TSUNAMIS IN THE EUROPEANMEDITERRANEAN REGION From Historical Record to Risk Mitigation GERASSIMOS PAPADOPOULOS Institute of Geodynamics, National Observatory of Athens, Greece Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford Paris • San Diego • San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein) Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-12-420224-5 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/ This book is dedicated to Ioanna with all my love PREFACE Tsunamis are one of the most important sea-related natural hazards Practically speaking, coastal zones of all the oceans around the globe are exposed to tsunami hazard This is also the case in the European and Mediterranean region where the historical tsunami record is the oldest on Earth After the mega tsunami of December 26, 2004 in the Indian Ocean, which was very likely the most lethal in history, claiming around 220,000 human lives, the international community was mobilized aiming to develop actions for the tsunami risk mitigation.Writing this book is a contribution in this direction for it contains material which is useful not only to specialists but also to civil protection personnel and decision makers as well as to the general public After the introductory Chapter 1, which reviews fundamental global tsunami issues, including essays on the tragic tsunami events of 2004 in Indian Ocean and 2011 in Japan, the book covers all the aspects regarding the tsunami science, engineering, and risk mitigation in the European and Mediterranean region (EM) Chapter 2 is an exhaustive overview of the historical evidence which is available for the tsunami documentation in the EM region The geological record, both onshore and offshore, dated either in prehistoric or in historic times, has not been neglected On the contrary, it is critically discussed as potential discriminator between tsunamis and other extreme sea waves, such as storm surges.The picture of the tsunami history is completed by archaeological observations The instrumental documentation of the EM tsunamis in the last century or so is valuable for understanding important tsunami events, including the earthquake-generated tsunamis of 1908 in the Messina Strait (Italy), 1956 in the South Aegean (Greece), 1969 in Portugal, 1999 in Marmara Sea, and 2003 in North Algeria, as well as the landslide tsunamis of 1963, 2002, and 2014 in the west Corinth Gulf (Central Greece), Stromboli volcano (Italy), and western Norway, respectively Thanks to the long historical record, the tsunami impact in the EM region is also documented and analyzed in Chapter 3 An inventory of past tsunami impact has indicated that the main impact attributes are people killed and injured, damage to buildings, vessels, cultivated land, and to other property In addition, of interest are also the various types of tsunami environmental impact, such as soil erosion, coastal geomorphological changes, boulder replacement and tsunami sediment deposition On the basis of tsunami impact ix x Preface data, it was possible to assign tsunami intensity in the 12-point Papadopoulos and Imamura (2001) scale for the majority of the events listed in the historical record (Appendix) It has been found that historically the largest impact happened in the eastern Mediterranean Sea basin Chapter 4 focuses on the tsunami generation mechanisms In the EM region, a variety of seismic and nonseismic tsunami source types have been recognized, such as seismic, volcanic, landslides However, the generation mechanisms are precisely known only for a limited number of tsunamis Even for instrumentally recorded events, such as the 1908 Messina and 1956 South Aegean tsunamis, the precise generation mechanism remain undetermined due to their high complexity which may involve several mechanism components, for example, seismic and landslide or volcanic and landslide, and so on Criteria used to discriminate between the different source types include empirical relationships concerning the attenuation and the runup of tsunamis, as well as the slowness factor which characterizes the slip in the earthquake fault The geographic zonation of tsunami sources is illustrated and some good examples of tsunami-generation mechanisms are analyzed Rare types of tsunamis are also examined, such as meteotsunamis, tsunamis caused by asteroid impacts and from landslides in dams, as well as tsunamilike disturbances in lakes Numerical simulations are a particularly valuable tool in the effort to understand the tsunami-generation mechanisms and source types The relevant progress noted in the EM region is remarkable and internationally recognized Therefore, this is particularly examined in Chapter 5 The assessment of the tsunami hazard, vulnerability, and risk is a major issue since it is the basis to organize and apply land planning, crisis management, and other risk mitigation actions Chapter 6 starts with a review of the glossary which is in use to express terms such as hazard, vulnerability, exposure, damage, intensity, risk, and the like Then, the various methods and tools used for the assessment of the tsunami hazard, vulnerability, and risk in the EM region and beyond are examined It has been found that significant progress has been made in the probabilistic and scenario-based assessment of the hazard and vulnerability although several sources or errors and uncertainties are involved The tsunami risk assessment, however, is less developed Therefore, more research effort should be put in this direction On the other hand, the vulnerability and risk are strongly dependent on the degree of the community exposure to hazard Of crucial importance are factors that control the time dependency of vulnerability and risk All the various methods applied for the hazard assessment, qualitative, statistical, and Preface xi probabilistic ones, agree that the most hazardous geotectonic structure in the EM region is the Hellenic Arc, in both the local (near-field) and remote (far-field) domains Chapter 7 provides an updated overview of the local, national, and regional tsunami early warning systems, either operational or prototype ones, that have been developed in the EM region particularly after 2004.Tsunami warning operations are supported by a variety of instrumental networks, algorithms, databases, communication technologies, and empirical tools The most important regional system is the North East Atlantic and Mediterranean Tsunami Warning System, which is based on a number of national tsunami warning centers, for example, in France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Turkey, and is coordinated by the ICG/NEAMTWS/IOC/UNESCO with the active collaboration of more than 30 country members.The activities of NEAMTWS are supported by the educational and training program of NEAMTIC Of special value is also the JRC (European Commission) Tsunami Program which supports building up infrastructures, algorithms, databases, and training activities in emergency procedures Good examples of local systems are the ones developed for early warning in the near-field domain against landslide-generated tsunamis in Stromboli Island (Italy), and against earthquake-generated tsunamis in Rhodes Island (Greece) More and more new emerging technologies appear, thus providing promises for the drastic improvement of the early warning services in the years to come Of particular importance are also tsunami exercises, drills, communication tests, education, and training activities as well as other actions aiming to mitigate the tsunami risk in the EM region ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My first involvement in the tsunami science dates back to 1983 Writing this book would not be possible without the research, educational and operational experience accumulated since then Of particular value to me has been my participation in several relevant projects supported by the European Union, such as GITEC, GITEC-TWO, TRANSFER, SAFER, SCHEMA, SEAHELLARC, NEARTOWARN and ASTARTE as well as in national and bilateral projects supported mainly by the General Secretary for Research and Technology, Greece Serving from various positions and with a variety of roles in the program of ICG/NEAMTWS/IOC/ UNESCO, in the JRC Tsunami Program and in the national tsunami center of Greece, is highly appreciated In the last 30 years or so I have had the opportunity to collaborate with a large number of colleagues, students, and decision makers I would like to extend to all of them my sincere thanks and deep appreciation for their constant spirit of collaboration, support, and friendship Our collaboration in research projects, field expeditions, jointly writing papers, participating in conferences and various committees as well as exchanging ideas and experiences constitute valuable inputs for collecting material, organizing, and writing this book The list is too long to mention all of them but certainly includes S Tinti, A Armigliato, R Caputo, P Gasparini, S Lorito, A Maramai, A Michelini, D Pantosti (Italy); A.Yalciner, N Karanci, U Kuran, O Necmioglu, N M Ozel (Turkey); M.-A Baptista, F Carrilho, L Matias, L.-V Mendes (†) (Portugal); R Dov, A Salamon, A Shapira (Israel); R Guillande, H Hebert, F Lavigne, O Lesne, F Schindele (France); A Dawson, T Guymer (UK); F Imamura, H Matsumoto, K Minoura, T Nakamura, K Satake, D Sugawara, T Takahashi (Japan); V Gusiakov, B Levin, L I Lobkovsky, R. Mazova, E Pelinofsky, A Rabinovich, E Sasorova (Russia); D. Dominey-Howes (UK/Australia), S Kortekaas (The Netherlands/Australia); B Ranguelov (Bulgaria); A Rudloff, J Zschau (Germany); M González, E Gràcia (Spain); G Georgiou (Cyprus); C Ionescu, G Marmureanu (Romania); C B H arbitz (Norway); A Kijko, A Smit (S Africa); E Bernard, B McAdoo, F McCoy, V Titov (USA); E Argyris, Th Dermentzopoulos, Ch Koutitas, V Lykousis, M Papathoma, J Papoulia, S Pavlides, D Sakellariou (Greece); A. Annunziato (JRC, EC) and O Imperiali (DG-ECHO, EC) xiii xiv Acknowledgments I also thank warmly all my colleagues at the Institute of Geodynamics and the Hellenic National Tsunami Warning Center, National Observatory of Athens (Greece), particularly M Charalambakis, E Daskalaki, A Fokaefs, A Ganas, V Karastathis, N Liadopoulou, G Minadakis, T Novikova, K Orfanogiannaki, A Plessa, G Stavrakakis (†), A Tselentis, to mention a few Thanks to their encouragement, support, and collaboration that made it possible not only to promote the tsunami research at our institute but also to build up and run the national tsunami-warning center My close collaboration with the Tsunami Unit of IOC/UNESCO goes back to the 1990s I am grateful to all the people that served and still serve with IOC for their constant support, collaboration, and friendship G.A Papadopoulos August 2015 INTRODUCTION A tsunami is a series of sea waves with long period and long wavelength generated by an abrupt deformation of the seafloor or by other sudden disturbance of the sea water level The energy of vertical movement of such a disturbance is transferred to the water mass and causes a sea level change at the source region Underwater and/or coastal earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, as well as landslides are natural processes that can generate a tsunami However, strong earthquakes remain the most frequent cause of tsunamis Large meteorites that may impact the ocean should not be ruled out as possible agents of tsunami generation One should not neglect anthropogenic actions that may result in tsunami production, for example, submarine nuclear bomb testing Tsunami waves propagate outward from the generating area in all directions, the main direction of energy propagation being controlled by the dimensions and orientation of the causative source During its propagation in deep water, the tsunami proceeds as a series of ordinary gravity waves with a speed depending on the water depth In the near-shore domain, a large amount of energy is carried by both the amplified water level and strong currents Hence, tsunamis cause scouring, erosion, deposition, slope failures as well as damage or even destruction in coastal communities, marine structures and other facilities, cultivated land, and natural environment In the European-Mediterranean (EM) region, tsunami generation has been documented with frequency that varies from one area to another In the Mediterranean region, the seismic activity is high due to active geodynamic processes such as the convergence of the Eurasian and African lithospheric plates (Argus et al., 1989; De Mets et al., 2010) Subduction of oceanic crust and/or collision takes place along active orogenic belts, namely from west to east, the Gibraltar Arc, the Calabrian Arc, the Hellenic Arc, and the Cyprus Arc Ongoing motion along transform boundaries of adjacent plates, such as the Arabian plate and smaller crustal blocks, such as the Anatolian “micro-plate,” add more complexity to the active Mediterranean geodynamics and the resulting geological processes (see also in Mascle and Mascle, 2012) Instead, the regions of the North East Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea and the Baltic Sea are characterized by low seismicity, with the exception of the area offshore South West Iberia The Black Sea is also of low seismicity Therefore, the tsunami activity is much higher xv xvi Introduction in the Mediterranean, including the area offshore of South West Iberia, as compared to the other European sea regions Although the frequency of tsunamis in the Mediterranean is much less than the frequency of strong earthquakes, tsunamis threaten seriously the communities along the coastal zones of the Mediterranean basin (e.g., CIESM, 2011) This is also the case for the rest of the European coastal zones Tsunami generation in the EM region is dependent on several geodynamic processes taking place in submarine or in coastal environments, which mainly include earthquake activity, several mechanisms associated with volcanic eruptions, and landslide processes Tsunami activity from prehistorical times up to the present has been documented in the EM region from a variety of information sources In fact, geological evidence, mainly onshore and more rarely offshore tsunami sediment deposits, geomorphological features, historical documentary sources, archeological findings, as well as instrumental data and observations collected during post-event field surveys, have provided a long record of tsunami events (Papadopoulos et al., 2014a) Only a few of those events were basin-wide; others, however, were either regional or only local tsunamis In addition, in the EM region it has been reported the presence of the so-called meteotsunamis (Monserrat et al., 2006) that are tsunami-like sea waves attributed to atmospheric changes rather than to seismic and other geodynamic processes With the aim to organize actions toward the tsunami risk mitigation, there is need to have a good knowledge of the past tsunami activity, to identify potential tsunami sources and better understand the generation mechanisms particularly in the frame of complex geodynamic setting such as the one which, for example, characterizes the Mediterranean region Another important issue is to characterize tsunami sources, in other words to improve our capabilities to discriminate between seismic and aseismic mechanisms As a matter of fact, for many historical and recent tsunami events the causative sources and generation mechanisms still remain unidentified After the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami that generated in Sumatra on the December 26, 2004, a systematic effort was put forward for building up the North East Atlantic and Mediterranean Tsunami Warning System (NEAMTWS), beginning in November 2005 The country members of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO, working together under the umbrella of IOC, have established the NEAMTWS which today functions in an interim operational status based on the synergy of a number of national tsunami warning centers In parallel to this, other actions aiming at tsunami risk mitigation, such as tsunami alerting References 257 paleoenvironmental archive - a sediment trap for multiple tsunami impact since the mid-Holocene Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 53, 1–37 Vött, A., Fischer, P., Hadler, H., Handl, M., Lang, F., Ntageretzis, K., Willershäuser, T., 2011c Sediment burial of ancient Olympia (Peloponnese, Greece) by high-energy flood depositsThe Olympia tsunami hypothesis 2nd INQUA-IGCP-567 Internat.Workshop on Active Tectonics, Earthquake Geology, Archaeology and Engineering, Corinth, Greece Vött, A., Lang, F., Brückner, H., Gaki-Papanastasiou, K., Maroukian, H., Papanastasiou, D., Giannikos, A., Hadler, H., Ntageretzis, K., Willershäuser, T., Zander, A., 2011 Sedimentological and geoarchaeological evidence of multiple tsunamigenic imprint on the Bay of Palairos-Pogonia (Akarnania, NW Greece) Quat Int 242, 213–239 Vött, A., Lang, F., Brückner, H., Gaki-Papanastasiou, K., Maroukian, H., Papanastasiou, D., Giannikos, A., Hadler, H., Ntageretzis, K., Willershäuser, T., Zander, A., 2011a Sedimentological and geoarchaeological evidence of multiple tsunamigenic imprint on the Bay of Palairos–Pogonia (Akarnania, NW Greece) Quat Int 242, 213–239 Wächter, J., Babeyko, A., Fleischer, J., Häner, R., Hammitzsch, M., Kloth, A., Lendholt, M., 2012 Development of tsunami early warning systems and future challenges Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 12, 1923–1935 Walder, J., Watts, Ph., Sorensen, O., Janssen, K., 2003 Tsunamis generated by subaerial mass flows J Geophys Res 108 (NB5), 1–19 Wang, X., Liu, P.L.-F., 2005 A numerical investigation of Boumerdes-Zemmouri (Algeria) earthquake and tsunami Comput Model Eng Sci 10, 171–183 Ward, S.N., Asphaug, E., 2003 Asteroid impact tsunami: a probabilistic hazard assessment Icarus 145, 64–78 Ward, S.N., Day, S., 2010 The 1963 landslide and flood at Vaiont Reservoir Italy A tsunami ball simulation Italian J Geosci 130(1), 16–26 Watts, P., Waythomas, C., 2003 Theoretical analysis of tsunami generation by pyroclastic flows J Geophys Res 108, B12, 1–19 Whelan, F., Kelletat, D., 2002 Geomorphic evidence and relative and absolute dating results for tsunami events on Cyprus Sci Tsunami Hazards 20, 3–18 Wong, P.P., 2009 Rethinking post-tsunami integrated coastal management for Asia-Pacific Ocean Coast Manag 52, 405–410 Woodworth, P.L., Rickards, L.J., Pérez, B., 2009 A survey of European sea level infrastructure Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 9, 927–934 Yalciner, A.C., Alpar, B., Altinok,Y., Özbay, I., Imamura, F., 2002.Tsunamis in the Sea of Marmara, Historical documents for the past, models for the future Mar Geol 190, 445463 Yalỗiner, A.C., Gülkan, P., Dilmen, D.I., Aytore, B., Ayca, A., Insel, I., Zaytsev, A., 2014 Evaluation of tsunami scenarios for western Peloponnese Greece 55 (2), 485–500 Yalciner, A.C., Kuran, U., Akyarli, A., Imamura, F., 1993 An investigation on the propagation of tsunamis in the Aegean sea by mathematical modeling Proceedings of IUGG/IOC International Tsunami Symposium, Wakayama, Japan, August 23–27, pp 65–75 Yalciner, A.C., Pelinovsky, E., Talipova, T., Kurkin, A., Kozelkov, A., Zaitsev, A., 2004 Tsunamis in the Black Sea: comparison of the historical, instrumental, and numerical data J. 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Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS), 219 Tohoku tsunami in Japan, 219 Devastating tsunami in the Indian Ocean, 15 death toll, 15 in Japan, 2011, 20 Digital Terrain Models, 172 Disaster management organizations, 195 DM See Decision matrix DSTF See Dead Sea Transform Fault E Early earthquake, 217 Early-Est (EE) software, 217 Early tsunami determinations, 217 HySEA code, 219 Tsunami Early Detection Algorithm (TEDA), 218 Earthquake(s), 78, 146 activity, characterized by, 10 causative earthquake, generated tsunami hazard, 153 Gutenberg–Richter (G–R) or magnitude–frequency diagram, 150 hazard, 150 lethal, 48 Lisbon, 69 local earthquake (LEQ), 159 magnitudes, 10, 150 Nicaragua, prone regions, 174 shallow, submarine, 80 tsunami event, 59 Eastern Hellenic Arc, 104, 143, 144 Eastern Mediterranean, 143 basin, 151 El Jadida coast, Morocco, 83, 170, 177 El Manzala Lagoon, 78 EMSC See European-Mediterranean Seismological Center (EMSC) Environmental factors, role of, 172–173 Epiphytic foraminifera, 74 Epistemic uncertainty, 163 EU FP7 tsunami research project ASTARTE, 155, 175 European Commission (EC), 137, 196 EC-FP6 NEAREST Tsunami Research Project, 168 EC-FP6 SCHEMA Tsunami Research Project, 169, 172 EC-FP6 TRANSFER Tsunami Research Project, 167 funding, 18, 137 GDACS joint system, 197 GTIMS-2 project aim to support, 199 and the IOC, fostering linkages between, 196 NEAMTIC activities supported by, 196 NEARTOWARN project supported by, 203 projects GITEC and GITEC-TWO supported by, Tsunami Exercise NEAMWave14, supported by, 185 European Macroseismic Scale, 10 European–Mediterranean Seismological Center (EMSC), 209 F Field observations, 111 Finite-amplitude equations, Fragility curves, 168, 171, 175 French RATCOM project, 213 Frequency dispersion, G GDACS See Global Disasters Alerts and Coordination System (GDACS) Geographic management system (GMS), 204–206 Geological signatures, of tsunamis, 143 Geological Survey of Cyprus (GSC), 193, 194 German Indonesian Tsunami Early Warning System (GITEWS), 31, 200, 202 GIS-based method, 177 GITEWS See German Indonesian Tsunami Early Warning System (GITEWS) Subject Index Global Disasters Alerts and Coordination System (GDACS), 197, 198, 221 postdisaster information flow, 197 Global map, of known tsunami sources, GMS See Geographic management system 7-Grade scales in Japan, 10 Gravity, 5, 8, 106, 202 Greece aseismic coastal landslide, 50 calculate tsunami hazard for selected coastal sites, presentation, 151 historical tsunamis, geography of, 101 prone to tsunamis, 47 tide gauges installed in, 68 vulnerability, 165 warning system, 210 GSC See Geological Survey of Cyprus (GSC) H Hazards, 137, 140 exposure to, 139 mitigation, 173 natural, 138 scenario-based hazard assessment, 158 sea-level related, 179 secondary, 165 Hellenic Arc, 41, 151, 153 earthquake catalogs, 154 Hellenic National Tsunami Warning Center (HL-NTWC), 207 Hellenistic period, 54 Heraklion, 155, 165 test site, 166 HL-NTWC See Hellenic National Tsunami Warning Center Holocene period, 75 Holocene widespread turbidite events, 74 Humans, 139 deaths (casualties), 94 losses and extensive damage in, 48 and natural environment, 13 thematic maps concerning, 204 Hydrodynamic conditions during transport and sedimentation, 61 effect of coastal forest, 173 on tsunami hazard mitigation, 172 261 features and their consequences, 48 simulations, 70 I Ikaria Islands, 88 Imamura–Iida scale, 10 Imamura intensity scale, 12 Impacts, 140 asteroid, 118 on the community exposure, 100 duration time, 165 economic, 22, 140 environmental, 94, 140 health, 138 human, 140 -induced tsunami, meteorites, political, 140 social, 140 tsunami record and, Indian Ocean, 1, devastating tsunami in, 15 Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS), 216 Indoor/outdoor vulnerability, 173 Instrumental observations, 111 Intensity–frequency relationships, 153 International Organization for Standardization, 138 ISO 31000, 138 ISO 31010, 138 International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC), 195 Inundation code HyFlux2, 168 short-term inundation forecast, 221 size of, 79 strong soil erosion because of tsunami, 72 Ionian Sea, 144, 145, 149 Central Ionian Sea, 145 IOTWS See Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), 217 Italian National Tsunami Warning Center (It-NTWC), 217 ITIC See International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC) 262 Subject Index J Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 30 Japan tsunamis, 1, 72 See also Tsunamigenic earthquake, Japan Joint Research Center (JRC) Tsunami programme, 197 global disasters alerts and coordination system, 197 JRC tsunami assessment system, 197 2004 Indian Ocean megatsunami, 197 JRC computer TAT database, available to centers, 198 JRC in tsunami risk mitigation in EM Region, role of, 198 tsunami assessment tool, 197 tsunami propagation, 168 JRC See Joint Research Center (JRC) Tsunami programme K Kalymnos island, 45 Kladeos River valley, 146 Kolumbos, paroxysmal phase of submarine eruption in, 81 Kourion, South West Cyprus, archeological excavations, 49, 51 L Laledere delta, 91 Landslide tsunamis, 106 aseismic landslide tsunamis, 48, 106 aseismic slope failure event, 107 Central Greece, western side of, 106 Corinth Gulf, western side of, 106 Norway, western, 107 numerical modeling, 106 Var River delta, 107 caused by earthquakes, 107 Dead Sea Transform Fault (DSTF), 108 deep-water landslides, 108 Levantine rift, strike-slip, 107 Levantine Sea, 107 near-field tsunami simulations, 108 North Gorringe Avalanche (NGA), 108 palaeoseismic studies, 108 submarine landslides, 107 tsunami hazard, 108 Corinth Gulf, western side of, 106 geodynamic processes, 106 geographic distribution of, 106, 107 seismically triggered, 48 Late Bronze Age (LBA), 43 LBA See Late Bronze Age (LBA) LBA civilization, 77 Lechaion, 150 Leros Island, 88 Lethal earthquakes, 48 Levantine rift, 52 Levantine Sea, 152 Lighthouses, damage of, 80 Ligurian Sea, 84 Linear wave equations, Lisbon earthquake, 69, 72 Lisbon tsunami, 69 Local earthquake (LEQ), 159 Local warning systems, for near-field tsunamis, 202 Long-wave theory, M Macroseismic effects, 10 Magnitude scale, 12 Majorca Island, 93 Malaga areas, 163 Malta Island, 85 Management systems, 137 Mantle magnitude, 11 Marmara Sea, 54, 80, 91 Matching scenario database (MSDB), 221 Maximum credible earthquake approach, 162 Maximum credible scenario (MCS), 158 MCS See Maximum credible scenario (MCS) Mediterranean region, 106, 137 assessment of tsunami hazard based on scenarios, 160 coastline, 153 and connected Seas strong tsunamis historically known in, 227 creation of washover fans, 72 Subject Index instrumental records, 76 landslide tsunami sources, 106 mediterranean countries, in prevention culture tsunami risk, 180 tsunamigenic sources, 101 tsunami hazard, evaluation, 153 Mediterranean Sea, 18, 40, 99, 118, 153, 162, 221 Medvedev–Sponhuer–Karnik scale, 10 Megaclasts, 70 Megapaleotsunami events, 144 Megatsunamis, 1, Melilla areas, 163 Mercalli–Cancani–Sieberg scale, 10 Messina Straits, 84 Meteorites, Meteotsunamis, 55, 117 adriatic meteotsunami network, 215 coastal behavior of, 118 Minoan eruption of Thera, 43 Minoan tsunami, 43, 77 Miyako Bay, 165 Modern tsunamis, Modified-Mercalli scale, 10 Moment-magnitude scale, 10 Monte Carlo based technique, 153 Monte Carlo simulations, 163 MSDB See Matching scenario database (MSDB) Mt.Etna, 109 massive debris avalanches, 109 Murty–Loomis tsunami magnitude, 12 N National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 30 National Tidal and Sea Level Facility (NTSLF), 195 National Tsunami Warning Centers (NTWCs), 186 Natori city, 34 Natural hazards, 138 See also Hazards human impacts due to, 140 NE Aegean Sea, 146 NEAMTIC See North East Atlantic and Mediterranean Tsunami Information Center (NEAMTIC) 263 NEAMTWS See North-East Atlantic and Mediterranean tsunami warning and mitigation system (NEAMTWS) Near-field tsunami early warning, 31–32 definition for near-field tsunamis, 31 first tsunami wave travel time from, 31 Japanese experience, 32 tsunami arrival in min, 37 tsunami arrival in 25 min, 32–37 seismic signal communication, 31 time needed to transmission of earthquake information, 31 time needed to transmit warning information, 31 time to respond for real evacuation, 31 tsunami decision-making, 31 NEARTOWARN tsunami travel time mapping tool, 200 New European Tsunami Catalogue, NGA See North Gorringe Avalanche Nicaragua earthquake, NIEP See Romanian National Institute for Earth Physics (NIEP) Nile river, 78 Nippon Hoso Kyokai (NHK) system, 32 Nonlinear wave equations, Nonseismic tsunamis, North Aegean Sea, 6, 45, 47, 145 North-East Atlantic and Mediterranean (NEAM) region, 137 North East Atlantic and Mediterranean Tsunami Information Center (NEAMTIC), 195 objectives and approaches, 195 project objectives good practices, identification and exchange of, 196 multilingual education, development and distribution of, 196 tsunamis warning systems, provision of information on, 196 North-East Atlantic and Mediterranean Tsunami Warning System (NEAMTWS), 137, 182 associated national centers, 186 264 Subject Index North-East Atlantic and Mediterranean Tsunami Warning System (NEAMTWS) (cont.) establishment and structure, 182 exercises and training, 184 infrastructures, 183 National Tsunami Centers and Services in Mediterranean, 193 operational status of, 188 UK national tidal and sea level facility, 195 western black sea initiative, 194 North East Atlantic regions, 30 North Evoikos Gulf, tectonic rift of, 78 North Gorringe Avalanche (NGA), 108 North Sea, 59, 69, 98, 195 North West Aegean sea, 78 NTSLF See National Tidal and Sea Level Facility (NTSLF) NTWCs See National Tsunami Warning Centers (NTWCs) Numerical approaches, 168 Numerical simulations, 6, 110, 131, 158, 160, 225 O Oceanography Center of the University of Cyprus (OC-UOC), 193 OC-UOC See Oceanography Center of the University of Cyprus (OC-UOC) Oil refinery, 168 Okada model, 219 Olive tree-ring radiocarbon event, 43 Olympia tsunami hypothesis, 148 geographic areas and localities, 147 tsunami inland penetration, 147 P Pacific Ocean, close collaboration of many nations around, 17 early warning and risk mitigation, 215 energy distribution, 2011 Tohoku tsunami, 24 significant tsunamis in, travel time modeling for 2011 Tohoku tsunami, 25 Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS), 219 Palairos–Pogonia Bay, 144 Paleoearthquakes, 144 Paleotsunamis, 60, 144, 145 recognition of, 60 stretching in Dalaman, 65 survey, 40 Pan-European EU-FP7 project ASTARTE, Pan-European EU-FP6 project TRANSFER, Papadopoulos–Imamura tsunami intensity scale, 153 Parametric tsunami catalogs, 150 Patmos island, 46 Period, preinstrumental, wave, 9, 218 Perissa archeological site, 67 Perissa, laboratory examination of sand layers, 68 Physical properties, Physical threat, 165 Pilot historical study, 114 archaeological excavations, 115 dip–slip coseismic fault movement, 115 documentary sources, 115 earthquake in SW cyprus, 114 Latin sources, descriptions found in, 114 Dialogus miraculorum, 114 Historia Damiatina of Oliverus Scholasticus, 114 empirical relationships between earthquake magnitude and seismic intensity, 116 12-Point tsunami intensity scales, 12–15 Poissonian probability function, 152 Post-Byzantine period, 148 Prague formula, 11 Prehistorical tsunamis, 77 Probabilistic seismic hazard assessment, 39 Probabilistic tsunami hazard assessment (PTHA), 150, 151, 153–155, 177 annual probability of exceedance, 157 from incomplete tsunami catalogs, 154 tsunami data for Heraklion test site, Crete, 156 Subject Index Pseudoseismic tsunamis, PTHA See Probabilistic tsunami hazard assessment (PTHA) PTVA-1 model, 166 PTWS See Pacific Tsunami Warning System Q Qualitative evaluations, 142 R Rabat-Salé, Morocco, 170 Realistic Scenario, 158 Relative vulnerability index, 166 Resilience, 140 ecological, 141 engineering, 141 mathematically expression, 142 psychological, 141 REWSET See Rhodes Early Warning System for Earthquakes and Tsunami (REWSET) Rhodes Abyssal Plain, 104 dipslip tectonics, 104 Rhodes Early Warning System for Earthquakes and Tsunami (REWSET), 203 future plans, 209 aseismic landslides, 209 hydroacoustic technology, 209 REWSET, improvement of the, 209 surveillance cameras, 209 operational performance, 208 epicenter (star) and intensity felt, 210 European–Mediterranean Seismological Center (EMSC), 209 false alarm rate, 208 SAD network, 209 SAD sensors, 209 structure of system, 203 aseismic tsunami, 203 flowchart of the REWSET, 206 geographic management system (GMS), 204 ground motion sensors, 203 master seismic alert sensor, 204 natural hazards in Rhodes, 204 265 NEARTOWARN project, 203 radar-type (ultrasonic) tide gauges, 204 SAD network, 205 seismic alerting devices (SADs), 203 seismic alerting signals, 205 ultrasonic (radar-type) tide gauges, 205 warning in near-field, concept of, 206 Hellenic National Tsunami Warning Center (HL-NTWC), 207 operational near-field system, 206 operational seismic early warning, 208 seismic signal communication, 206 tsunami travel distances, 206 Rhodes Island, 80, 144, 208 Richter, Charles, 10 Rift structure, characterization of, 47 Risk, 141 assessment, 4, 121, 137, 141, 176, 225 awareness, 226 ignorance, 180 mitigation, 178 Romanian National Institute for Earth Physics (NIEP), 194 Rossi-Forel, 6-grade and 10-grade scales, 10 S SAD See Seismic alerting devices (SADs) SADs See Seismic alerting devices Santorini caldera, 143 Santorini eruption, chronology for, 73 Scale measuring, tsunami size, 11 Scenario-based hazard assessment, 158–164 SCHEMA Project, 170 Sea bottom tsunami sensors in NEAM region, 222 European sea level infrastructure, survey of, 223 island of Rhodes, 222 NEARTOWARN project, 222 Seawater, column, Seismic alerting devices (SADs), 203, 204, 207–209 Seismic hazard parameters, estimation, 154 activity rate, 154 b-value, 154 Seismic moment, 11 266 Subject Index Seismic tsunamis, 6, 7, 104 Aegean Sea, north, 105 Chile seismic tsunami, Eastern Hellenic Arc, 104 coseismic tectonic displacement, 104 Dodecanese islands, 104 Rhodes islands, 104 seismotectonic setting, 104 tectonic signature, 104 tsunamigenic earthquake, 104 Ionian Sea, 105 strike-slip faulting, 105 tsunami activity, 105 Marmara Sea, 105 North Anatolian Fault, 105 submarine landslides, 105 numerical modeling inputs, characterization of tsunami sources from, 122 Amorgos, 124 seafloor sediment instability, 124 seismic rupture process, 127 spectral energy components, 127 submarine landslides, 124 tectonic source model, 127 Boumerdes-Zemmouri, 129 earthquake magnitude, 129 numerical simulations, 129 seismotectonic studies, 129 small-to-moderate tsunami, 129 tide gauges measurements, 129 Messina straits, 122 conclusive results, 124 coseismic fault dislocation, 124 numerical simulation studies, 124 seismic source modeling, 124 submarine landslides, 124 SW Iberia, 105 geodynamic models, 105 geological evidence, variety of, 105 geophysical data, 105 Horseshoe Abyssal Plain, 105 SWIM lineaments, 105 tsunami modeling, 105 term defined, Western Hellenic Arc, 104 seismic tsunami, subductionrelated, 104 tsunami sedimentary record, 104 tsunami sediment deposits, 104 Seismology, 9, 148, 154 methodology, 151 Sensitivity, 13, 144 Shallow earthquake, Sieberg–Ambraseys tsunami intensity scale, 10 Sieberg’s 6-grade scale, 10 Skopelos Island, 78 Slowness factor, of seimic slip, 116 Solitary wave, South Aegean Sea, 5, 77 South East Peloponnese, vibrocore tsunamigenic sand layers, 62 South West Iberia, Statistical and probabilistic approaches, 150 Statistical recurrence, from Paleotsunamis, 143 Olympia tsunami hypothesis, 146 Strike-slip ruptures, Stromboli volcano, Structural and other vulnerabilities, 173 Submarine boulders, transport of, 81 Submarine earthquake, 80 Submarine Kolumbos volcanic center, 144 Submarine landslides, 52, 108 See also Landslide tsunamis Storegga landslide, 69 Submarine nuclear bomb testing, Sumatra 2004 tsunami, 1, 3, 16 destruction, 17–21, 23, 24 travel times (in hours), 16 SW Iberia, 150 Synthetic mareograms, 162 T TAT See Tsunami analysis tool (TAT) software Tectonic structures, 52 TEDA See Tsunami early detection algorithm Telecommunication, 29 Telemetric seismograph system, 193 TEWS See Tsunami early warning systems Theory of Green’s function, 161 Thera, volcanic eruption of, 77 Tide gauge records, 76 Subject Index Time-dependent vulnerability, 173–174 TNCs See Tsunami National Contacts (TNCs) Tohoku-oki tsunami, 164 Tohoku tsunami 2011, 28 energy distribution in the Pacific Ocean, 24 image of the Japan convergent margin, with run-ups, 26 travel time modeling for, 25 Total tsunami energy, 12 Travel times of the Sumatra 2004 big tsunami, 16 Tsunami analysis tool (TAT) software, 194 Tsunami early detection algorithm (TEDA), 218 Tsunami early warning systems (TEWS), 28, 179, 223 adriatic meteotsunami network, 215 air pressure, 215 Middle Adriatic, 215 catastrophic event, the NIED role, 30 classic instruments recording, 30 by cloud computing, support of, 223 FP7 EU DEWS, 223 TRIDEC Cloud, 224 TRIDEC projects, 223 Tsunami early warning systems (TEWS), 223 decision matrix, 29 DONET network, 30 French RATCOM project, 213 downstream component, 213 false alarm, rate of, 213 near-field tsunami warning system, 213 upstream component, 213 local warning systems for near-field tsunamis Rhodes Early Warning System for Earthquakes and Tsunami (REWSET), 203 local warning systems for near-field tsunamis, 202 German Indonesian tsunami early warning system (GITEWS), 202 Western Hellenic Arc Initiative, 210 267 in Stromboli Island (Italy), 211 Civil Protection Advanced Operations Centre (COA), 212 ground deformation, 211 hydroacoustic sensors, 212 hydroacoustic waves, 212 InSAR technologies, 211 numerical simulations, 212 resinex elastic beacon, 211 risk mitigation, 212 Sciara del Fuoco, 211 typical response times, 29 in Western Norway, 213 hazard map production, 214 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR), 214 landslides, 213 land-use planning, 214 numerical modeling, 214 periodic laser scanning, 214 rock falls in fjords, 213 rockslide tsunami hazard, 214 Tsunami events, 39 earlier “365-type” tsunami event, 74 historic documentary sources, 39, 40 onshore and offshore geological methods, 39 sedimentary records, 39 Tsunami generation factors, 47 coastal/submarine landsliding, susceptibility to, 47 high seismicity, 47 steep bathymetry, 47 Tsunami generation mechanisms, 102 coseismic fault dislocation, 102 coseismic landsliding, 105 strong tectonic earthquakes, 103 Tsunamigenic earthquakes, 6, 7, 42 in Japan, 2011, 21–22 in Sumatra, 2004, 15 Tsunamigenic landslide mass released, Tsunamigenic mechanism, from pyroclastic flow at, Tsunamigenic sediment layer, 66 Tsunamigenic seismic sources zones, 54 Black Sea, eastern side of, 54 offshore Bulgarian coast, 54 peninsula of Crimea, 54 268 Subject Index Tsunamigenic sources, 101 aseismic tsunamis, 102 characterization of from numerical modeling inputs, 122 Cyclades island complex, 103 field observations, 111 gravitational failure, 111 marine geophysics, 113 Mattinata fault, 111 seafloor displacement, 111 strike-slip faults, 111 strong wave dispersion, 111 submarine landslide, 111 tectonic stress inversion, 113 tsunami wave from from the tsunami source, 112 tsunami wave heights, attenuation of, 113 geographic zonation, 101 historical tsunamis, geography of, 101 instrumental observations, 111 Mediterranean regions tsunamis, important, 103 other tsunami sources, 117 percentage frequency of the several types of tsunami sources observed in the European and Mediterranean region, 102 pseudoseismic tsunamis, 102 seismic tsunamis, 104 slowness factor of the seimic slip, 116 Newman and Okal, method of, 117 source discrimination, 110 South Aegean Sea, 103 tsunami waves, 101 types of, 102 volcanic activity, 102 volcanic tsunamis, 109 Tsunami hazard assessment, 138, 150 in EM region, 142 in the Italian coast, 162 mapping tool, 200 probabilistic approaches, 39, 158 qualitative evaluations, 142 scenario-based, 158 Tsunami intensity, 95, 140, 155 defined, 11 scale, 12 Tsunami inundation, soil erosion process, 72 Tsunami magnitude, 11 defined, 10 scales, 12 Tsunami National Contacts (TNCs), 186 Tsunami Poissonian probabilities, 151 Tsunami-risk mitigation, 96, 179 critical issues, 215 Caribbean Tsunami Early Warning System (CARIBE EWS), 216 DART system in the Pacific Ocean, 215 early earthquake, 217 early tsunami determinations, 217 ICG/NEAMTWS assembly in Athens, Greece, 216 Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS), 216 NEAMTWS, building up of the, 216 sea bottom sensors, 215 sea bottom tsunami sensors in in NEAM region, 222 TEWS by cloud computing, support of, 223 Tohoku tsunami, 215 tsunami scenario database building strategies, 221 other issues, 225 tsunami overtopping, 225 tsunami scenario technique, 225 Tsunamis, 78, 121, 179 See also headings starting with Tsunamis advisory, 189 alert, 29 antiquity, sources from, aseismic See Aseismic tsunamis Bulgarian Black Sea, 79 Cyclades Island complex, 43 Cyclades Islands, South Aegean Sea, 86 Cyprus and Levantine Sea, 80 damage, 140 deposit thickness, 61 documentation, Dodecenese Island Complex, 79 early efforts, 180 GITEC-TWO tsunami projects, 180 pan-European GITEC projects, 180 early warning systems, 179 local system for, 181 Subject Index telemetric, 180 Eastern Hellenic Arc, 80 Eastern Sicily, 82 emergency plans, 180 generation due to coseismic seabed dislocation, mechanism, 52 geochronological techniques involved, 60 accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS), 60 OSL, 60 paleomagnetism, 60 radiocarbon dating, 60 short-lived radionuclides, 60 tephrochronology, 60 geological record, 60 geology of, 60 geomorphological features of, 60, 71 beach erosion, 60 hummocky topography, 60 landward washover fans, formation of, 60 sand barriers, destruction of, 60 hazard See Hazards high-amplitude, 121 historiographic analysis of, 52 homeric description of, 40 impact See Tsunamis impact information, 189 instrumental records of, 76 inundation, 121 Izmit Bay, Marmara Sea, 91 Karpathos Island, Eastern Hellenic Arc, 86 Kolumbo Volcano, South Aegean Sea, 81 Kos Island, 79 Levantine Sea, 79 Ligurian Sea, 84 Marmara Sea, 80, 81 Messina Straits, 84, 85 multitheme approach for, 64 aerial-photos interpretation, 64 coring campaigns, 64 geologic surveys, 64 laboratory analyses, 64 satellite images, 64 North Algeria, 93 North Evoikos Gulf, 78 269 numerical simulation studies, 121 onshore sediment deposition, 43 potential energy, 11 propagation, quantification, reliability assignment distribution of, 92 reported worldwide, risk assessment, 121 in EM region, 176–178 risk mitigation, 179 rock-slide-induced, 121 sediment deposits of, 83 seismogenic origin of, 69 shoreline regression, 84 simulation codes, 121 size–frequency relations, 151 sources See Tsunamigenic sources; See also Tsunami sources South West Iberia, 83 Storegga landslide-generated, 195 Storfjorden, Norway, 83 Stromboli, 91 threat, 165 travel times, 200 volcanic See Volcanic tsunamis watch, 189 wave height, 155 wave loads, 171 wave numerical modeling, 121 wave propagation calculation, 121 Western Corinth Gulf, 89 Western Hellenic Arc, 78, 81 Tsunami scenario database building strategies, 221 Global Disasters Alerts and Coordination System (GDACS), 221 matching scenario database (MSDB), 221 short-term inundation forecast (SIFT), 221 Tsunamis, geological and archeological signatures, 60 boulders and megaclasts, 70 geomorphological imprints, 71 medium-fine grained deposits, 61 offshore, 72 onshore, 60 stratigraphic record, 61 270 Subject Index Tsunamis, geological and archeological signature (cont.) Baltic Sea, 69 Mediterranean and Marmara Sea, 61 North East Atlantic, 69 North Sea, 69 Tsunamis impact, 77, 94 on coastal spots, 99, 100 damage in buildings and engineered structures, 94, 97 vessels, 94, 97 on environment, 99 human deaths, 94, 98 on land, 98 statistics, from a new tsunami catalog, 93 Tsunamis sources, 117 asteroid impacts, from, 118 European-Mediterranean region, 118 tsunami forecasting, 118 historical sources, 39 Adriatic Sea, 55 Black Sea, 53 Calabrian Arc, 55 Eastern Mediterranean basin, 41 Aegean Sea, 43 Corinth and Evoikos Gulfs, tectonic rifts of, 47 Cyprean Arc, 49 Hellenic Arc, 41 Levantine Sea, 49 Marmara Sea, 53 North East Atlantic Ocean and North Sea, 59 British Isles and North sea, 59 South West Iberian Margin, 59 Tyrrhenian Sea, 55 Western Mediterranean Basin, 58 meteotsunamis, 117 barotropic ocean waves, 117 coastal behavior of, 118 Japan, 117 New Zealand, 117 Rissaga, 117 tsunamis in dams, 119 tsunamis in lakes, 119 Longarone, 119 Vajont Valley, storage lake of, 119 Tsunami travel time mapping tool (TTTMT), 200, 202 Tsunami vulnerability assessment, 164 based on fragility functions and damage curves, 168 fragility curves and damage curves, 168–171 uncertainties involved, 171–172 EM region, qualitative and quantitative approaches, 164 early studies and PTVA model, 164–166 new versions of PTVA model, 166–168 summary and evaluation of models for, 175–176 Tsunami Warning Center (TWC), 29, 30 Tsunami warning focal points (TWFPs), 186 Tsunami warning systems See Warning systems TTTMT See Tsunami travel time mapping tool (TTTMT) Turbidite deposits, 72 Turbidite paleoseismology, 74 Turbidite record, 144 TWFPs See Tsunami warning focal points (TWFPs) Tyrrhenian Sea, 55, 107 V Velocity, erosion, 73 flow, 172 mean, 15 phase, Volcanic activity, 6, 7, 102, 178, 211 Volcanic eruptions, 2, 6, 109, 176 (OS) extra-caldera, 70 Volcanic landslide, 6, 76, 91, 102, 135, 181, 215 Volcanic source of Santorini, 163 Volcanic tsunamis, 109 landslide tsunamis, 109 homogenites, deposits of, 109 numerical simulations, 110 Stromboli volcano, 110 Subject Index Mediterranean Sea, 109 earthquakes in, frequency of, 109 Kolumbo tsunami, 109 numerical modeling inputs, 130 Thera LBA tsunami, 130 caldera collapse, 131 circular caldera collapse, 130 geological signatures, 130 numerical simulation, 130 pyroclastic flow, 130 sediment deposits, 130 volcanic eruptions, 6, 109 Volcano of Thera (Santorini), Vulnerability, 137, 139 communities, 173 factors, 166 patterns, 165 population, 173 vessels of variable size, 173 W Warning in near-field, concept of, 206 Warning systems, 28–30 See also Rhodes Early Warning System for Earthquakes and Tsunami (REWSET); Tsunami early warning systems (TEWS) 271 Water depth, 8, 73, 93, 172, 202 Water pressure, Wave amplitude, 4, 8, 9, 45, 129 Wave heights, 3, 9, 11, 21, 93, 127, 156, 205, 224 Wave interactions, 161 Wave length, 8, Wave speed, Western Hellenic Arc, 78, 104 Initiative, 210 EU FP6 SEAHELLARC project (2007–2009), 211 GPS data, 210 Hellenic National Tsunami Warning Center, 210 Kyparissiakos Gulf, 211 preoperational signal transmission, 210 satellite Internet, 210 Western Mediterranean, 150 basin, 58, 153 SCHEMA Project, 170 and SW Iberia, 150 Tsunami Exercise NEAMWave12, 185 tsunamis, 58 Whirlpools, 78, 92 Worst-case credible scenario, 158 ... influenced by the bathymetry in the shallow-water domain Finally, the inundation (flooding) of the tsunami in coastal areas is determined by the features of the coastal environment, such as the. .. issues, including essays on the tragic tsunami events of 2004 in Indian Ocean and 2011 in Japan, the book covers all the aspects regarding the tsunami science, engineering, and risk mitigation in the. .. higher xv xvi Introduction in the Mediterranean, including the area offshore of South West Iberia, as compared to the other European sea regions Although the frequency of tsunamis in the Mediterranean