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423CHAPTER25Special Imaging TechniquesThis chapter presents four specific aspects of image processing. First, ways to characterize thespatial resolution are discussed. This describes the minimum size an object must be to be seenin an image. Second, the signal-to-noise ratio is examined, explaining how faint an object canbe and still be detected. Third, morphological techniques are introduced. These are nonlinearoperations used to manipulate binary images (where each pixel is either black or white). Fourth,the remarkable technique of computed tomography is described. This has revolutionized medicaldiagnosis by providing detailed images of the interior of the human body. Spatial ResolutionSuppose we want to compare two imaging systems, with the goal ofdetermining which has the best spatial resolution. In other words, we want toknow which system can detect the smallest object. To simplify things, wewould like the answer to be a single number for each system. This allows adirect comparison upon which to base design decisions. Unfortunately, a singleparameter is not always sufficient to characterize all the subtle aspects ofimaging. This is complicated by the fact that spatial resolution is limited bytwo distinct but interrelated effects: sample spacing and sampling aperturesize. This section contains two main topics: (1) how a single parameter canbest be used to characterize spatial resolution, and (2) the relationship betweensample spacing and sampling aperture size. Figure 25-1a shows profiles from three circularly symmetric PSFs: thepillbox, the Gaussian, and the exponential. These are representative of thePSFs commonly found in imaging systems. As described in the last chapter,the pillbox can result from an improperly focused lens system. Likewise,the Gaussian is formed when random errors are combined, such as viewingstars through a turbulent atmosphere. An exponential PSF is generatedwhen electrons or x-rays strike a phosphor layer and are converted into The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing424Distance-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 20.000.250.500.751.001.25PEGa. PSFSpatial frequency (lp per unit distance)0 0.5 1 1.5 20.000.250.500.751.001.25PGEb. MTFFIGURE 25-1FWHM versus MTF. Figure (a) shows profiles of three PSFs commonly found in imaging systems: (P) pillbox,(G) Gaussian, and (E) exponential. Each of these has a FWHM of one unit. The corresponding MTFs areshown in (b). Unfortunately, similar values of FWHM do not correspond to similar MTF curves.AmplitudeAmplitudelight. This is used in radiation detectors, night vision light amplifiers, and CRTdisplays. The exact shape of these three PSFs is not important for thisdiscussion, only that they broadly represent the PSFs seen in real worldapplications. The PSF contains complete information about the spatial resolution. To expressthe spatial resolution by a single number, we can ignore the shape of the PSFand simply measure its width. The most common way to specify this is by theFull-Width-at-Half-Maximum (FWHM) value. For example, all the PSFs in(a) have an FWHM of 1 unit. Unfortunately, this method has two significant drawbacks. First, it does notmatch other measures of spatial resolution, including the subjective judgementof observers viewing the images. Second, it is usually very difficult to directlymeasure the PSF. Imagine feeding an impulse into an imaging system; that is,taking an image of a very small white dot on a black background. Bydefinition, the acquired image will be the PSF of the system. The problem is,the measured PSF will only contain a few pixels, and its contrast will be low.Unless you are very careful, random noise will swamp the measurement. Forinstance, imagine that the impulse image is a 512×512 array of all zeros exceptfor a single pixel having a value of 255. Now compare this to a normal imagewhere all of the 512×512 pixels have an average Special Interest Politics Special Interest Politics By: OpenStaxCollege Many political issues are of intense interest to a relatively small group, as noted above For example, many U.S drivers not much care where the tires for their car were made—they just want good quality as inexpensively as they can get it In September 2009, President Obama and Congress enacted a tariff (taxes added on imported goods) on tires imported from China that would increase the import price of Chinese tires by 35 percent in its first year, 30 percent in its second year, and 25 percent in its third year Interestingly, the U.S companies that make tires did not favor this step, because most of them also import tires from China and other countries (See Globalization and Protectionism for more on tariffs.) However, the United Steelworkers union, which had seen jobs in the tire industry fall by 5,000 over the previous five years, lobbied fiercely for the tariff to be enacted With this tariff, the cost of all tires increased significantly (See the closing Bring It Home feature at the end of this chapter for more information on the tire tariff.) Special interest groups are groups that are small in number relative to the nation, but quite well organized and focused on a specific issue A special interest group can pressure legislators to enact public policies that not benefit society as a whole Imagine an environmental rule to reduce air pollution that will cost 10 large companies $8 million each, for a total cost of $80 million The social benefits from enacting this rule provide an average benefit of $10 for every person in the United States, for a total of about $3 trillion Even though the benefits are far higher than the costs for society as a whole, the 10 companies are likely to lobby much more fiercely to avoid $8 million in costs than the average person is to argue for $10 worth of benefits As this example suggests, we can relate the problem of special interests in politics to an issue raised in Environmental Protection and Negative Externalities about economic policy with respect to negative externalities and pollution—the problem called regulatory capture (which we defined in Monopoly and Antitrust Policy) In legislative bodies and agencies that write laws and regulations about how much corporations will pay in taxes, or rules for safety in the workplace, or instructions on how to satisfy environmental regulations, you can be sure the specific industry affected has lobbyists who study every word and every comma They talk with the legislators who are writing the legislation and suggest alternative wording They contribute to the campaigns of legislators on the key committees—and may even offer those legislators high-paying 1/7 Special Interest Politics jobs after they have left office As a result, it often turns out that those who are being regulated can exercise considerable influence over the regulators Visit this website to read about lobbying In the early 2000s, about 40 million people in the United States were eligible for Medicare, a government program that provides health insurance for those 65 and older On some issues, the elderly are a powerful interest group They donate money and time to political campaigns, and in the 2012 presidential election, 70% of those over age 65 voted, while just 49% of those aged 18 to 24 cast a ballot, according to the U.S Census In 2003, Congress passed and President George Bush signed into law a substantial expansion of Medicare that helped the elderly to pay for prescription drugs The prescription drug benefit cost the federal government about $40 billion in 2006, and the Medicare system projects that the annual cost will rise to $121 billion by 2016 The political pressure to pass a prescription drug benefit for Medicare was apparently quite high, while the political pressure to assist the 40 million with no health insurance at all was considerably lower One reason might be that senior citizens are represented by AARP, a well-funded and well-organized lobbying group, while there is no umbrella organization to lobby for those without health insurance In the battle over passage of the 2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA), which became known as “Obamacare,” there was heavy lobbying on all sides by insurance companies and pharmaceutical companies However, a lobby group, Health Care for America Now (HCAN), was financed by labor unions and community groups and was organized to offset corporate lobbying HCAN, spending $60 million dollars, was successful in helping to get the legislation passed which added new regulations on insurance companies and a mandate that all individuals will obtain health insurance by 2014 The following Work It Out feature further explains voter incentives and lobbyist influence Paying To Get Your Way Suppose Congress proposes a tax on carbon emissions for certain factories in a small town of 10,000 people The tax is estimated to reduce pollution to such an extent that it will ... aaaaaaThis page intentionally left blank ALLEGORIES OF UNIONIN IRISH ANDENGLISH WRITING,– In this book, Mary Jean Corbett explores fictional and non-fictional representations of Ireland’s relationship with Englandthroughout the nineteenth century. Through postcolonial andfeminist theory, she considers how cross-cultural contact is negoti-ated using tropes of marriage and family, and demonstrates howfamilial rhetoric sometimes works to sustain, sometimes to contest,the structures of colonial inequality. Analyzing novels byEdgeworth, Owenson, Gaskell, Kingsley, and Trollope as well aswritings by Burke, Carlyle, Engels, Arnold, and Mill, Corbettargues that the colonizing imperative for ‘‘reforming’’ the Irish inan age of imperial expansion constitutes a largely unrecognized butcrucial element in the rhetorical project of English nation-forma-tion. By situating her readings within the varying historical andideological contexts that shape them, she revises the critical ortho-doxies surrounding colonial discourse that currently prevail in Irishand English studies, and offers a fresh perspective on importantaspects of Victorian culture. is Associate Professor of English andAffiliate of Women’s Studies at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio.Her publications include Representing Femininity: Middle-Class Subjec-tivity in Victorian and Edwardian Women’s Autobiographies (). Herwork has also appeared in Criticism, Eighteenth-Century Life, ELH,Studies in the Novel, and Women’s Studies. aaaaaa ALLEGORIES OF UNIONIN IRISH ANDENGLISH WRITING,–Politics, History, and the Family from Edgeworth to ArnoldMARY JEAN CORBETT The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africahttp://www.cambridge.orgFirst published in printed format ISBN 0-521-66132-3 hardbackISBN 0-511-03346-X eBookMary Jean Corbett 20042000(Adobe Reader)© My family on both sides belonged to the toiling and dying typeswho made it over to America.And once in America, people divided once again: you could saythey became the poor and the rich. The losers and winners. Theartists and scientists. If they were countries, they’d be Ireland andEngland.Carolyn See, Dreaming: Good Luck and Hard Times in AmericaOf the numbers who study, or at least who read history, how fewderive any advantage from their labours!Maria Edgeworth, Preface to Castle Rackrent MMMM ContentsAcknowledgmentspageixIntroduction Public affections and familial politics: Burke, Edgeworth,andIrelandinthes Allegories of prescription: engendering Union inOwensonandEdgeworth Troubling others: representing the immigrant Irish inurbanEnglandaroundmid-centuryPlottingcolonialauthority:Trollope’sIreland,– England’s opportunity, England’s character: Arnold, Mill,andtheUnioninthesAfterwordNotesBibliographyIndexvii aaaaa This page intentionally left blank Press, Politics and the Public Sphere in Europeand North America, –Newspapers are a vital component of print and political cultures, andas such they informed as well as documented the social and politicalupheavals of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. However, despitethe huge influence attributed to them by both contemporary observersand historians, our knowledge of the nature and function of the news-paper press itself remains scant. Press, Politics and the Public Sphere inEurope and North America, – aims to fill this gap by examiningaspects of the press in several European countries and America, bothindividually and comparatively, during this particularly turbulent andimportant period. Contributors explore the relationship between news-papers and social change, specifically in the context of the part playedby the press in the political upheavals of the time. The collection ex-amines the relationship between newspapers and public opinion, andattempts to define their place in the emergence of a ‘public sphere’. is Senior Lecturer in History at the University ofManchester. She is the author of Newspapers, Politics, and Public Opinionin Late Eighteenth-Century England (), Newspapers, Politics andEnglish Society, – () and editor, with David Vincent, ofLanguage, Print and Electoral Politics – (). is Lecturer in Modern History at the University ofLeeds. He is the author of French Exile Journalism and European Politics,– (), and has published articles in a variety of journals,including the International History Review, French History, the Journal ofEuropean Studies and Eighteenth-Century Life. Press, Politics and the PublicSphere in Europe andNorth America, –Edited byHannah BarkerUniversity of ManchesterandSimon BurrowsUniversity of Leeds The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africahttp://www.cambridge.orgFirst published in printed format ISBN 0-521-66207-9 hardbackISBN 0-511-03366-4 eBookCambridge University Press 20042002(Adobe Reader)© ContentsNotesoncontributorspageviiAcknowledgementsixIntroduction Thecosmopolitanpress,– TheNetherlands,– Germany,– England,– Ireland,– America,– France,– TheFrenchrevolutionarypress Italy,– Russia,– Indexv Notes on the contributors is Senior Lecturer in History at the University ofManchester. She is author of Newspapers, Politics and Public Opinionin Late Eighteenth-Century England() and Newspapers, PoliticsandEnglish Society, – (). She is also co-editor of Gender inEighteenth-Century England (), with Elaine Chalus, and Language,Print and Electoral Politics, – (), with David Vincent. is Lecturer in Modern History at the University ofLeeds. He has published several articles on the London-based Frenchpress between and , as well as French Exile Journalism andEuropean Politics, – (). is Professor of History at George Mason University. Heis author of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploringthe French Revolu-tion (with Lynn Hunt), The French Press in the Age of Enlightenment() and ISSN 1359-9151-199 Fiscal Dominance and the Long-Term Interest Rate By Philip Turner SPECIAL PAPER 199 FINANCIAL MARKETS GROUP SPECIAL PAPER SERIES May 2011 Philip Turner has been at the BIS in Basel since 1989, where he is Deputy Head of the Monetary and Economic Department. He is responsible for economics papers produced for central bank meetings at the BIS. Between 1976 and 1989, he held various positions, including head of division in the Economics Department at the OECD in Paris. In 1985– 86, he was a visiting scholar at the Bank of Japan’s Institute for Monetary and Economic Studies in Tokyo. He read Economics at Churchill College, Cambridge, and has a PhD from Harvard University. Any opinions expressed here are those of the author and not necessarily those of the FMG. The research findings reported in this paper are the result of the independent research of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the LSE. 19 April 2011 FISCAL DOMINANCE AND THE LONG-TERM INTEREST RATE Philip Turner Abstract Very high government debt/GDP ratios will increase uncertainty about inflation and the future path of real interest rates. This will reduce substitutability across the yield curve. In such circumstances, changes in the short-term/long-term mix of government debt held by the public will become more effective in achieving macroeconomic objectives. In circumstances of imperfect substitutability, central bank purchases or sales of government bonds have been seen historically as a key tool of monetary policy. Since the mid-1990s, however, responsibility for government debt management has been assigned to other bodies. The mandates of the government debt manager could have the unintended consequence of making their actions endogenous to macroeconomic policies. There is evidence that decisions on the maturity of debt have in the past been linked to both fiscal and monetary policy. Recent Quantitative Easing (QE) by the central bank must be analysed from the perspective of the consolidated balance sheet of government and central bank. JEL classification: E12, E43 and E58. Bank for International Settlements. E-mail: philip.turner@bis.org. Views expressed are my own, not necessarily those of the BIS. I am grateful for the statistical help of Bilyana Bogdanova, Jakub Demski, Magdalena Erdem, Denis Pêtre, Gert Schnabel and Jhuvesh Sobrun. Clare Batts prepared successive drafts very efficiently. Participants in a Norges Bank Symposium and a London Financial Regulation seminar at the LSE made very helpful comments. I am also indebted to several people for illuminating discussions and to those who read and commented on earlier versions of this paper: Bill Allen, Hans Blommestein, Stephen Cecchetti, David Cobham, Tim Congdon, Udaibir Das, Charles Enoch, Øyvind Eitrheim, Benjamin Friedman, Joseph Gagnon, Stefan Gerlach, Hans Genberg, David Goldsbrough, Charles Goodhart, Jacob Gyntelberg, Kazumasa Iwata, David Laidler, Robert McCauley, Richhild Moessner, M S Mohanty, Tim Ng, Kunio Okina, Srichander Ramaswamy, Lars Svensson, Masahiko Takeda, Anthony Turner, Geoff Tily, Graeme Wheeler and Geoffrey Woods. Introduction In the post-crisis debate, much has been made of the macroeconomic or financial system effects of central bank decisions on their policy rate. Yet a more fundamental challenge may well be the greater importance for central bank SPECIAL ISSUE REVISITING RIGHTS STUDIES IN LAW, POLITICS, AND SOCIETY Series Editor: Austin Sarat Recent Volumes: Volumes 1–2: Edited by Rita J Simon Volume 3: Edited by Steven Spitzer Volumes 4–9: Edited by Steven Spitzer and Andrew S Scull Volumes 10–16: Edited by Susan S Sibey and Austin Sarat Volumes 17–33: Edited by Austin Sarat and Patricia Ewick Volumes 34–48: Edited by Austin Sarat STUDIES IN LAW, POLITICS, AND SOCIETY VOLUME 48 SPECIAL ISSUE REVISITING RIGHTS EDITED BY AUSTIN SARAT Department of Law, Jurisprudence & Social Thought and Political Science, Amherst College, USA United Kingdom – North America – Japan India – Malaysia – China Emerald Group Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2009 Copyright r 2009 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Reprints and permission service Contact: booksandseries@emeraldinsight.com No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the text, illustrations or advertisements The opinions expressed in these chapters are not necessarily those of the Editor or the publisher British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84855-930-1 ISSN: 1059-4337 (Series) Awarded in recognition of Emerald’s production department’s adherence to quality systems and processes when preparing scholarly journals for print CONTENTS LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS vii EDITORIAL BOARD ix MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING? THE EMPTINESS OF RIGHTS’ CLAIMS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY UNITED STATES Gerald N Rosenberg THE RIGHT’S REVOLUTION?: CONSERVATISM AND THE MEANING OF RIGHTS IN MODERN AMERICA Thomas Hilbink 43 IS THERE AN EMPIRICAL LITERATURE ON RIGHTS? Thomas F Burke and Jeb Barnes 69 RIGHTS AT RISK: WHY THE RIGHT NOT TO BE TORTURED IS IMPORTANT TO YOU Lisa Hajjar 93 REVISITING RIGHTS ACROSS CONTEXTS: FAT, HEALTH, AND ANTIDISCRIMINATION LAW Anna Kirkland 121 GENOCIDAL RIGHTS Ruth A Miller 147 v LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Jeb Barnes Department of Political Science, University of Southern California, USA Thomas F Burke Department of Political Science, Wellesley College, USA Lisa Hajjar Law and Society Program, University of California, USA Thomas Hilbink U.S Programs, Open Society Institute, USA Anna Kirkland Departments of Women’s Studies and Political Science, University of Michigan, USA Ruth A Miller Department of History, University of Massachusetts, USA Gerald N Rosenberg Department of Political Science, University of Chicago, USA vii EDITORIAL BOARD Laura Gomez University of New Mexico, USA Gad Barzilai University of Washington, USA, and Tel Aviv University, Israel Piyel Haldar University of London, UK Paul Berman University of Connecticut, USA Roger Cotterrell University of London, UK Thomas Hilbink University of Massachusetts, USA Jennifer Culbert Johns Hopkins University, USA Desmond Manderson McGill University, Canada Eve Darian-Smith University of Massachusetts, USA Jennifer Mnookin University of California, Los Angeles, USA David Delaney Amherst College, USA Laura Beth Nielsen American Bar Foundation, USA Florence Dore Kent State University, USA Paul Passavant Hobart and William Smith College, USA David Engel State University of New York at Buffalo, USA Susan Schmeiser University of Connecticut, USA Anthony Farley Boston College, USA Jonathan Simon University of California, USA David Garland New York University, USA Marianna Valverde University of Toronto, USA Jonathan Goldberg-Hiller University of Hawaii, USA Alison Young University of Melbourne, Australia ix 161 Genocidal Rights of community formation and that ... spending Key Concepts and Summary Special interest politics arises when a relatively small group, called a special interest group, each of whose members has a large interest in a political outcome,... influencing policy in the same way as a special interest group? The costs of organization and the small benefit to the individual 5/7 Special Interest Politics Why might legislators vote to impose... so Special interests may develop a close relationship with one political party, so their ability to influence legislation rises and falls as that party moves in or out of power A special interest