Applications of Atomic Excitations and De Excitations

Applications of Atomic Excitations and De Excitations tài liệu, giáo án, bài giảng , luận văn, luận án, đồ án, bài tập l...

Proceedings of the 50th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, pages 1–6, Jeju, Republic of Korea, 8-14 July 2012. c 2012 Association for Computational Linguistics Applications of GPC Rules and Character Structures in Games for Learning Chinese Characters § Wei-Jie Huang ↑ Chia-Ru Chou ↕ Yu-Lin Tzeng ‡ Chia-Ying Lee † Chao-Lin Liu †§ National Chengchi University, Taiwan ‡↑↕ Academia Sinica, Taiwan † chaolin@nccu.edu.tw, ‡ chiaying@gate.sinica.edu.tw Abstract We demonstrate applications of psycholin- guistic and sublexical information for learn- ing Chinese characters. The knowledge about the grapheme-phoneme conversion (GPC) rules of languages has been shown to be highly correlated to the ability of reading alphabetic languages and Chinese. We build and will demo a game platform for strengthening the association of phonologi- cal components in Chinese characters with the pronunciations of the characters. Results of a preliminary evaluation of our games indicated significant improvement in learn- ers’ response times in Chinese naming tasks. In addition, we construct a Web- based open system for teachers to prepare their own games to best meet their teaching goals. Techniques for decomposing Chinese characters and for comparing the similarity between Chinese characters were employed to recommend lists of Chinese characters for authoring the games. Evaluation of the authoring environment with 20 subjects showed that our system made the authoring of games more effective and efficient. 1 Introduction Learning to read and write Chinese characters is a challenging task for learners of Chinese. To read everyday news articles, one needs to learn thou- sands of Chinese characters. The official agents in Taiwan and China, respectively, chose 5401 and 3755 characters as important basic characters in national standards. Consequently, the general pub- lic has gained the impression that it is not easy to read Chinese articles, because each of these thou- sands of characters is written in different ways. Teachers adopt various strategies to help learn- ers to memorize Chinese characters. An instructor at the University of Michigan made up stories based on decomposed characters to help students remember their formations (Tao, 2007). Some take linguistics-based approaches. Pictogram is a major formation of Chinese characters, and radicals carry partial semantic information about Chinese charac- ters. Hence, one may use radicals as hints to link the meanings and writings of Chinese characters. For instance, “河”(he2, river) [Note: Chinese char- acters will be followed by their pronunciations, denoted in Hanyu pinyin, and, when necessary, an English translation.], “海”(hai3, sea), and “洋”(yang2, ocean) are related to huge water sys- tems, so they share the semantic radical, 氵, which is a pictogram for “water” in Chinese. Applying the concepts of pictograms, researchers designed games, e.g., (Lan et al., 2009) and animations, e.g., (Lu, 2011) for learning Chinese characters. The aforementioned approaches and designs mainly employ visual stimuli in activities. We re- port exploration of using the combination of audio and visual stimuli. In addition to pictograms, more than 80% of Chinese characters are phono- semantic characters (PSCs, henceforth) (Ho and Bryant, Applications of Atomic Excitations and De-Excitations Applications of Atomic Excitations and DeExcitations Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Many properties of matter and phenomena in nature are directly related to atomic energy levels and their associated excitations and de-excitations The color of a rose, the output of a laser, and the transparency of air are but a few examples (See [link].) While it may not appear that glow-in-the-dark pajamas and lasers have much in common, they are in fact different applications of similar atomic de-excitations Light from a laser is based on a particular type of atomic de-excitation (credit: Jeff Keyzer) The color of a material is due to the ability of its atoms to absorb certain wavelengths while reflecting or reemitting others A simple red material, for example a tomato, absorbs all visible wavelengths except red This is because the atoms of its hydrocarbon pigment (lycopene) have levels separated by a variety of energies corresponding to all visible photon energies except red Air is another interesting example It is transparent to visible light, because there are few energy levels that visible photons can excite in air molecules and atoms Visible light, thus, cannot be absorbed Furthermore, visible light is only weakly scattered by air, because visible wavelengths are so much greater than the sizes of the air molecules and atoms Light must pass through kilometers of air to scatter enough to cause red sunsets and blue skies 1/16 Applications of Atomic Excitations and De-Excitations Fluorescence and Phosphorescence The ability of a material to emit various wavelengths of light is similarly related to its atomic energy levels [link] shows a scorpion illuminated by a UV lamp, sometimes called a black light Some rocks also glow in black light, the particular colors being a function of the rock’s mineral composition Black lights are also used to make certain posters glow Objects glow in the visible spectrum when illuminated by an ultraviolet (black) light Emissions are characteristic of the mineral involved, since they are related to its energy levels In the case of scorpions, proteins near the surface of their skin give off the characteristic blue glow This is a colorful example of fluorescence in which excitation is induced by UV radiation while deexcitation occurs in the form of visible light (credit: Ken Bosma, Flickr) In the fluorescence process, an atom is excited to a level several steps above its ground state by the absorption of a relatively high-energy UV photon This is called atomic excitation Once it is excited, the atom can de-excite in several ways, one of which is to re-emit a photon of the same energy as excited it, a single step back to the ground state This is called atomic de-excitation All other paths of de-excitation involve smaller steps, in which lower-energy (longer wavelength) photons are emitted Some of these may be in the visible range, such as for the scorpion in [link] Fluorescence is defined to be any process in which an atom or molecule, excited by a photon of a given energy, and de-excites by emission of a lower-energy photon Fluorescence can be induced by many types of energy input Fluorescent paint, dyes, and even soap residues in clothes make colors seem brighter in sunlight by converting some UV into visible light X rays can induce fluorescence, as is done in x-ray fluoroscopy to make brighter visible images Electric discharges can induce fluorescence, as in so-called neon lights and in gas-discharge tubes that produce atomic and molecular spectra Common fluorescent lights use an electric discharge in mercury vapor to cause atomic emissions from mercury atoms The inside of a fluorescent light is coated with a fluorescent material that emits visible light over a broad spectrum of wavelengths By choosing an appropriate coating, fluorescent lights can be made more like sunlight or like the reddish glow of candlelight, depending on needs Fluorescent lights are more efficient in converting electrical energy into visible light than 2/16 Applications of Atomic Excitations and De-Excitations incandescent filaments (about four times as efficient), the blackbody radiation of which is primarily in the infrared due to temperature limitations This atom is excited to one of its higher levels by absorbing a UV photon It can deexcite in a single step, re-emitting a photon of the same energy, or in several steps The process is called fluorescence if the atom de-excites in smaller steps, emitting energy different from that which excited it Fluorescence can be induced by a variety of energy inputs, such as UV, x-rays, and electrical discharge The spectacular Waitomo caves on North Island in New Zealand provide a natural habitat for glow-worms The glow-worms hang up to 70 silk threads of about 30 or 40 cm each to trap prey that fly towards them in the dark The fluorescence process is very efficient, with nearly 100% of the energy input turning into light (In ...Preface The modern biologist takes almost for granted the rich repertoire of tools currently available for manipulating virtually any gene or protein of interest. Paramount among these operations is the construction of fusions. The tactic of generating gene fusions to facilitate analysis of gene expression has its origins in the work of Jacob and Monod more than 35 years ago. The fact that gene fusions can create functional chimeric proteins was demonstrated shortly thereafter. Since that time, the number of tricks for splicing or inserting into a gene product various markers, tags, antigenic epitopes, structural probes, and other elements has increased explosively. Hence, when we undertook assembling a volume on the applications of chimeric genes and hybrid proteins in modern biological research, we con- sidered the job a daunting task. To assist us with producing a coherent work, we first enlisted the aid of an Advisory Committee, consisting of Joe Falke, Stan Fields, Brian Seed, Tom Silhavy, and Roger Tsien. We benefited enormously from their ideas, suggestions, and breadth of knowledge. We are grateful to them all for their willingness to participate at the planning stage and for contributing excellent and highly pertinent articles. A large measure of the success of this project is due to the enthusiastic responses we received from nearly all of the prospective authors we ap- proached. Many contributors made additional suggestions, and quite a number contributed more than one article. Hence, it became clear early on that given the huge number of applications of gene fusion and hybrid protein technology for studies of the regulation of gene expression, for lineage tracing, for protein purification and detection, for analysis of protein localization and dynamic movement, and a plethora of other uses it would not be possible for us to cover this subject comprehensively in a single volume, but in the resulting three volumes, 326, 327, and 328. Volume 326 is devoted to methods useful for monitoring gene expres- sion, for facilitating protein purification, and for generating novel antigens and antibodies. Also in this volume is an introductory article describing the genesis of the concept of gene fusions and the early foundations of this whole approach. We would like to express our special appreciation to Jon Beckwith for preparing this historical overview. Jon's description is particularly illuminating because he was among the first to exploit gene and protein fusions. Moreover, over the years, he and his colleagues have xiii xiv PREFACE continued to develop the methodology that has propelled the use of fusion- based techniques from bacteria to eukaryotic organisms. Volume 327 is focused on procedures for tagging proteins for immunodetection, for using chimeric proteins for cytological purposes, especially the analysis of mem- brane proteins and intracellular protein trafficking, and for monitoring and manipulating various aspects of cell signaling and cell physiology. Included in this volume is a rather extensive section on the green fluorescent protein (GFP) that deals with applications not covered in Volume 302. Volume 328 describes protocols for using hybrid genes and proteins to identify and analyze Preface The modem biologist takes almost for granted the rich repertoire of tools currently available for manipulating virtually any gene or protein of interest. Paramount among these operations is the construction of fusions. The tactic of generating gene fusions to facilitate analysis of gene expression has its origins in the work of Jacob and Monod more than 35 years ago. The fact that gene fusions can create functional chimeric proteins was demonstrated shortly thereafter. Since that time, the number of tricks for splicing or inserting into a gene product various markers, tags, antigenic epitopes, structural probes, and other elements has increased explosively. Hence, when we undertook assembling a volume on the applications of chimeric genes and hybrid proteins in modern biological research, we con- sidered the job a daunting task. To assist us with producing a coherent work, we first enlisted the aid of an Advisory Committee, consisting of Joe Falke, Stan Fields, Brian Seed, Tom Silhavy, and Roger Tsien. We benefited enormously from their ideas, suggestions, and breadth of knowledge. We are grateful to them all for their willingness to participate at the planning stage and for contributing excellent and highly pertinent articles. A large measure of the success of this project is due to the enthusiastic responses we received from nearly all of the prospective authors we ap- proached. Many contributors made additional suggestions, and quite a number contributed more than one article. Hence, it became clear early on that given the huge number of applications of gene fusion and hybrid protein technology-for studies of the regulation of gene expression, for lineage tracing, for protein purification and detection, for analysis of protein localization and dynamic movement, and a plethora of other uses-it would not be possible for us to cover this subject comprehensively in a single volume, but in the resulting three volumes, 326, 327, and 328. Volume 326 is devoted to methods useful for monitoring gene expres- sion, for facilitating protein purification, and for generating novel antigens and antibodies. Also in this volume is an introductory article describing the genesis of the concept of gene fusions and the early foundations of this whole approach. We would like to express our special appreciation to Jon Beckwith for preparing this historical overview. Jon’s description is particularly illuminating because he was among the first to exploit gene and protein fusions. Moreover, over the years, he and his colleagues have xvii xv111 PREFACE continued to develop the methodology that has propelled the use of fusion- based techniques from bacteria to eukaryotic organisms. Volume 327 is focused on procedures for tagging proteins for immunodetection, for using chimeric proteins for cytological purposes, especially the analysis of mem- brane proteins and intracellular protein trafficking, and for monitoring and manipulating various aspects of cell signaling and cell physiology. Included in this volume is a rather extensive section on the green fluorescent protein (GFP) that deals with applications not covered in Volume 302. Volume 328 describes protocols for using hybrid genes and proteins to identify and analyze protein-protein and THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF CT IMAGING AND ANALYSIS Edited by Noriyasu Homma Theory and Applications of CT Imaging and Analysis Edited by Noriyasu Homma Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Katarina Lovrecic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer Martina Sirotic Image Copyright Carsten Reisinger, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published March, 2011 Printed in India A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Theory and Applications of CT Imaging and Analysis, Edited by Noriyasu Homma p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-234-0 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Part 1 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Part 2 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Preface IX CT Image Analysis for Computer-Aided Diagnosis 1 CT Image Based Computer-Aided Lung Cancer Diagnosis 3 Noriyasu Homma Informatics and Computerized Tomography Aiding Detection and Diagnosis of Solitary Lung Cancer 15 Aristófanes Corrêa Silva, Anselmo Cardoso Paiva, Rodolfo Acatauassu Nunes and Marcelo Gattass Computer-aided Analysis and Interpretation of HRCT Images of the Lung 37 Zrimec Tatjana and Sata Busayarat Prediction Models for Malignant Pulmonary Nodules Based-on Texture Features of CT Image 63 Guo Xiuhua, Sun Tao, Wang huan and Liang Zhigang CT Image Analysis for Preoperational Planning 77 Liver Segmentation and Volume Estimation from Preoperative CT Images in Hepatic Surgical Planning: Application of a Semiautomatic Method Based on 3D Level Sets 79 Laura Fernandez-de-Manuel, Maria J. Ledesma-Carbayo, Daniel Jimenez-Carretero, Javier Pascau, Jose L. Rubio-Guivernau, Jose M. Tellado, Enrique Ramon, Manuel Desco and Andres Santos Functional Assessment of Individual Lung Lobes with MDCT Images 95 Syoji Kobashi, Kei Kuramoto and Yutaka Hata AutoCAD for Quantitative Measurement of Cervical MPR CT Images Reconstructed in ImageViewer Interface 105 Hou Lisheng, Ruan Dike, Cui Hongpeng and Bai Xuedong Contents Contents VI CT Image Analysis for Radiotherapy 125 Image Processing Methods in CT for Radiotherapy Applications 127 Boussion Nicolas, Fayad Hadi, Le Pogam Adrien, Pradier Oliver and Visvikis Dimitris CT-Image Guided Brachytherapy 143 Janusz Skowronek Advanced CT Imaging and Analysis 163 An Approach to Lumbar Vertebra Biomechanical Some Applications of the Proper and Adjacency Polynomials in the Theory of Graph Spectra M.A. Fiol Departament de Matem`atica Aplicada i Telem`atica, Universitat Polit`ecnica de Catalunya,Jordi Girona, 1–3 , M`odul C3, Campus Nord 08034 Barcelona,Spain; email: fiol@mat.upc.es Submitted: February 22, 1997; Accepted: September 15, 1997. Abstract Given a vertex u ∈ V of a graph Γ = (V,E), the (local) proper polynomials constitute a sequence of orthogonal polynomials, constructed from the so-called u-local spectrum of Γ. These polynomials can be thought of as a generalization, for all graphs, of the distance polynomials for the distance-regular graphs. The (local) adjacency polynomials, which are basically sums of proper polynomials, were recently used to study a new concept of distance-regularity for non-regular graphs, and also to give bounds on some distance-related parameters such as the diameter. Here we develop the subject of these polynomials and gave a survey of some known results involving them. For instance, distance-regular graphs are characterized from its spectrum and the number of vertices at “ex- tremal distance” from each of their vertices. Afterwards, some new applications of both, the proper and adjacency polynomials, are derived, such as bounds for the radius of Γ and the weight k-excess of a vertex. Given the integers k, µ ≥ 0, let Γ µ k (u) denote the set of vertices which are at distance at least k from a vertex u ∈ V , and there exist exactly µ (shortest) k-paths from u to each of such vertices. As a main result, an upper bound for the cardinality of Γ µ k (u) is derived, showing that |Γ µ k (u)| decreases at least as O(µ −2 ), and the cases in which the bound is attained are characterized. When these results are particularized to regular graphs with four distinct eigenvalues, we reobtain a result of Van Dam about 3-class association schemes, and prove some conjec- tures of Haemers and Van Dam, about the number of vertices at distance three from every vertex of a regular graph with four distinct eigenvalues —setting k = 2 and µ = 0— and, more generally, the number of non-adjacent vertices to every vertex u ∈ V , which have µ common neighbours with it. AMS subject classifications. 05C50 05C38 05E30 05E35 the electronic journal of combinatorics 4 (1997), #R21 2 1 Introduction The interactions between algebra and combinatorics have proved to be a fruitful subject of study, as shown by the increasing amount of literature on the subject that has appeared in the last two decades. Some good references are the text of Bannai and Ito [2] , Godsil’s recent book [24] , and the very recent Handbook of Combinatorics [26] . In particular, a considerable effort has been devoted to the use of algebraic techniques in the study of graphs as, for instance, the achievement of bounds for (some of) their parameters in terms of their (adjacency or Laplacian) spectra. Classic references dealing with this topic are the books of Biggs [4] , Cvetkovi´c, Doob, and Sachs [9] , and the comprehensive text about distance-regular graphs of Brouwer, Cohen and Neumaier [5] . (See also the surveys of Cvetkovi´c and Doob [8] and Schwenk and Wilson [38] .) In this context, some of the recent work has been specially concerned with the study of metric parameters, such as the mean distance, diameter, radius, isoperimetric number, etc. See, for instance, the papers of Alon and Milman [1] , Biggs [3] , Chung et.al. [7] ,[6] , Van Dam and Haemers [11] , Delorme and Sol´e [13] , Kahale [31] , Mohar [32] , Quenell [36] , Sarnak [39] , and Garriga, Yebra, and the author [16] ,[19] ,[22] . We must also mention here Haemers’ thesis [27] , an account of which can be found in his recent paper [28] . Somewhat surprisingly, in some of these works the study of the limit cases —in which the derived bounds are attained— has revealed the presence of high levels of structure in the considered graphs. See, for instance, the papers of Haemers and Van Dam, [12] , and .. .Applications of Atomic Excitations and De -Excitations Fluorescence and Phosphorescence The ability of a material to emit various wavelengths of light is similarly related to its atomic. .. Wikimedia Commons) 3/16 Applications of Atomic Excitations and De -Excitations Here, fluorescent powder is added to a beaker of water The mixture gives off a bright glow under ultraviolet light (credit:... absorbed because of its single wavelength Depending upon what part or 9/16 Applications of Atomic Excitations and De -Excitations layer of the retina needs repairing, the appropriate type of laser can