Animal Form and Function

[...]... birds, and fishes with which everyone is acquainted, but he knows a great deal about cuttlefish, snails and oysters, about crabs, crawfish (Palinurus), lobsters, shrimps, and hermit crabs, about seaurchins and starfish, sea-anemones and sponges, about ascidians (which seem to have puzzled him not a little!) He has noticed even fish-lice and intestinal worms, both flat and round Of the smaller land animals,... this influenced by Anaximenes whose primitive matter was infinite air In following out this thought he tried to prove that both fishes and oysters have the power of breathing.[2] A more strictly morphological note is struck by a curious saying of Empedocles (4th century B.C.), that "hair and foliage and the thick plumage of birds are one."[3] In the collected writings of Hippocrates and his school,... forgets that form and structure are but one of the many properties of living things; he takes quite as much interest in their behaviour, their ecology, distribution, comparative physiology He takes a special interest in the comparative physiology of reproduction The HISTORIA ANIMALIUM contains a description of the form and structure of man and of as many animals as Aristotle was acquainted with and he was... classifications, divide animals into gregarious, solitary and social, or land animals into troglodytes, surfacedwellers, and burrowers (Hist Anim., i.) He knew that dichotomous classifications were of little use for animals (De Partibus, i 3) and he explicitly and in so many words accepted the principle of all "natural" classification, that affinities must be judged by comparing not one but the sum total of characters... most clearly in the case of man and the viviparous quadrupeds, with whose structure he was best acquainted In the HISTORIA ANIMALIUM he takes man as a standard, and describes his external and internal parts in detail, then considers viviparous quadrupeds and compares them with man "Whatever parts a man has before, a quadruped has beneath; those that are behind in man form the quadruped's back" (Cresswell,... It will be noticed in the first and last of these three quotations that Aristotle recognises the fact of correlation between systems of organs—between limbs and bones, and between bloodvessels and the parts to which they go Sanguineous animals all possess certain organs—heart, liver, spleen, kidneys, and so on Other organs occur in most of the classes—the œsophagus and the lungs "The position which... "in excess and defect" in the different members of the group But he did not realise that this fact of community of plan constituted a problem in itself His interest was turned towards the functional side of living things, form was for him a secondary result of function Yet he was not unaware of facts of form for which he could not quite find a place in his theory of organic form, facts of form which... distinction between homogeneous and heterogeneous parts; sixth, a generalisation on the succession of forms in development; and seventh, the first enunciation of the idea of the ÉCHELLE DES êtres (1) What surprises the modern reader of t h e Animal Form and Function Animal Form and Function Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Animals vary in form and function From a sponge to a worm to a goat, an organism has a distinct body plan that limits its size and shape Animals’ bodies are also designed to interact with their environments, whether in the deep sea, a rainforest canopy, or the desert Therefore, a large amount of information about the structure of an organism's body (anatomy) and the function of its cells, tissues and organs (physiology) can be learned by studying that organism's environment Body Plans Animals exhibit different types of body symmetry The sponge is asymmetrical, the sea anemone has radial symmetry, and the goat has bilateral symmetry Animal body plans follow set patterns related to symmetry They are asymmetrical, radial, or bilateral in form as illustrated in [link] Asymmetrical animals are animals with no pattern or symmetry; an example of an asymmetrical animal is a sponge Radial symmetry, as illustrated in [link], describes when an animal has an up-and-down orientation: any plane cut along its longitudinal axis through the organism produces equal halves, but not a definite right or left side This plan is found mostly in aquatic animals, especially organisms that attach themselves to a base, like a rock or a boat, and extract their food from the surrounding water as it flows around the organism Bilateral symmetry is illustrated in the same figure by a goat The goat also has an upper and lower component to it, but a plane cut from front to back separates the animal into definite right and left sides Additional terms used when describing positions in the body 1/10 Animal Form and Function are anterior (front), posterior (rear), dorsal (toward the back), and ventral (toward the stomach) Bilateral symmetry is found in both land-based and aquatic animals; it enables a high level of mobility Limits on Animal Size and Shape Animals with bilateral symmetry that live in water tend to have a fusiform shape: this is a tubular shaped body that is tapered at both ends This shape decreases the drag on the body as it moves through water and allows the animal to swim at high speeds [link] lists the maximum speed of various animals Certain types of sharks can swim at fifty kilometers an hour and some dolphins at 32 to 40 kilometers per hour Land animals frequently travel faster, although the tortoise and snail are significantly slower than cheetahs Another difference in the adaptations of aquatic and land-dwelling organisms is that aquatic organisms are constrained in shape by the forces of drag in the water since water has higher viscosity than air On the other hand, land-dwelling organisms are constrained mainly by gravity, and drag is relatively unimportant For example, most adaptations in birds are for gravity not for drag Maximum Speed of Assorted Land Marine Animals Animal Speed (kmh) Speed (mph) Cheetah 113 70 Quarter horse 77 48 Fox 68 42 Shortfin mako shark 50 31 Domestic house cat 48 30 Human 45 28 Dolphin 32–40 20–25 Mouse 13 Snail 0.05 0.03 Most animals have an exoskeleton, including insects, spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, centipedes, and crustaceans Scientists estimate that, of insects alone, there are over 30 million species on our planet The exoskeleton is a hard covering or shell that provides benefits to the animal, such as protection against damage from predators and from water loss (for land animals); it also provides for the attachments of muscles 2/10 Animal Form and Function As the tough and resistant outer cover of an arthropod, the exoskeleton may be constructed of a tough polymer such as chitin and is often biomineralized with materials such as calcium carbonate This is fused to the animal’s epidermis Ingrowths of the exoskeleton, called apodemes, function as attachment sites for muscles, similar to tendons in more advanced animals ([link]) In order to grow, the animal must first synthesize a new exoskeleton underneath the old one and then shed or molt the original covering This limits the animal’s ability to grow continually, and may limit the individual’s ability to mature if molting does not occur at the proper time The thickness of the exoskeleton must be increased significantly to accommodate any increase in weight It is estimated that a doubling of body size increases body weight by a factor of eight The increasing thickness of the chitin necessary to support this weight limits most animals with an exoskeleton to a relatively small size The same principles apply to endoskeletons, but they are more efficient because muscles are attached on the outside, making it easier to compensate for increased mass Apodemes are ingrowths on arthropod exoskeletons to which muscles attach The apodemes on this crab leg are located above and below the fulcrum of the claw Contraction of muscles attached to the apodemes pulls the claw closed An animal with an endoskeleton has its size determined by the amount of skeletal system it needs ... White Paper An Architect‘s Evaluation of Form and Function– the Dimensional Data Model Donavon Gooldy, Senior Principal Tuesday, May 27, 2014 Proprietary and Confidential - ©2014 Clarity Solution Group, Inc. 2 Table of contents 1 Introduction 3 2 Model Characteristics 4 3 Dimensional Model Architectural Origins 5 3.1 The Entity Relationship Model Form 5 3.2 An Organized Performance Architecture Response 6 4 The Dimension Model Form 8 5 The Dimensional Model Function 10 6 The Limits of Single Form Design 11 6.1 Function Limiting Characteristics the Dimensional Form 11 6.1.1 The Dimensional Form Does Not Extend Well 11 6.1.2 The Dimensional Form Is Not Flexible 12 6.1.3 The Form Does Not Describe the Business 13 7 Applying the Dimensional Form without Requirements 15 7.1 Client A 15 7.2 Client B 15 7.3 Common Characteristics 16 7.4 Bottom-Up Warehouse Design 19 8 System Architecture Form to Fulfill Multiple Functions 21 8.1 Combining Model Forms 21 8.2 Integrating Model Form with Technology Form 22 9 Conclusion 23 Proprietary and Confidential - ©2014 Clarity Solution Group, Inc. 3 1 Introduction "It is the pervading law of all things organic and inorganic, of all things physical and metaphysical, of all things human and all things superhuman, of all true manifestations of the head, of the heart, of the soul, that the life is recognizable in its expression, that form ever follows function. This is the law." Louis Sullivan “Form follows function - that has been misunderstood. Form and function should be one, joined in a spiritual union.” Frank Lloyd Wright To be an architect of information solutions is to understand the concept of form following function intuitively, as a matter of nature, because design (creation of form) is about enabling informational function. Taking the title ―architect‖ affirms one‘s conscious method design based decision process in terms of aligning form with functional needs. As one examines form‘s relationship to function within the dimensional model, the evaluation of the model form must not be based solely on Sullivan‘s statement, but on Wright‘s; form not only follows function, but function follows form. The concept of form and function unity highlights that form is not only based on function, but also limits it, many times strictly. Form and function are bound together in a cause and effect relationship; function is the cause of the form, while form both facilitates function and limits it. When considering the data warehouse function, one considers the overall goal to delivery information, allowing the business to measure its activity and understand the impacts of its actions in the market place. This high-level statement of function though, is far too general for the evaluation of model form. As will be demonstrated, a more detailed understanding of system functionality is needed before determining model form application. The function-limiting impact of form is often overlooked in design, particularly data model design. By implementing a specific design form, are the broader limits on function considered? What system design steps are needed to mitigate those limitations? Too often data practitioners apply the form they know best, the latest form they‘ve come to appreciate or a form that is deemed a ―best practice‖ in their circles. True architects are not practitioners of ―best practices‖. They practice the application of forms to function based on principles derived from cause and effect analysis. The architect studies the relationship of form and function, of cause and effect and then applies forms specific to the required functions. The architect deals with the complexity of the client‘s multi-functional needs and devises multi-component solution forms to deliver functionality incapable of being delivered in single form solutions. Proprietary and Confidential - ©2014 Clarity Solution P1: JPJ 0521857651agg CB966B/Summers 0 521 85765 1 December 3, 2005 14:54 vi This page intentionally left blank P1: JPJ 0521857651agg CB966B/Summers 0 521 85765 1 December 3, 2005 14:54 form and function in a legal system – ageneral study This book addresses three major questions about law and legal systems: (1) What are the defining and organizing forms of legal institutions, legal rules, interpretive methodologies, and other legal phenomena? (2) How does frontal and systematic focus on these forms advance understanding of such phenomena? (3) What credit should the functions of forms have when such phenomena serve policy and related purposes, rule of law values, and fundamental political values, such as democracy, liberty, and justice? This is the first book that seeks to offer general answers to these questions and thus give form in the law its due. The answers not only provide articulate conversancy with the subject, but also reveal insights into the nature of law itself, the oldest and foremost problem in legal theory and allied subjects. Robert S. Summers is the William G. McRoberts Professor of Research in the Administration of Law at Cornell Law School. He has won international acclaim for his work in contracts, commercial law, jurisprudence, and legal theory. He has authored and coauthored multiple works in these fields for which he has received honorary degrees and other recognition. His treatise on the Uniform Commercial Code, coauthored with James White, is the most widely cited on the subject by courts and scholars. Professor Summers has served as official advisor both to the Drafting Commission for the Russian Civil Code and to the Drafting Commission for the Egyptian Civil Code. Helecturesannually on jurisprudence and legal theory in the United States, Britain, Scandinavia, and Europe. i P1: JPJ 0521857651agg CB966B/Summers 0 521 85765 1 December 3, 2005 14:54 aselectionof other books by the author Form and Substance in Anglo-American Law,coauthored with Patrick S. Atiyah (Oxford University Press, third reprinting with minor revisions, 2002). Contract and Related Obligation: Theory, Doctrine and Practice (4th ed.), coauthored and coedited with Robert A. Hillman (West Group, 2001). La Naturaleza Formal del Derecho (Mexico City, Fontamara, 2001, in Spanish). Collected Essays in Legal Theory (Amsterdam, Kluwer Academic Publshers, 2000). The Uniform Commerical Code,coauthored with James J. White (West Group, 5th ed. of 1 vol. ed. of multi-volume treatise, 2000). Interpreting Precedent–AComparativeStudy,coedited and coauthored with members of the Bielefelder Kreis (Dartmouth Press, 1997). The Uniform Commercial Code,4vols., coauthored with James J. White (West Group, 4th ed., 1995, with annual supplement). Essays on the Nature of Law and Legal Reasoning (Berlin, Duncker and Humblot, 1992). Interpreting Statutes–AComparativeStudy,coedited and coauthored with members of the Bielefelder Kreis (Dartmouth Press, 1991). Law: Its Nature, Functions, and Limits (3rd ed.), coauthored and coedited with several others (West Pub. Co., 1986). Lon L.Fuller (Stanford University Press, 1984). Pragmatischer Instrumentalismus (Karl Alber, Freiburg, 1983, German translation of next item below). Instrumentalism and American Legal Theory (Cornell University Press, 1982). Collective Bargaining and Public Benefit Conferral–AJurisprudentialCritique (Cornell University, ILR Monograph Series, 1976). More Essays in Legal Philosophy (University of California Press, and Blackwells, Oxford, 1971). Essays in Legal Philosophy (University of California Press, and Blackwells, Oxford, 1968). ii P1: JPJ 0521857651agg CB966B/Summers 0 521 85765 1 December 3, 2005 14:54 FORM AND FUNCTION IN A LEGAL SYSTEM – A GENERAL STUDY ROBERT S. SUMMERS William G. McRoberts Professor of Research in the Administration of Law, Cornell Law School, and Arthur L. Goodhart Visiting Professor of Legal Science, Cambridge University, 1991–2 B.S. 1955, University of Oregon; LL.B. P1: JZP 0521857651c01 CB966B/Summers 0 521 85765 1 December 5, 2005 17:36 26 Introduction American scholars of procedure have regularly addressed some problems of form, although seldom explicitly in terms of form. Yet their writings are relevant toageneral theory of form. 67 Many others, including scholars of constitutional law, have addressed aspects of the forms of certain legal institutions and the inter- relations between such institutions, which are major realms of structural form, although many would probably claim that they have not been writing about “mere form.” 68 Some constitutional and other scholars have written on the principles of the rule of law and have suggested that these are, at least partly, formal. 69 Some have written on the methodologies of constitutional and statutory interpretation, although this is seldom done in terms of form. 70 Scholars of legislation have written on the formal methodologies for drafting statutory rules, although again usually not in the concepts and terminology of form. 71 It is true that form and formalities in the law of contracts and wills have been the subject of extensive study by scholars of positive law in these fields, and here the work has frequently been in the idiom of form. 72 Comparative lawyers, American and other, have also, in effect, done work on form while comparing legal systems or basic facets of legal systems. 73 Even so, no legal theorist or other scholar has, to my knowledge, sought to work outasystematic general theory of the overall forms of a wide and repre- sentative selection of functional legal units, as here. It might be thought that, of the participants in modern schools of legal theory, those writing in the tradition of legal positivism 74 would be most likely to develop a general theory of legal form. 75 Ye t, a close examination reveals that neither H. L. A. Hart 76 nor Hans Kelsen, 77 the leading positivists of the twentieth century, systematically treated 67 See, e.g., B. Kaplan, “Civil Procedure – Reflections on the Comparison of Systems,” 9 Buff. L. Rev. 409 (1960). 68 Aclassic early treatment is J. Madison, “The Federalist No. 47,” in A. Hamilton et. al, The Federalist: A Commentary on the Constitution of the United States, 312 (Random House, New York, 1950). 69 See e.g., R. Fallon, Jr., “The Rule of Law as a Concept in Constitutional Discourse,” 97 Colum. L. Rev. 1 (1997). 70 See, e.g., K. Greenawalt, “Constitutional and Statutory Interpretation,” in The Oxford Handbook of Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law, 268 ( J. Coleman and S. Shapiro eds., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002). 71 See, e.g., Professionalizing Legislative Drafting: The Federal Experience (R. Dickerson ed., American Bar Association, 1973). 72 See e.g., Fuller, supra n. 65. B. Mann, “Self-Proving Affidavits and Formalism in Wills Adjudication,” 63 Wash. U. L.Q. 39 (1985). 73 Forexample, the forms of interpretive methodologies in Western legal systems are compared in D. N. MacCormick andR. S. Summers,eds.Interpreting Statutes–A Comparative Study(Dartmouth, Aldershot 1991). 74 Lon L. Fuller once stated that, “all forms of legal positivism deal not with the content of the law but with its form ”L.Fuller,The Law in Quest of Itself, 132 (Beacon Press, Boston, 1940). 75 Letmeadd I am not a positivist in any of the usual uses of that much abused word. That I am a positivist is sometimes asserted. See, e.g., R. Fallon, supra n. 69, at 2 n. 6. 76 See H. L. A. Hart, supra n. 3. 77 See H. Kelsen, supra n. 4. P1: JZP 0521857651c01 CB966B/Summers 0 521 85765 1 December 5, 2005 17:36 Section Three: The Neglect of Form 27 the major overall forms of functional legal units and their significance as such. Hart,inhis justly famous book, The Concept of Law, analyzed legal institutions, such as courts, largely in terms of the contents of rules said to be “constitutive” (I say “reinforcive”) of their composition, jurisdiction, and procedure. Hart often did so almost as if the overall forms and Ch 40 Warm up Define and give an example of homeostasis Sequence the organization of living things from cell to biome Describe negative and positive feedback LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B Reece, Lisa A Urry, Michael L Cain, Steven A Wasserman, Peter V Minorsky, Robert B Jackson Chapter 40 Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges • Anatomy: the study of the biological form (STRUCTURE) of an organism • Physiology: the study of the biological FUNCTIONS an organism performs • Structure dictates function! © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc Figure 40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization • Size and shape affect the way an animal interacts with its environment • Many different animal body plans have evolved and are determined by the genome © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans • Cells  Tissues  Organs  Organ Systems © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc Four main types of tissues: Epithelial: covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body Connective: binds and supports other tissues (cartilage, tendons, ligaments, bone, blood, adipose) Muscle: controls body movement (skeletal, smooth, cardiac) Nervous: senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal (neurons, glia) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc Homeostasis • Maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment • Fluctuations above/below a set point serve as a stimulus; these are detected by a sensor and trigger a response • The response returns the variable to the set point © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc Negative Feedback • “More gets you less.” • Return changing conditions back to set point • Examples: – Temperature – Blood glucose levels – Blood pH Plants: response to water limitations Positive Feedback • “More gets you more.” • Response moves variable further away from set point • Stimulus amplifies a response • Examples: – Lactation in mammals – Onset of labor in childbirth Plants: ripening of fruit Thermoregulation • Maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range • Endothermic animals generate heat by metabolism (birds and mammals) • Ectothermic animals gain heat from external sources (invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles) • Q: Which is more active at greater temperature variations? • Q: Which requires more energy? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc Figure 40.10 Balancing Heat Loss and Gain • Organisms exchange heat by four physical processes: radiation, evaporation, convection, and conduction © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc Five adaptations for thermoregulation: • • • • • Insulation (skin, feather, fur, blubber) Circulatory adaptations (countercurrent exchange) Cooling by evaporative heat loss (sweat) Behavioral responses (shivering) Adjusting metabolic heat production (“antifreeze”) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc Figure 40.12 Figure 40.16 Energy Use • Metabolic rate: amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time • Basal metabolic rate (BMR): endotherm at rest at a “comfortable” temperature • Standard metabolic rate (SMR): ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature • Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms of a comparable size © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc Figure 40.19 Torpor and Energy Conservation • Torpor is a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases • Save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions • Hibernation: torpor during winter cold and food scarcity • Estivation: summer torpor, survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc ... the animal, such as protection against damage from predators and from water loss (for land animals); it also provides for the attachments of muscles 2/10 Animal Form and Function As the tough and. . .Animal Form and Function are anterior (front), posterior (rear), dorsal (toward the back), and ventral (toward the stomach) Bilateral symmetry is found in both land-based and aquatic animals;... section, and, if the transverse cut is at an angle, it is called an oblique plane [link] illustrates these planes on a goat (a four-legged animal) and a human being 6/10 Animal Form and Function