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PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS Design, Fabrication, Assembly and Testing This page intentionally left blank PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS Design, Fabrication, Assembly and Testing Dr R S Khandpur Director General, Pushpa Gujral Science City, Kapurthala, Punjab Formerly Director General, Centre for Electronics Design and Technology of India (CEDTI) Dept of Information Technology, New Delhi and Director CEDTI, Mohali (Chandigarh) Punjab McGraw-Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher 0-07-158925-2 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: 0-07-146420-4 All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs For more information, please contact George Hoare, Special Sales, at george_hoare@mcgraw-hill.com or (212) 904-4069 TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc (“McGraw-Hill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work Use of this work is subject to these terms Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE McGraw-Hill and its licensors not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise DOI: 10.1036/0071464204 Professional Want to learn more? 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If you’d like more information about this book, its author, or related books and websites, please click here For more information about this title, click here CHAPTER Contents xxi Preface Basics of Printed Circuit Boards 1.1 Connectivity in Electronic Equipment 1.1.1 Advantages of Printed Circuit Boards 1.2 Evolution of Printed Circuit Boards 1.3 Components of a Printed Circuit Board 1.4 Classification of Printed Circuit Boards 1.4.1 Single-sided Printed Circuit Boards 1.4.2 Double-sided Printed Circuit Boards 1.4.3 Multi-layer Boards 1.4.4 Rigid and Flexible Printed Circuit Boards 1.5 Manufacturing of Basic Printed Circuit Boards 10 1.5.1 Single-sided Boards 10 1.5.2 Double-sided Plated Through-holes 14 1.5.3 Multi-layer Boards 16 1.5.4 Flexible Boards 16 1.6 Challenges in Modern PCB Design and Manufacture 17 1.7 Major Market Drivers for the PCB Industry 19 1.8 PCBs with Embedded Components 21 1.9 Standards on Printed Circuit Boards 23 1.10 Useful Standards 24 vi Contents Electronic Components 2.1 Basics of Electronic Components 25 2.1.1 Active vs Passive Components 25 2.1.2 Discrete vs Integrated Circuits 26 2.1.3 Component Leads 26 2.1.4 Polarity in Components 27 2.1.5 Component Symbols 28 2.2 Resistors 29 2.2.1 Types of Resistors 29 2.2.2 Packages 31 2.2.3 Characteristics 32 2.3 Variable Resistors or Potentiometers 35 2.4 Light-dependent Resistors (LDRs) 37 2.5 Thermistors 37 2.6 Capacitors 37 2.6.1 Types of Capacitors 40 2.6.2 Packages 42 2.6.3 Performance of Capacitors 42 2.7 Variable Capacitors 44 2.8 Inductors 45 2.9 Diodes 48 2.10 Special Types of Diodes 50 2.10.1 Zener Diode 51 2.10.2 Varactor Diode 51 2.10.3 Varistor 51 2.10.4 Light Emitting Diodes (LED) 52 2.10.5 Photodiode 53 2.10.6 Tunnel Diode (TD) 53 2.11 Transistors 54 2.11.1 Bipolar Transistors 54 2.11.2 Power Transistors 58 2.11.3 Darlington Transistors 58 2.11.4 Field-effect Transistors 59 2.11.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) 2.11.6 Transistor Type Numbers 63 2.12 Thyristors 64 2.13 Integrated Circuits (ICs) 67 2.14 Linear Integrated Circuits 67 2.14.1 Operational Amplifiers (OP-AMP) 68 2.14.2 Three-terminal Voltage Regulator 71 62 25 Contents vii 2.15 Digital Integrated Circuits 71 2.15.1 Logic Circuits 72 2.16 Microprocessors 81 2.17 Semiconductor Memories 83 2.17.1 Random Access Memory 84 2.17.2 Read Only Memory 85 2.18 Microcontrollers 88 2.19 Surface Mount Devices 88 2.19.1 Surface Mount Devices 89 2.19.2 Surface Mounting Semiconductor Packages 92 2.19.3 Packaging of Passive Components as SMDs 97 2.20 Heat Sinks 97 2.21 Transformer 99 2.22 Relays 100 2.23 Connectors 101 2.24 Useful Standards 103 Layout Planning and Design 3.1 Reading Drawings and Diagrams 104 3.1.1 Block Diagram 104 3.1.2 Schematic Diagram 105 3.2 General PCB Design Considerations 108 3.2.1 Important Design Elements 109 3.2.2 Important Performance Parameters 109 3.3 Mechanical Design Considerations 110 3.3.1 Types of Boards 110 3.3.2 Board Mounting Techniques 115 3.3.3 Board Guiding and Retaining 116 3.3.4 Input/Output Terminations 117 3.3.5 Board Extraction 118 3.3.6 Testing and Servicing 118 3.3.7 Mechanical Stress 118 3.3.8 Board Thickness 118 3.3.9 Important Specifications and Standards 119 3.4 Electrical Design Considerations 119 3.4.1 Conductor Dimensions 119 3.4.2 Resistance 119 3.4.3 Capacitance Considerations 124 3.4.4 Inductance of PCB Conductors 126 3.4.5 High Electrical Stresses 126 104 viii Contents 3.5 Conductor Patterns 126 3.6 Component Placement Rules 127 3.6.1 Conductor Width and Thickness 127 3.6.2 Conductor Spacing 129 3.6.3 Conductor Shapes 130 3.6.4 Conductor Routing and Locations 131 3.6.5 Supply and Ground Conductors 132 3.7 Fabrication and Assembly Considerations 134 3.8 Environmental Factors 136 3.8.1 Thermal Considerations 136 3.8.2 Contamination 137 3.8.3 Shock and Vibration 137 3.9 Cooling Requirements and Packaging Density 139 3.9.1 Heat Sinks 139 3.9.2 Packaging Density 139 3.9.3 Package Style and Physical Attributes 140 3.10 Layout Design 142 3.10.1 Grid Systems 143 3.10.2 Layout Scale 143 3.10.3 Layout Sketch/Design 144 3.10.4 Layout Considerations 145 3.10.5 Materials and Aids 145 3.10.6 Land Requirements 146 3.10.7 Manual Layout Procedure 147 3.10.8 Layout Methodology 149 3.11 Layout Design Checklist 150 3.11.1 General Considerations 150 3.11.2 Electrical Considerations 150 3.11.3 Mechanical Considerations 151 3.12 Documentation 151 3.12.1 Documentation File 153 3.13 Useful Standards 153 Design Considerations for Special Circuits 4.1 Design Rules for Analog Circuits 155 4.1.1 Component Placement 155 4.1.2 Signal Conductors 156 4.1.3 Supply and Ground Conductors 161 4.1.4 General Rules for Design of Analog PCBs 4.2 Design Rules for Digital Circuits 162 162 155 References 677 Travi, C., Albertini, M and Gemme, C (1996) Effects of High Electrical Stress in PCBs, Circuit World, Vol 22, No 2, p 16 UltraCad Design (2000) Controlling Impedance, Internet Notes, www.omnigraph.com Vandervelde, H (2001) PCB Handbook, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Vaucher, C and Jaquet, R (2002) Laser Direct Imaging and Structuring: An Update, Internet notes, www.circuitree.com Vernon, D (2003) Machine in the Electronics and PCB Inspection Industry, Internet Notes, www-prima.inrialpes.fr Wallig, L (1992) Adhesives Bond Flex Circuit Materials, Electronic Packaging and Production, May 1992, p 71 Ward, J, (1992) Options in Generating High Quality Phototools, Electronic Packaging and Production, July 1992, p 62 Waryold, J and Lawrence, J (1991) Conformal Coating, Circuits Assembly, June 1991, p 56 Waryold, J et al (1998) A conformal Coatings Selection Guide Surface Mount Technology (SMT) Magazine, Vol.12, No.2, p 84 Watts, N (1993) Establishing a PCB Quality Assurance and Reliability Program, Electronic Packaging and Production, May 1993, p 25 Wiens, D (2000) Printed Circuit Board Routing at the Threshold, Mentor Graphics, May 2000 Wilk, F.L (1994) Treatment/Recycle of Wastewaters from Alternative Cleaning Processes, Electronic Packaging and Production, June 1994, p 46 Williamson, I (1990) Front-End Automation, Electronic Production, February 1990, p 19 Willis, B (1992) Repairing Damaged Plated Through Holes, Electronic Production, December 1992, p Winstanely, A (2003) The Basic Soldering and Desoldering Guide, Internet Notes, www.epemag.wimborne.co.uk www.thinktinkr.com Internet notes (2003) Multi-layer PCB Prototyping Yokoyama, S and Iji, M (1995) Recycling of Printed Wiring Board Waste Proceedings of IEEE, p 132 Zarrow, P (2000) Coolest Things Since Slice Bread, Internet Notes, www.ITM-SMT.com Zweig, D (1996) Concurrent Growth, Multi-layer PCBs and X-ray Inspection, Printed Circuit Fabrication Asia, September/October 1996, p 22 D Index A absorptivity 137 acceptability criteria 563, 585 acceptability quality level 562 acceptance sampling 563 accessibility 109 acrylated epoxy 502 acrylic adhesive 437, 502 activation process 349 activator 458, 463, 519 activity level 464 additive process 3, 16, 321, 322, 346 additive process, fully 347 additives 463 adhesion 258 adhesive 492 adhesive printing 503 adhesive, epoxy 437 adhesive, phenolics 438 adhesive, polyester 438 adhesive, polyimide 437 air ionizer 537 air knife 330, 508, 613, air pollution 620 ALU 83 amplifier, differential 156 amplifier, high frequency 160 amplifier, high impedance 159 amplifier, multi-stage 160 amplifier, operational 67 analog circuits 133, 155 analog signal 155 annular ring 193, 208, 598, 602, 608 anode 311 anode bags 317, 325 ANSI 23, 28, 105, 251, 257 antenna 130 anti-foam agents 366 anti-static devices 540 anti-static mats 540 anti-static workstation 536 AOI 586 aperture 242, 243, 244, 243 AQL 562, 588 arithmetic/logic unit 81 art master 105, 149 artwork 10, 135, 142, 152, 193, 301, 303, 309 artwork, master 313 ASCII 146, aspect ratio 146, 203, 322, 227, 351, 419, 420 assembled board 542 Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Click here for terms of use Index assembly 10, 252, 428, 481, 490 assembly drawing 152 assembly process 481 assembly, automatic 485 assembly, manual 482 assembly, mixed 492 atomic weight 315 autoclave 415, 423 auto-routers 232 auto-routing 223, 234, 253 B B stage 271, 418 backplanes 174 baking 302 ball grid array 18, 98, 185, 209, 250 bandwidth 185, 252 bare board 14, 225, 542 bare board testing 360, 573 bare-board testers 246 base material 4, 255, 302, 334, 596 batch etching 374 bath life 334 bath tub curve 584 baume gravity 339 baume unit 339 bed-of-nails fixture 146, 571 bending cycle 442 bending tools 476 beta back scattering 341, 605 bill of material 254 binary 72 bit 467 blistering 278, 437, 525, 596, 607 blisters 478 block diagram 104 blow hole 205, 334, 360, 509, 513, 522, 526, 587 board lay-up 419 board outline 223, 238, 252 board size 112, 144, 193, 226, 419 board testing, automatic 571 board thickness 118, 206, 419 body taping 485 bond strength 258, 272, 277, 436, 502, 522, 581, 606 bonding 421 bonding pressure 423 bonding strength 261 boundary scan 580 bow 261, 509, 597 brazing 453, 465 breakdown voltage 43, 263 bridges 554 bridging 524, 586 brushing 286 buffer solution 316 buffing 286 buoyancy effect 510 burning test 280 byte 83 C CAD 153, 221, 306 CAD software 222 CAD tool 236 CAD workstation 222 CAD/CAM 245 CAE/CAD/CAM 247 CAM 245, 306 camera 215, 588 camera, horizontal 215 camera, infra-red 595 camera, reprographic 135 camera, vertical 215 capacitance 124, 420 capacitor 37 Capacitor, ceramic 41 capacitor, electrolytic 41 capacitor, leadless 480 capacitor, mica 41 capacitor, paper 40 capacitor, plastic 41 capacitor, tantalum 43 capacitor, variable 44 card guides 116 cascade rinsing 614 catastrophic failure 533 cathode 311 679 680 Index cation 311 caul plate 421 CCD 588 CCD scanner 592 channel router 233, 236 channel width 186 characteristic impedance 163, 190 chassis ground 191 chip 81 chip scale packaging 185 chip-on-board 96 chip-shooters 491 circuit density 187, 234 circuit diagram 10, 105, 150 clean room 306, 622 cleaning cycle 447 cleaning, brush 520 Cleaning, chemical 284 cleaning, manual 284 cleaning, mechanical 284, 285 cleaning, spray 520 cleaning, ultrasonic 520 clock rate 172, 270 clock speed 82 CMOS 74, 165 CNC 115 CO2 laser 516 coatings 13 coaxial cable 171 cold joints 525 cold junction 472 collimation 301 component forming 481 component library 241 component testing 580 component, leadless 26 component, through-hole 26 components, active 25 components, passive 25 computer-aided design 10 computer-aided testing 246 conductivity 311 conductivity meter 315 conductor length 131, 147, 228 conductor line width 420 conductor paths 148 conductor resistance 122 conductor routing 131, 201 conductor spacing 134, 353, 599 conductor track 424 conductor width 121, 123, 128, 132, 144, 172, 183, 194, 201, 226, 426, 441, 444, 587, 598 conductor, signal 156, 172 conformal coating 14, 117, 361, 427, 482, 546 connector 101, 252, 449 connector pad 203 connector, coaxial 178 connector, edge 146, 310 contact angle 287, 526 contact resistance 310, 335, 605 contaminants 519 contamination, ionic 519 controlled impedance 172, 189, 274, 420, 429 convection 513 convection, forced 512 cooling rate 423 copper foil 122, 204, 257, 418, 433 copper recovery 368 copper thickness 123 corona 600 corrosion 317 corrosion resistance 335 crazing 526 creep strength 632 critical defect 562 cross talk 7, 164, 166, 187, 270, 361, 414 curing cycle 310 curing temperature 502 current breakdown 564 current density 312 cutter 473 cycle 84 D dark room 216 darlington pair 58 data transfer 251 data width 83 Index datum system 145 DC amplifier 156 deburring 286, 320 defect rates 491, 562 defect, major 562 defect, minor 562 defective 562 de-ionization 315 de-ionized water 218, 615, 618 de-ionizer 616 de-lamination 355, 525, 596 dent 348, 596 depth of field 579 design automation 239 design cycle 236 design errors 238 design for assembly 494 design for environment 628 design for manufacturability 251 design rules 229 de-smear 618 de-solder pump 545 de-soldering 330, 532, 626 developer 217, 218, 302, dewetting 343, 524 diagonal cutter 474 diagram, logic 147 diagram, schematic 147 dielectric breakdown 110, 267 dielectric breakdown strength 262 dielectric constant 12, 125, 137, 173, 262, 264, 272, 420, 431 dielectric loss 171, 272 dielectric strength 12, 262, 359, 361, 564, dielectric substrate 428 dielectric thickness 419 diffusion 456 digital circuits 72, 190 digital data 242 digital ground 132 digital integrated circuits 71 digital memory 83 digitizer 219 DIL packages 89 DIN 113 diode 48, 210 diode, signal 50 diode, switching 50 diode, varactor 51 dip test 607 disassembly 454, 624, 625 dispenser 496 dispensing system 503 dissipation factor 12, 137, 262, 264, 270, 431 distortion 577 documentation 151, 241 double-sided boards 110 downtime 585 drag soldering 505 drag-out 613, 614, 618 drift 32 drill data 244 drill file 249 drill size 254 drill sizes 153, 205, 221, 225 drill smear 417, 437 drill speed 245 drill wear 417 drillability 262 drilling 12, 284 drilling burns 283 drilling machine 225 dross 505, 511, 631 dry joint 479 ductility 258, 314, 326, 436 dwell time 504, 511, 554 E earth ground 162 ECL 74, 165 EDA tools 184 eddy current 625 edge definition 600 EEPROM 86 effluent 613 electrical testing 426 electrical verification 236 electrochemical equivalent 314 681 682 Index electrodeposition 435 electrodes 311 electrographic test 342 electroless copper 346, 570 electroless plating 318, 334, 371 electrolysis 311 electrolyte 311 electrolytic cell 311 electrolytic process 619 electromagnetic interference 162 electromagnetic radiation 190 electrometers 584 electron volt 533 electronic waste 631 electroplating 16, 311, 335 electrostatic charge 533 electrostatic discharge 470, 533 electrostatic voltage 169 electrowinning 619 EMI 191, 451 emissivity 137 emulsion 212, 302 end-of-life 623 environmental pollution 375 environmental test 606 epoxy 424, 502 epoxy coating 311 EPROM 86 equivalent series resistance 43 ESD 191, 534, 557 ESD control 536 ESD controlled 472 ESD sensitivity 535 ESD susceptibility 535 etch factor 372, 376, 381 etch rate 366, 368, 369 etch resist 328, 365 etch resistance 332 etchant 259, 366 etch-back 321, 335, 420, 449, 604 etching 12, 301, 326, 346, 365, 376, 421 etching machine 380 etching process 134 etching quality 376 etching resist 349, 449 etching speed 375 etching time 366, 380 etching, bubble 377 etching, chemical 365 etching, electrochemical 365, 382 etching, immersion 369, 376 etching, mechanical 365, 382 etching, rotary 379 etching, splash 377 etching, spray 369, 378 eutectic alloy 328, 459 eutectic point 457, 513, 630 eutectic solder 458 exposure 300, 301 exposure time 216, 302 eyelet 7, 138, 553 F fabrication process 629 fabrication, dry 612 failure analysis 589 fall time 170 fan-out 127, 253 Faraday’s constant 315 Faraday’s law 314 fatigue resistance 326 fault locator 580 fault spectrum 579 ferric chloride 366 fiducials 253, 308 field of view 579, 589 field programmable gate array 187 filament 259 filament counts 259 file format 254 filler 255 film 243 film master 135, 194, 211, 283 film, reproduction 213 film, aramid 429 film, diazo 213, 302, 355 film, dry 297, 366 film, duplicating 213 Index film, fluorocarbon 429 film, photographic 212 film, polyester 429 film, polyimide 429 film, silver gelatine 214 film, silver halide 302 film, wet 297, 366 films, lacquer 294 filtration 312, 614 fine line etching 350 fine line technology 239 fingers 449 fixing bath 218 flame resistance 12, 110, 261 flammability 262, 272, 279 flammability rating 417 flash memory 86 flex circuits 427 flex cycling 439 flexible boards flexible circuit 4, 427, 609 flexible laminate 429 flexible manufacturing 307 flexible material 255 flexible printed circuit board 427, 440 flexural strength 12, 109, 262, 279 flip-flops 74 flocculation 619 flush conductor 600 flush cutter 474 flux 330, 453, 458, 462, 477, 517, 632 flux, water soluble 464 flux, cored 461 flux, no-clean 463 flux, organic 464 fluxing 330, 492, 506 fluxing, foam 507 fluxing, spray 507, 508 fluxing, wave 507 flying probe tester 571, 572 foil pad 468 footprints 195, 228, 249 forming 484 freeze spray 542 683 fume extractor 621 functional testing 248, 580, 594, 595 fungus resistance 262 fusion diagram 459 G Galilei microscope 578 GENCAM 251 Gerber data 306, 572, 591 Gerber file 244, 249, 254, 491 Gerber format 244, 250, 383 glass cloth 417 glass fibre-resin 626 glass transition temperature 280, 506 grid 143, 229 grid fixtures 576 grid paper 143 ground conductor 132, 133 ground impedances 161 ground plane 132, 133, 162, 448, 226, 584 ground signal 237 grounding strap 540 guard rings 159 guarding 157 gull leads 89 H haloing 278, 597 harmonics 167 HDI 24, 504 heat sink 9, 58, 183, 439, 448, 472, 474, 476, 548 Henry 46 high density interconnect 153 high density interconnect structures high frequency signal 169 hole diameter 135, 205 hole size 134 holewall-activation 335 hot air leveling 329, 360 hot air leveling station 631 hot air solder level 13 hot bar reflow 518 Hull cell 328 684 Index Hull cell test 339 hybrid circuits 88 hybrid packaging 425 I IC extractor 546 IEC 23, 105, 205, 257 IEEE 28, 105 IGBT 62 image processing 589 image transfer 12, 204, 283 impact strength 262 impedance 418 impedance testing 580 in-circuit test 251, 579 in-circuit testers 246 indexing hole 149 inductance 45 inductors 45 infra-red emission 514 infra-red imaging 595 infra-red radiation 516 insertion machine 487 inspection, dimensional 564, 587 inspection, infra-red 586 inspection, visual 225, 574, 577, 586, 587, 607 inspection, x-ray 522, 586, 589 insulation resistance 12 integrated circuit 26, 67 integrated circuits, linear 67 interconnection resistance 564 inter-metallic compound 457 inter-metallic layer 457 intermolecular bond 330, 454, 455, 460, 477, 512, 522, 632 internet 251 intrinsic impedance 163 inverter 68 ion exchange 315, 615, 616 IPC 23, 185, 205, 256 IPCA 24 ISDN 306 ISO 23, 628 iterative placement 232 J J leads 89 joule 534 joule effect 121 joule test 522 L laminar flow 136 laminate 10, 108, 124, 255 laminate stiffness 437 laminate, epoxy 347 laminate, high speed/high frequency 281 laminate, melamine 273 laminate, phenolic 267, 347 laminate, polyamide 273 laminate, polyester 273 laminate, PTFE 272 laminate, silicon 273 laminate, Teflon 273 laminates, copper clad 567 laminates, microwave 272 laminates, mixed dielectric 273 laminating press 422 lamination 355, 415, 449 laminator 12, 299, 303, 355 land 141, 193, 353, 479, land grid arrays 95 land pattern 189, 192 land size 134, 206, 232 landing pad 185 lap joints 451 laser 304, 626 laser ablation 188 laser diode 306 laser inspection 493, 586, 589 laser photoplotter 242 laser raster plotting 243 laser scanner 493, 592 laser, argon-ion 304 laser, direct imaging 304 laser-cutting 497 latent failures 533 layer count 186 Index layout 419 layout design 142, 144, 223 layout efficiency 189 lay-up 261 LCCC 488 lead 460, 531, 630 lead exposure 631 lead pitch 91 lead poisoning 631 lead taping 485 leakage current 57, 478 leakage resistance 158 LEDs 52, 210 legend printing 308 library 227 library manager 228 life cycle 445 line impedance 203 logic circuits 126 logic device 141 logic gates 72 loop area 191 loss angle 265 loss factor 262, 421 LSI 75 M machinability 110, 262, 276 machining, chemical 365 magnifier 577 maintainability 109, 135 manufacturability 10, 126, 134, 140, 209, 234, 248 measling 278, 525, 596, 607, 608 memory cells 83 mesh classification 289 mesh count 289, 499, 500 mesh opening 289 metal recovery 613, 615 micro sectioning 341, 522, 564, 568 microcomputer 81 microcontroller 88 micro-etching 321, 368, 447, 613, 614 microns 82 microprocessor 81, 72 microscope 480, 569, 577 microscope, Greenough 578 microstrip 126,173 microstrip line 176 microstrip, surface 179 microstrip, coated 179 microstrip, embedded 179 microvia 20, 19, 154, 185, 281 milling, chemical 365 MIPS 83 mis-registration 603, 609 modem 306 MOSFET 59, 62 mother board 419 mounting holes 113, 252 MSI 75 multi-layer 414 multi-layer board 8, 241, 414 N NEMA 257 nesting 444 netlist 221, 223, 248, 249, 252, 254 netlist file 229 nick 348, 599 nicking 473 nodules 600, 602 noise 7, 32, 414 noise immunity 173 non-polar 519 non-wetting 523 numerical aperture 578 O Ohm’s law 29 optical comparator 577 optical inspection 250, 522, 586 optical inspection, automatic 591, 493, 574 optical scanning 577 optical testing 426 organic coating 330 organic lacquer coating 310 organic surface protectant 311 osmosis 315 685 686 Index osmosis pressure 315 outgassing 275, 334, 525, 526 outgrowth 604 overhang 348, 380, 381,523, 599 oxidizer 612 ozone depletion 614 ozone layer 520 P packing density 119, 135, 139, 571 pad 13, 145, 185, 193, 202, 353, 382 pad areas 126 pad diameter 206 pad size 208, 504 pad stacks 228 pantograph template 487 passivation 436 paste, no-clean 501 PCB waste 627 peel strength 24, 271, 272, 276, 597 peel-off test 262 permittivity 264 personal computer 222 pH 312, 316 pH meters 338 pH scale 316 phase diagram 458 phenolics 256 photo printing 283 photodiode 53 photo-engraving photomaster 149, 249 photoplotter 219, 222, 242, 251, 303, 591 photoplotter, vector 242, 309 photoprinting 349, 353 photo-resist 211, 259, 296, 366 photo-resist, liquid 369 photo-resist, positive acting 298 photoresist, dry film 12, 369 photo-resist, negative acting 298 photo-tool 154, 222, 249, 309, 304, 355 physical verification 236 pick-and-place 91 pick-and-place machine 489 pin hole 303, 334, 359, 527, 596 pin-grid arrays 26 pit 283, 334, 348, 466, 596, 599, 604 pixel 243, 304 placement accuracy 491 placement defects 588 placement reliability 491 placement, automatic 221 plane 133 Plasma-etching, 188 plated through-hole 146, 203 plating 301, 310, 312, 419, 449 plating adhesion 606 plating machines 332 plating process, automatic 344 plating process, semi-automatic 344 plating rate 347 plating thickness 206, 333 plating voids 608 plating, brush 336 Plating, copper 324 plating, electroless copper 360 plating, electrolytic 438 plating, finger 336 plating, gold 324, 331, 332 plating, immersion 318 plating, manual process 344 plating, nickel 323, 331 plating, panel 204, 312, 326, 360 plating, pattern 204, 302, 326, 348, 351, 360, 381, 337 plating, solder 328 plating, tab 336 plating, through-hole 421 plating, tin 327 plating, tin/lead 328, 340 PLCC 488 pliers 474 pliers, long nose 474, 475 pliers, round nose 475 pliers, snipe nose 475 polar 519 polishing 286 pollutants 614 pollution control 369 Index polyimide 256, 417 pop corn effect 518 porosity 315, 326, 605 porosity test 342 posistors 37 potentiometer 35, 252 potentiometer, multi-turn 35 potentiometer, sine-cosine 36 potentiometer, wire-wound 35 Potentiometers, carbon 35 Potentiometers, cermet 35 power plane 133, 419 precision 311 prepreg 8, 16, 173,260, 271, 414, 418, 567 prepreg, speedboard 274 press stack 423 print and etch 5, 10, 287, 366, 447 printing inks 295 programmable logic device 133 programmable pump 494 PROM 86 propagation delay 162, 270, 420 proximity sensor 306 PTH 6, 111 pull strength 460 pull test 522, 606 pulse circuits 171 pulse transformer 182 punchability 268, 276 punching 12, 262, 284 puppet 149 push-and shove 229 Q quad packs 330 quality 561 quality assurance 309, 561 quality audit 561 quality conformance 566 quality control 561 R radiant heating 515 radiation 514 687 radiation losses 172 radiography 424 RAM 84 RAM, dynamic 84 random access memory 84 random errors 173 rapid prototyping machine 383 raster plotting 309 read cycle 84 recovery rate 368 rectifiers 50 recycling 613, 614, 623, 624 redox potential 375 reed relays 100 reference designators 253 reflection 170 reflection coefficient 175 reflectometer 174 regeneration 367 regeneration process 616 regeneration, closed loop 375 regeneration, open loop 375 registration 193, 302, 306, 308, 423, 494, 603 regulator, three pin 71 reheology 503 relay 100 relay, solid state 100 reliability 24, 109, 126, 136, 361, 426, 445, 519, 542, 582, 622 reliability testing 581, 608 relief hole 446 repair/rework 254 resilience 503 resin 255 resin smear 587, 603, 604 resin, epoxy 256 resist 284 resist, dry film 204 resist, dry film resist, liquid 287 resist, solder 352, 552 resist, wet film resist, wet-film 204 resistance, volume 265 688 Index resistance, wear 310, 332 resistivity 258, 326 resistivity, surface 12 resistivity, volume 12 resistor, variable 35 resistor, wire-wound 30 resistors, carbon film 29 resistors, light-dependent 37 resistors, metal film 29 resolution 220, 308, 311, 357, 418, 579 resolving power 214 reverse osmosis 315, 617 re-work 303, 414, 524, 549 re-work station 542, 556 rheology 496 rigid board 9, 427 rigid flex 9, 437, 448, 452, 608 rigid material 255 rigid PCBs 440 rigid-flexible rise time 170 roller tinning 329 ROM 85 ROM, mask-programmed 86 rosin 459, 464 rotary pump 504 routability 188, 234 router, line-probe 233 router, maze-running 233 router, push-and-shove 233 router, rip-up 233 routers 234 routers, grided 235 routers, gridless 235 routing density 416 routing, automatic 221 routing, iterative 239 S safety masks 343 sampling 563 sampling plan 564 sanding 286 saponification 521 schematic diagram 10, 105, 151, 226, 227 schottky TTL 73 scintillator 591 scrap 624 scrap board 625 scrap disposal 624 screen frames 288 screen ink 366 screen mesh 287, 357 screen printing 4, 204, 283, 287, 337, 349, 353, 447, 489, 492, 494, 498 scrubbing 285, 287, 337 seeded process 348 selection machine 487 semi-additive processing 320 semiconductor memory 84 sensitizer 321 sequencing machine 487 sequential assembly 490 shear strength 453, 455, 457, 632 shearing 262, 284 shielding 9, 133, 169, 237 shoe grounder 538 side cutter 473 signal layers 419 signal lines 414 signal tracks 191 silicon-controlled rectifier 65 single-sided boards 110 SIPs 488 skin effect 171 sludge 370, 619 smear 424 SMOBC 360 snap-off 500 sniffing 544 software 221, 223, 242, 308 SOICS 488 solder 193, 453, 458 solder alloys 633 solder ball 528, 587 solder bridge 599 solder bridging 352, 360 solder cream 494 Index solder defects 588 solder float test 261 solder fusion 492 solder land 504 solder mask 3, 129, 135, 179, 207, 311, 352, 426, 606, 609 Solder mask 13, 249 solder mask, liquid 354 solder mask, paste 354 solder pad 141, 208, 432, 442, 461 solder paste 88, 480, 489, 492, 494, 517, 586, 631 solder resist, dry film 354 solder wetting time 330 solder wicking 360 solder wire 479 solder, rosin-core 459 solderability 13, 110, 209, 258, 310, 334, 343, 457, 501, 523, 564, 607 soldering 136, 447, 453, 532 soldering criteria 608 soldering gun 468 soldering iron 466, 467 soldering material 458 soldering pencil 467, 468 soldering procedure 458 soldering process 454 soldering station 468 soldering temperature 462 soldering tips 467 soldering tool 458 soldering, automatic 504 soldering, dip 504 soldering, dual wave 510 soldering, flow 117 soldering, hand 478 soldering, hard 453 soldering, hot bar 518 soldering, infra-red 516 soldering, laser 516 soldering, lead-free 496, 630 soldering, manual 524, 631 soldering, mass 481, 504, 516 soldering, reflow 352, 457, 462, 494, 512, 632 soldering, soft 453 689 soldering, vapour phase 356, 517 soldering, wave 136, 205, 352, 443, 457, 462, 487, 492, 505, 524, 582, 632 solvolysis 628 SOTs 488 spacing 144, 426 specific gravity 366, 625 specific resistivity 119 spray machine 15 sputtering 528 square land 210 squeegee 287, 291, 496, 497, 503 SSI 75 stainability 432 standards 23, 105 static RAM 84 statistical process control 563 stencil 287, 494, 497 stepper motor 306 stereo microscope 577 stiffeners 117, 443 stopper bath 218 stress relief 483 stress test 610 strip line, asymmetric 177 strip line, symmetric 177 stripline 173, 176 stripline, dual 177 strippers 475 stripping 295, 300, 303, 326 substrate 335 subtractive method 12 subtractive process 321 supply chain 254 surface coating 237 surface insulation resistance 361, 583 surface mount assembly 489 surface mount components 26, 89, 141, 353 surface mount technology 4, 88, 417 surface resistance 265 surface resistivity 266 surface tension 339, 455, 520, 632 swapping 230 switching noise 187 690 Index switching time 173 system ground 162 T tarnish 457, 462 tarnish resistant, 332 tear resistance 431 temperature cycle 523 templates 149, 194 tensile strength 109, 262, 326, 431, 456, 460 tension gauge 291 tent and etch 360 tenting 359 tents 334 terminal pull 564 test audit 254 test coupon 250, 309, 564, 606 test cycle 607 test grid 575 test lands 146 test pad 572 test parameter 609 test pattern 580 test point 148, 542 test probes 146 test vehicle 189 testability 10, 146 thermal analysis 184 thermal capacity 467 thermal conduction 480 thermal conductivity 632 thermal convection 480 thermal curing 356 thermal cycling 582 thermal management 419 thermal profile 513 thermal resistance 432 thermal shock 24, 110, 361, 418, 478, 513, 564, 582, 606 thermal shunt 472, 479 thermal stability 632 thermal stress 417, 438, 564, 582, 606, 610 thermistors 37 thermocouples 261 thermode 519 thermogram 595 thermography 595 thermoplastic 272, 429 thermosetting plastics 429 thick film circuits 88 thin film circuits 88 thixotropic 497, 503 thread count 290, 417 thread thickness 290 throwing power 326, 334 thyristor 62, 64, 470 timer/counter 88 tip 467 tip, chisel 478 tip, screwdriver 478 tolerance 114, 308, 418 tombstoning 359, 586 tooling holes 252 toroidal coil 47 toroids 47 torsion 419 torsion balance 340 total quality management 628 toxic fumes 611, 621 toxic material 611 toxicity 520, 631 trace 382 trace impedance 172 trace spacing 129 traceability 565, 567 trace-width 301 track density 573, 575 track length 190 track separation 225 track width 225 transformer 99, 133 transistor, bipolar 54, 59 transistor, field-effect 59 transistor, power 58 transistor-transistor logic 73 transmission lines 162 transputers 307 triac 65, 66 Index truth table 580 TTL 73, 165 tunnel diode 53 turbidity 316 Twaddell unit 339 tweezers 475 twist 110, 261, 278, 509, 597 twisted pairs 171 U ultraviolet (UV) curing 356 undercut 342, 347, 348, 368, 604 under-etching 380 V vacuum bonding 423 valency 315 vapour deposition 438 varistor 51 verification/design rule 236 via 13, 185, 310 via, blind 3, 21, 185, 186, 232, 424, 416, 608 via, buried 3, 21, 186, 232, 416, 424 vibration test 522 vision system 554 VLSI 75 void 323, 334, 348, 422, 522, 554, 587, 596, 599 voltage breakdown test 574 voltage plane 448, 584 voltage standing wave ratio 175 volume resistivity 266 W warp 110, 261, 278, 419, 503, 607 warp and twist 566 warpage 117 waste disposal 628 waste water 613, 614 water absorption 275 water recycling 615 wave impedance 165, 170 weave density 259 weave exposure 597 web 251 webbing 604 wet scrubbing 621 wettability 287, 463 wetting 343, 455, 501, 511, 523, 557, 586 wetting agents 325, 331, 366, 463 wetting angle 522 wetting power 461 whisker 525 wicking 518, 544, 597 wire stripper 473 wiring capacity 186 word length 83 workstation 222 wrist strap 536, 538 write ‘cycle’ 84 X x-ray detector 591 x-ray laminography 591 x-ray scanning 577 x-ray tomography 591 Y YAG 516 Z zener diode 51 zener voltage 51 z-expansion 280 691