Entman, R M 192, 452, 462 Falkheimer, J 529 Fearn-Banks, K 18, 117, 134, 267 Feck, L 267 Fediuk, T 237 Fink, S 18, 21, 22, 60, 247, 261, 266, 267, 268 Fisher, L 268 Fishman, D A 141, 542 Fletcher, E M 412, 417, 418 Ford, J D 266 Foss, K 100, 101 Friedman, M 18 Garrett, D E 33, 38 Gavanski, I 187, 188 729 Gerber, C R 527 Gilpin, D R 12, 427, 700 Ginzel, L E 385 González-Herrero, A 26, 55, 268 Griffin, M 187, 195 Grunig, J E 68, 69, 249, 529, 532, 543, 544 Grunig, L A 529, 532 Guth, D W 268 Hardy, C 661 Harrison, S 267, 268 Härtel, C 39 Hearit, K M 30, 31, 267, 344, 397, 410, 427, 429, 437, 497, 499, 500, 502 Heath, R L 3, 6, 7, 27, 28, 54, 55, 56, 57, 165, 267, 410, 427, 435, 437, 527, 541, 660, 661 Heide, M 529 Hellwig, S A 531, 532 Hendrix, J A 268 Hermann, C F 266, 638 Hess, D 572 Hobbs, J D 30 Hocke, T M Holladay, S J 34, 39, 67, 73, 187, 195, 200, 206, 207, 210, 211, 214, 224, 235, 287, 288, 324, 325, 414, 493, 677, 685 Holtzhausen, D R 532 Holusha, J 694 Hopkins, M 359 House, J S 387 Huang, Y H 33, 36 Huberman, A M 348 Huberty, C J 580 Hunt, T 249, 528 Huxham, C 660 Huxman, S S 97 Ice, R 30 Ihlen, O 30 Irvine, R 267 Jin, Y 43, 44, 427, 540, 677 Jones, B L 659 730 Name Index Jorden, A 268 Jorgensen, B K 38, 39 Kamhawi, R 72 Kelleher, T 531 Kelley, H H 37 Kent, M L 396, 400, 406, 410, 411 Khang, H 410 Ki, E J 410 Kim, S T 72, 73 Koehler, G A 562 Krackhardt, D 701 Kramer, R M 385 Kress, G G 562 Kuhn, T S 529, 544 Kurogi, A 155 Langer, E J 247, 249 LaPorte, T R 552 Lazarus, R S 575 Lee, B 35, 225, 229, 235, 237, 591, 593, 594, 600, 650 Lee, J 28 Lee, T W 555 Leichty, G 531 Lerginger, O 276, 398, 660 Lesly, P 266 Lin, L 66, 68, 70 Lin, Y H 35, 36 Linke, C G 266, 267 Littlejohn, R F 100, 101 Littlejohn, S 267 Lorenz, E N 563 McAuley, E 187, 195 McCroskey, J L 187, 211 McDonald, L 39 McElreath, M P 68 McGuire, W J 570 Madere, C M 399, 400 Maguire, S 661 Malone, P 34 Marra, F J 267, 269, 553 Martinelli, K A 268, 269 Mendelberg, T 583 Merton, R 434 Metzler, M S 661 Meyers, G C 267, 694 Miles, M B 348 Millar, D A 3, 267 Millar, F E 437 Miller, G R 222 Miller, R I 562 Mitroff, I 18, 22, 46, 247, 261, 266, 267 Mitrook, M A 427 Monge, P 100, 101, 112, 700 Moran, K 289 Morris, J D 580 Morton, L P 66, 68, 70 Mowen, J C 37 Muller, R 267 Murphy, P J 12, 427, 532, 554, 700 Nacos, B 450 Nelson, R A 660 Nelson, T R 195 Newell, S 661 Ni, L 28 Nilsen, T R 693 Olaniran, B 28, 337, 338 Oxley, B M 195 Palenchar, M J 6, 28, 57 Pang, A 31, 539, 540, 541, 677 Park, H S 269 Park, S 595, 601 Pasadeos, Y 66 Pauchant, T C 692 Paul, M J 281 Penrose, J M 269 Perry, D C 34, 310, 397, 399, 400, 401, 404, 407, 411 Peters, N 268 Pfau, M 25, 569, 573, 574, 583, 584 Phillips, N 661 Pinsdorff, M K 267 Postman, N 698 Pratt, C B 26, 55, 268, 552 Proutheau, S Quarantelli, E L 21 Qui, Q 539 Name Index Reber, B H 538 Regester, M 18 Richardson, B 99 Robb, S Roberts, K H 351 Rogers, C L 382 Rogovsky, N 572 Roper, J 531 Rosenthal, B E 268 Rosenthal, U 432, 445 Roswell, D W 187, 195 Rowan, K E 387 Sallot, L M 427 Salmon, C T 269 Salva-Ramirez, M A 268 Schön, D 713, 714 Seeger, M W 8, 18, 97, 367, 269, 327, 328, 329, 397, 410, 427, 512, 540, 541, 544 Sellnow, T L 8, 18, 97, 267, 324, 427, 512 Sen, S 572 Senecah, S L Scheers, N J 412 Shin, J 538 Shrivastava, T C 261, 266, 267 Simon, H 520 Simon, L 692 Smith, D 22 Smith, K 452 Stacks, D 210 Stephens, K K 34, 383, 385, 391 Stern, R N 701 Stockmyer, D L 38 Stoker, K L 532 Stuart, D 399, 407 Sturges, D L 29, 163, 164, 414, 416 Su, S H 36 Sutcliffe, K M 552 Sutton, R J 385 Swales, J M 436 Swan, J 661 Taylor, A M 268 Taylor, M 34, 310, 396, 397, 399, 400, 401, 407, 410, 411 731 Thelwall, M 399, 407 Thorne, B 382 Tindall, N T J 532 Ting-Toomey, S 155 Tracy, K 327, 328, 330 Trumbo, C W 72, 73 Turner, B A 429 Turner, M M 677 Tusinski, K A 532 Udwadia, F E 261, 266, 267 Ulmer, R R 8, 18, 97, 267, 329, 397, 410, 427, 512 Umansky, D 268 Ungureanu, L 396 Van Dijk, T 450, 455 Vibbert, S L 30, 659 Vielhaber, M E 399 Vogel, D 483 Waltman, J I 399 Wan, H H 25, 569, 572, 574, 583, 584 Waymer, D Weaver, D 72, 73 Weick, K 410, 518, 522, 551 Weiner, B 37, 39, 592, 593 Wells, G L 187, 199 Werham, D H 484 Werner, L R 268 Wexler, J 268 Williams, D E 28, 337, 338 Wilson, S 267 Wise, K 269 Witte, K 27 Worley, C 100, 101, 112 Wrigley, B J 269 Yarbrough, C R 535 Yin, R K 74 Zatepilina, O 708 Zhang, J 539 Subject Index Ad Herennium 501 adjusting information 29–30, 164, 170, 173, 175 affect 39–40; see also emotion Air Tran Airways Value Jet 114 al Queda 455, 458 ALAR 55 Allen, George 335–6, 342–5 analysis of variance 189–90, 196–7, 212–13 Andrew (hurricane) 337 apologia/corporate apologia 30–1, 67, 76, 206, 287, 496–502, 709–10 Arla Foods see Muhammed cartoon crisis AT&T 353, 709 attribution theory 37–40, 44–5, 76, 182–4, 592–4 control 593 counter-factual thinking 182–4 mutability 182–4, 190–1, 200 responsibility 644–5 stability 593–4 Basque 453 ETA 453–8 Better Banana Project 56 Blair, Tony 449, 458–61 blog/blogging 383–4, 389–93, 399, 405–6 BP (British Petroleum) Texas City explosion 285, 288–97, 722 Bush, George W 104, 105, 108–9, 319, 337 business continuity 61 coordination with crisis management 61 purpose 61 California wildfires 319–23, 327 Carrefour 17 case study 69–70, 74, 79–80, 117–18, 159–60 Centers for Disease Control (CDC) 99 chaos theory 96, 512, 517–19, 553–4 chemical accidents 161 Chernobyl 715, 716 Clarke, Charles 459 CNN 402 Columbine 301, 303–5 complexity 683–9 complexity orientation 688 learning 686–8 theorizing 684–6 Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) 411–13, 415, 417–20 content analysis 33–5, 168–70, 173, 175, 340–1, 385–8 contingency theory 24, 41–3, 44, 67, 76, 528–9, 530–46 contingency factors 544–6 Subject Index crisis application 533, 534, 536, 537, 538–9, 540, 541–4 crisis challenge 530–2 international application 539 stances 532–4 structural analysis 536–9 testing 534–6 corporate social responsibility (CSR) 359, 484, 570–2, 576, 578, 579, 582, 583–4, 585–6, 640 crisis affective reactions 645–7 defined 3–7 18–20, 97, 154, 360, 524, 637–9, 706–9 evaluation process 642–5 expectancy violation 639–42, 650–2 global crises 722 host crises 722 justice 641–2 paradoxes 515–16 perceptions 591, 720 crisis adaptive public information 561–2, 564 crisis communication 410, 511–12 constraints 502 control 11–12 crisis response 8, 28–45; see also crisis response strategies culture 722–3 defined 3–4, 20–1, 264, 265 effects 222 Internet 400–1 managerial bias 7–8 meaning media relations 162–3, 177 organizational learning 46 outcomes 11–12 post-crisis 8, 45–6, 649, 691 pre-crisis 8, 25–8 spokesperson 27, 162–3, 173, 176–8, 273, 297, 403 stakeholder reaction management 46 strategic advice 29–30 tactical advice 28–9 technology 410–13 trust capital 517 types 25, 159, 161, 165, 265, 324–5, 393, 398 733 unique field 9–10 crisis communication research 426–8 audience effects research 37–45 corporate reputation 577 crisis issue 74, 79 crisis responsibility 187, 195, 592, 598–9, 600, 644–5 crisis type 73–4, 78 injured party 592, 595, 598–601 methods 77, 636, 701–2, 721 nature of research 22–5 receiver/audience orientation 650, 721 subjects 70, 78 theory building 78, 528–30 crisis communicator 512–14 crisis learning 714–16 Swedish context 716–17 crisis lifecycle 247–8 crisis management behavior intentions 648–9 defined 20 models 22 origins 20–1 reputation 648 crisis management plan (CMP) 269–77, 293, 302–3 flexible plans 524 crisis preparation 568–70 crisis response strategies 28–45, 223, 231–5, 285–8, 290–3, 294–6, 325–6, 360 heuristics 709–10 stakeholder focus 710–11 crisis sensing 26 cultural economic model 470–2 relationships 471–2 textual analysis 472 Denny’s 359–74 discrimination allegations 361–2 diversity training 366–7 origins 360–1 dialogue/dialogic 391–2 Internet 410–11 Diamond Pet Food recall 573, 575–8 disaster 95, 97, 98 can be crisis 60 coordination of multiple agencies 65 734 Subject Index disaster (cont’d) defined 59 disaster communication 59–61 Disney 342, 344–5 Dow Corning 205–6 Duke University, lacrosse 335, 341–50, 353 emergency managers 246–7, 248–58 barriers to reaching public 252–3, 256–7 encouraging participation 249–50 PR expertise 249, 255–6 promotional efforts 254–5 routine 249–50 training implications 257–8 emergency operations center (EOC) 556 emotion 677–81 anger 677, 678, 680 anxiety 678, 680 fright 678, 680 sadness 678, 680 schadenfreude 677 sympathy 677 see also affect Enron 5, 398 evidence-based crisis communication 719–20, 721–4 evidence-based management 24, 429 excellence theory 528–9 experiments 77, 82, 185–8, 194–5, 209–11, 226–7 data reporting 236, 238 dependent variables 228–31 Exxon Valdez 4, 95, 398 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 277 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 2, 104–5, 106–8, 112, 319–24, 327–31 fake news conference 321–3 fen-phen 657, 662–9 Firestone Ford alliance 616–21 National Transportation Safety Association (NTSA) 616–21 tire recall 616–21, 691, 700, 703, 707–8, 709 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 387; see also Merck Pharmaceuticals Ford Firestone alliance 616–21 Pinto 360 tire recall 616–21, 691 frames 161, 452–3 crisis 171, 174, 191–3, 201 defined 191 episodic 167, 172 thematic 167, 172 fraud 398–9, 402–4, 405–7 Freedom of Information Act 419 Gibson, Mel 335, 342, 344–5, 349–50, 353–4 Greenpeace 623 Gustav (hurricane) 206 halo effect 660 high reliability organizations (HRO) 551–3, 554–5, 559–62 application to PR 552–3 holistic organizational approach 698–703 network theories 700–1 systems theory 699–700 threat rigidity 701 IKEA 484, 517 image restoration theory/image repair theory 31, 32, 67, 115, 144–5, 155 denial 146–7 mortification 147 transcendence 147–8 Imperial Sugar 56 improvisation 520–1 Imus, Don 336, 342, 344–5, 349–50 incident 19 inoculation 570–1, 574–5, 584–5 bolstering message 570, 576 instructing information 29, 164, 170, 173, 175, 413–14 integrated crisis mapping model 678–81 cognitive-focused coping 679–81 problem-focused coping 679–81 International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) 263, 265, 268 Subject Index interviews 251–62 issues management 54, 659–60, 669 crises generate issues 56 crisis prevention 55 defined 55 issues generate crises 11, 55 JetBlue Airways 115–38 apology 128–32, 135, 138 customer bill of rights 119–22, 127–34 effects of crisis 123–7 learning 134–8 Valentine’s Day 115–16, 117–38 Johnson & Johnson, Tylenol scare 1, 4, 5, 45, 160, 218, 267, 301 joint information center (JIC) 567 kategoria 494–6, 500–2 Katrina (hurricane) 7–8, 10, 93–4, 98–100, 106–14, 305, 320–1, 337, 399, 691 Blanco, Kathleen 105, 109–10 Nagan, Ray 106, 110 King, Rodney 337 Kroc, Ray 572 London blitz spirit 460–2, 463 bomb attacks 399, 449–50, 453, 458–62, 463, 516 Toker, John 516 Madrid bomb attacks 449–50, 453–8, 462–3 government crisis response 453–8 Mattel 35, 467, 472–84, 702, 707 apology 474 China 479 CSR 467 Eckert, Robert 473, 477, 479 ethical concerns with crisis response 482–4 recall 2007 467, 472–3, 478–82 measures crisis responsibility 187, 195, 597 organizational reputation 187, 195, 211 media relations 396 735 media richness 413–14 Menu Foods 703 Merck Pharmaceuticals 326, 691, 703 FDA 611–15, 621–22 Vioxx 611–15 MeritCare 657–8, 662–71 Mayo Clinic 657–9, 664–71 moral outrage 646–7 morphogenesis 562–3 MSNBC 402 Red Tape Chronicles 399–400 Muhammed cartoon crisis 425–6, 438–45 Arla Foods 425–6, 438–45 Arla forum 440–1 boycott 439, 444 dialogue 442–4 multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) 579 multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) 229, 230 multivariate approach 429–38 crisis communication 434 macro model 432–3 micro model 433–4 parameters 435–8 senders and receivers 435 NAACP 363, 365, 367–70 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 78, 79, 113, 327, 360, 691 National Center for Food Protection and Defense 102, 542 national incident management system (NIMS) 564–5 National Transportation and Safety Board (NTSB) 411 network theory 100–1 description of networks 101 qualities of individual actors 101 New England Journal of Medicine 666, 670 new media 281, 399–400, 405–7 news coverage 397 Olympics London 2012 458 736 Subject Index One-way analysis of variance 598 organizational learning 713–14 defined 714 organizations corporate-static alliances 608–9 dialectic 621–63 global structures 608 interorganizational alliances 610, 661, 670–1 rhetoric 608–10, 621–3 Oxfam 17 Pentium chip 160 Proctor & Gamble 434 public affairs office 555, 557, 558–9, 560 Public Relations Society of America 263, 265 public schools community engagement 306–8 crisis management 303–10 PR managers 308–9, 312–13 stakeholders 309–11, 315–16 web pages 313–15 racial crisis 335–55, 359–74 media coverage 354–5, 362–3 racially charged characteristics 337 recalls, product 415–20 Red Cross reliability analysis 188, 196, 211, 236 renewal, discourse/rhetoric 31–2, 45, 329, 592–606 ethics 693–4 organizational learning 692–3 vision 694–5 reputation management 58–9 creating reputations 58 crisis as threat 1–2, 58, 635 reputation defined 58 social issues 59 reputation repair 30–7, 45, 160, 493 internalizing information 164 rhetorical analysis 30–2, 67, 427–34, 606–8 risk 10–11 defined 56 issues 11 risk communication 6, 27–8 adjusting information 57–8 defined 57 instructing information 57 risk management 56 crisis exposes risks 57 prevent crises 57 scanning 56 Roman Catholic Church Sarbanes-Oxley 4–5 schadenfreude 39; see also emotion September 11, 2001 301, 305, 452, 514 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) 540–1 situational awareness 27 situational crisis communication theory (SCCT) 24, 37, 38–40, 42, 44, 67–8, 76, 96, 102–4, 108, 110, 181–2, 200–2, 206–9, 224–30, 232–5, 238–9, 286, 336, 338–9, 350–3, 355, 427, 435, 444, 451, 569, 585, 592–4, 636, 642, 644–5, 646, 650, 651, 722 crisis history 39, 165, 167, 172–3, 174, 206–9, 214–15, 218, 287, 338, 593–4 crisis response strategies 36–7, 40–1, 103, 165–6, 170–1, 175–6, 339, 340–6, 351–3 crisis types 103–4, 165, 171, 190, 191–2, 202, 216, 338, 350–1 halo effect 59 non-victims 200 prior reputation 39, 58–9, 165, 167, 196–9 severity 594–5, 598–9, 600, 601–4, 643–4, 651 velcro effect 59, 167, 193, 208 situational theory 67 social constructivism 512, 518–20, 521–3 loosely coupled systems 519–20 requisite variety 522–3 stakeholder theory 326–7 state emergency management agency (SEMA) 550, 555–9, 561–5 stealing thunder 38, 516 Subject Index Stewart, Martha 398 survey 311 Swedish Emergency Agency 490 Swedish Migration Board 489–92, 493–504 celebration 491–2, 496, 499 refugee children 490–1, 495, 500 Ring, Annica 493–5, 498, 500 Taco Bell 17 technical translation 383, 385–7, 389, 390–1 terrorism crisis communication 450–1 see also London, bomb attacks; Madrid, bomb attacks textual analysis 146 theory 527–9 Tommy Hilfiger 17 trust 661 twitter 281 Tyco 398 737 uncertainty reduction 382–4, 385 United States Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board 168 United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) 246 Union Carbide, Bhopal 10, 17, 160, 267, 398, 722 Virginia Tech 141–2, 146–54, 301, 303, 399 culture repair 143–4, 152 facework 155 identification 149–50 Seung-Hui Cho 141 shooting 141, 142 South Korean media 145–55 victimization 150–1 website 415 WorldCom 5, 398 YouTube 281 ... Communication, Hermes: Journal of Language and Communication Studies, the Handbook of Crisis Communication, and the Handbook of Pragmatics He is the co-editor or co-author of Medierne og sproget (1996),... Health Communication Research, Communication Yearbook, the Handbook of Public Relations, Handbook of Applied Communication Research, Public Relations Review, Communication Studies, the Southern Communication. .. and co-editor of the Handbook of Crisis Communication Suzanne Horsley (PhD, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) is Assistant Professor of Public Relations at the University of Alabama in