Food irradiation principles and applications

FOOD IRRADIATION: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS Edited by R A Molins The National Academies @ T T ILC I~ INTERSCIENCE A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION NewYork • Chichester • Weinheim • Brisbane • Singapore • Toronto This book is printed on acid-free paper © Copyright © 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744 Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEY.COM For ordering and customer service, call 1-800-CALL-WILEY Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Molins, Ricardo A., 1948Food irradiation : Principles and applications / edited by Ricardo Molins p cm Includes index ISBN 0-471-35634-4 (cloth : alk paper) Radiation preservation of food I Title TP371.8.M65 2001 664'.0288—dc21 Printed in the United States of America 10 2001017629 In memory of George G Giddings, Ph.D Colleague, scholar, dear friend, and indefatigable promoter of food irradiation To you I say: Ignorance dies hard, and progress sometimes comes slowly, but both are inevitable PREFACE This book responds to the need of researchers, industry, and regulators to have a single source of information comprising all aspects of food irradiation: historical, technical, economic, and regulatory Because food irradiation involves many disciplines within and outside the realm of food science, this book has general chapters on radiation microbiology and chemistry as they apply to food as well as specific chapters on irradiation of each of the major food groups These are complemented by additional chapters on process control, economics, and regulatory aspects of food irradiation that are essential in planning the introduction or expansion of this technology The title of the book, therefore, is most appropriate in that principles and applications of food irradiation are indeed extensively discussed Twelve contributing authors from America, Asia, and Europe bring together the expertise accumulated around the world on this promising food processing technique Although the contributing authors have striven to present and cite the most recent information available on each topic covered in the book, there are notable differences in the degree of success achieved by each one These differences, to a large extent, reflect the prevailing interest on particular applications of food irradiation at present and during the past decade as opposed to that in earlier years Thus, research into such applications of irradiation as microbial decontamination of meat, poultry, and minimally processed foods, for example, has attracted more attention in the 1990s than insect disinfestation of stored dried foods, which was studied mainly during the 1960s and 1970s Consequently, the information provided in each chapter dealing with an application of food irradiation represents the state of the art for that particular application A major departure this book has from other works in this field is that the contributing authors, taking into consideration the massive scientific evidence gathered over more than half a century, concurred that food irradiation has been exhaustively proven to be safe and to result in wholesome food Therefore, they refused to continue to debate these issues They believe that the unique potential this technology has to increase the availability of food and to improve its quality and safety will eventually lead to its acceptance I am grateful to my fellow co-authors for accepting my invitation to collaborate in this book It is a great honor to be here in their company Contents Preface Introduction 1.1 Historical Notes on Food Irradiation 1.1.1 Notes on the Development of the Food Irradiation Process and Applications Proving the Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods 12 Potential Social and Economic Benefits of Food Irradiation 14 1.1.2 1.2 1.2.1 Social and Economic Benefits of Food Irradiation in Relation to Food Security: Preventing Postharvest Food Losses and Extending the Shelf Life of Perishable Foods 15 Social and Economic Benefits in Relation to Food Safety: Controlling Pathogenic Bacteria and Parasites in Foods 16 Radiation Inactivation of Microorganisms 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Mechanisms of Inactivation 23 2.3 Mechanisms of Microbial Survival and Repair 24 2.4 Radiation Sensitivity of Specific Microorganisms 25 2.4.1 Bacteria of Public Health Significance 27 2.4.2 Viruses 27 2.4.3 Parasites 31 1.2.2 xiii This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation vii viii Contents 2.5 Environmental Factors Affecting Radiation Sensitivity 31 2.6 Other Issues 32 2.7 Conclusions 32 Food Irradiation Chemistry 37 3.1 37 Introduction 3.1.1 Types of Ionizing Radiation and Their Sources 37 Background and Induced Radioactivity 38 Basic Effects of Ionizing Radiation 39 3.2.1 Primary Effects 39 3.2.2 Secondary Effects 41 3.3 Water Radiolysis 43 3.4 Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Major Food Components 46 3.4.1 Carbohydrates 47 3.4.2 Proteins 50 3.4.3 Lipids 58 3.4.4 Vitamins 64 Conclusions 68 Disinfestation of Stored Grains, Pulses, Dried Fruits and Nuts, and Other Dried Foods 77 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 Radiation Effects on Insects 80 4.2.1 General Effects of Radiation on Insects 80 4.2.2 Feeding Behaviour of Irradiated Insects 82 4.2.3 Sterilizing Effects of Radiation 83 Current Disinfestation Methods and Their Drawbacks 85 3.1.2 3.2 3.5 4.3 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Contents ix 4.3.1 Chemical Methods 86 4.3.2 Physical Methods 87 Irradiation Disinfestation 88 4.4.1 Cereal Grains 88 4.4.2 Pulses 89 4.4.3 Dried Fruits and Nuts 90 4.4.4 Dried-Beverage Crops 92 4.4.5 Dried Foods of Animal Origin 93 4.4.6 Other Dried Food Products 94 4.4.7 Irradiation in Combination with Other Methods 95 4.5 Preventing Reinfestation 97 4.6 Regulatory Approval and Potential Commercial Application of Radiation Disinfestation of Stored Dried Foods 101 4.4 Irradiation as a Quarantine Treatment 113 5.1 Need for Quarantine Treatment 113 5.2 Types of Quarantine Treatment 113 5.3 Comparison between Irradiation and Other Quarantine Treatment 114 5.4 History of Irradiation Quarantine Treatment 117 5.5 Radiation Quarantine Treatment 118 5.6 Radiation Quarantine Treatment Research 119 5.7 5.6.1 Aspects of Importance in Conducting Radiation Quarantine Treatment Research 121 5.6.2 Research Needs 124 Future Outlook for Irradiation as a Quarantine Treatment 127 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation x Contents Irradiation of Meats and Poultry 131 6.1 6.2 Introduction 131 6.1.1 The Origins of Parasitic and Microbial Contamination of Meats and Poultry 131 6.1.2 Effectiveness of Nonlethal, Preventive Measures to Control Microbiological Contamination of Meats and Poultry 132 6.1.3 Decontamination Methods of Raw Meats and Poultry 133 Irradiation of Meats and Poultry 135 6.2.1 Microbiological Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Meats and Poultry 135 6.2.2 Combined Effects of Irradiation and Other Treatments on Meats and Poultry 159 6.2.3 Physical and Chemical Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Meats and Poultry 163 6.2.4 Effects of Irradiation on Nutrients in Fresh Meats and Poultry 170 6.2.5 Packaging for Irradiation of Meat and Poultry 172 6.2.6 Research Needs in Meat and Poultry Irradiation 173 6.2.7 Outlook on the Future of Meat and Poultry Irradiation 174 Irradiation Processing of Fish and Shellfish Products 193 7.1 Introduction 193 7.2 Irradiation for Shelf-Life Extension of Seafood Products 195 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Contents 7.3 xi 7.2.1 Finfish Products 195 7.2.2 Shellfish and Crustaceans 197 Potential Human Pathogens of Public Health Concern in Seafood Products 200 7.3.1 Indigenous Potential Pathogens Associated with the Natural Aquatic Environment 200 7.3.2 Potential Pathogenic Microorganisms Associated with Human and/or Animal Fecal Pollution 203 7.3.3 Potential Pathogenic Microorganisms Associated with Processing and Preparation 204 7.4 Low- and Medium-Dose Irradiation for Pathogen Control in Seafood Products 205 7.5 Research Needs in Seafood Irradiation 208 7.6 The Future of Seafood Irradiation 208 Irradiation of Fruits and Vegetables 213 8.1 Introduction 213 8.2 Physiology and Biochemistry of Fruit Ripening 214 8.3 Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Ripening, Senescence, and Shelf Life of Fruits 215 8.3.1 Tropical and Subtropical Fruits 215 8.3.2 Temperate Fruits 218 8.3.3 Biochemical Mechanisms Involved in Delay of Ripening in Fruits by Irradiation 218 8.3.4 Effects of Irradiation on the Nutritional Qualities of Fruits 219 8.3.5 Effects of Irradiation on Sensory Quality Attributes 225 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation xii Contents 8.4 8.5 Control of Postharvest Fungal Rot in Fruits by Irradiation Alone or in Combination with Other Treatments 227 8.4.1 Heat Plus Irradiation 228 8.4.2 Combination of Radiation, Heat, and Chemicals 229 Potential for Radiation Treatment of Vegetables 230 Irradiation of Tuber and Bulb Crops 241 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Introduction 241 9.1.1 Factors Contributing to Postharvest Losses of Tuber and Bulb Crops 242 9.1.2 Significance of Sprouting of Tuber and Bulb Crops in Storage 243 9.1.3 Alternate Methods for Control of Sprouting and Shelf Life Extension of Tuber and Bulb Crops 244 Radiation Treatment for Control of Sprouting and Shelf-Life Extension of Tuber and Bulb Crops 245 9.2.1 Biochemical Mechanisms of Sprout Control by Ionizing Radiation 245 9.2.2 Factors Determining the Efficacy of Radiation Treatment 246 Effects of Irradiation on Nutritional Components 249 9.3.1 Carbohydrates 249 9.3.2 Proteins and Amino Acids 250 9.3.3 Vitamins 251 9.3.4 Chlorophylls and Glycoalkaloids 252 9.3.5 Flavor and Pungency 253 Effect of Ionizing Radiation on Technological Properties of Tubers and Bulbs 254 9.4.1 Wound Healing and Storage Rot 254 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 479 Index terms Links Microorganisms (Continued) viruses 27 survival and repair mechanisms 24 tuber and bulb crop irradiation 254 tuber and bulb crop losses 243 Microwave heating, irradiation methods and Milk, pasteurization Minimally processed foods irradiation 96 97 15 78 446 141 149 196 198 199 368 273 cook-chill foods 277 conventional 279 sous-vide foods 282 defined 273 demand for 273 fresh produce 275 modified-atmosphere packaging 274 pathogens 274 regulatory approval 273 research needs 284 Minimal radiation dose (MRD), meats and poultry irradiation 30 136 Mitochondrial DNA, agarose electrophoresis of, detection methods Modified-atmosphere packaging (MAP), combined treatments 366 320 See also Controlled atmospheres; Packaging; Vacuum packaging Modified atmospheres See Controlled atmospheres Montreal Protocol Moraxella spp This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 197 480 Index terms Links Moraxella-Acinetobacter 160 162 Moraxella phenylpyruvica 160 320 Mushrooms, irradiation disinfestations 197 93 N National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 142 Near-infrared reflectance spectra, detection methods 358 Nectarines, irradiation effects 218 Neurocysticercosis Niacin, irradiation effects 17 224 Nitrogen, irradiation methods and 97 Norwalk viruses 17 Nucleic acids, protein irradiation chemistry effects 58 252 203 Nutrition effects: enzyme-inactivated, radiation-sterilized chicken 336 fruits and vegetables irradiation 219 meats and poultry irradiation 170 tuber and bulb crop irradiation 249 Nuts (dried), irradiation disinfestations 90 O Odor, meats and poultry irradiation 169 Onions See Tuber and bulb crop irradiation Operating costs 422 Opisthorchis viverrini 135 Organophosphates Ortho-tyrosine, detection methods 86 362 Oryzaephilus surinamensis 81 82 Ozone depletion 78 86 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 446 199 481 Index terms Links P Packaging 313 See also Vacuum packaging fish and shellfish irradiation 197 international regulations 448 irradiation disinfestation and 98 meats and poultry irradiation 144 157 148 159 151 170 minimally processed foods 273 275 278 process control and dosimetry 395 Packing density effects, cobalt-60 439 Pallet conveyor irradiator: concept 418 420 costs 428 432 Pallet irradiator: concept 417 costs 427 Papaya, irradiation effects 433 216 Parasites: food irradiation benefits meats and poultry irradiation 17 135 (See also Meats and poultry irradiation) radiation sensitivity of Para-tyrosine, detection methods 31 362 Pasteurization: cold, meats and poultry irradiation 145 refrigerated pasteurized food of extended durability (REPFED) 274 Pathogens See Bacteria; Microorganisms Peaches, irradiation effects 218 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 154 172 482 Index terms Links Pears, irradiation effects 218 Pediococcus spp 156 Pediococcus cerevisiae 150 Penicillium spp 293 Penicillium digitatum 229 Penicillium italicum 229 Peptides, irradiation chemistry effects 54 Pesticides See also Chemical fumigants; Disinfestation disinfestation quarantine treatment 77 114 Phoma 255 Phomopsis citri 229 Phosphine 86 86 Photobacterium spp 368 Photostimulated luminescence measurement (PSL), detection methods 354 355 Phthorimaea operculella (potato tuber moth) 243 259 Physical detection methods 350 See also Detection methods Physical effects, meats and poultry irradiation 163 Phytophthora megasperma 255 Plantain, irradiation effects 215 Plesiomonas shigelloides 202 Polio virus 30 Pollution, fish and shellfish contamination 203 Pork, shelf-stable meats and poultry irradiation 332 See also Meats and poultry irradiation Postharvest fungal rot control, fruits and vegetables irradiation 227 Potatoes See Tuber and bulb crop irradiation This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 96 483 Index terms Potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella) Links 243 259 Poultry See Meats and poultry; Meats and poultry irradiation Preventive measures, meats and poultry contamination 132 Process control and dosimetry 387 advisory technological versus legal dose limits 389 commissioning 395 dose distribution 397 irradiator description and design 395 purpose of 395 control considerations 391 electron-beam and X-ray facilities 393 gamma-ray facilities 392 product variations 395 documentation and recordkeeping 408 dose-effect relationship 390 dosimetry for 404 absorbed dose and measurement 407 categories of systems 404 guidelines 405 selection criteria 405 systems 407 traceability and accuracy 408 overview 387 process qualification 401 extreme dose homogeneity requirements 402 process limits 403 treatment change 402 treatment initiation 401 Processed foods See Minimally processed foods This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 484 Index terms Links Product release, documentation, process control and dosimetry 409 Proteins: dried-food ingredients irradiation 301 irradiation chemistry effects 50 meats and poultry irradiation 170 tuber and bulb crop irradiation 250 Proteus spp 199 Proteus vulgaris 163 Pseudomonas spp 152 195 196 198 199 368 243 279 321 Pseudomonas fluorescens 162 Pseudomonas putida 160 Pulsed gel electrophoresis, detection methods 367 Pulses, irradiation disinfestation 89 98 Q Quarantine treatment 113 future of 127 historical perspective 117 irradiation and other methods compared 114 irradiation method described 118 120 irradiation method research 119 121 aspects in conducting of 121 needs in 124 need for 113 types of 113 R Radappertization 142 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 485 Index terms Links Radiation resistant mutants, microorganisms 32 Radiation sensitivity, of microorganisms 25 Raw beef, meats and poultry irradiation 149 Recommended Code of Practice for the Operation of Radiation Facilities Used for the Treatment of Foods 11 Recordkeeping, process control and dosimetry 408 Reference systems, process control and dosimetry 404 446 Refrigerated pasteurized food of extended durability (REPFED) 274 278 See also Minimally processed foods Regulatory approval: food irradiation 193 global perspective 447 irradiation disinfestation 101 meats and poultry contamination 133 minimally processed foods 273 process control and dosimetry 409 Reinfestation prevention 97 Retrovirus SA11 30 Rhizopus spp 230 Rhizopus stolonifer 227 Riboflavin, irradiation effects 224 Rice weevil 252 79 Ripening delay mechanisms, irradiation effects 218 Ripening physiology, fruits and vegetables 214 RNA, protein irradiation chemistry effects 58 Routine systems, process control and dosimetry 103 404 S Safety See Food safety This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 486 Index terms Salmonella spp Links 14 16 17 29 31 145 150 203 276 320 450 131 146 156 204 292 372 134 147 161 205 294 444 136 148 194 206 302 445 206 207 149 206 160 279 Salmonella dublin 149 Salmonella enteritidis 149 Salmonella panama 146 Salmonella typhimurium 146 163 316 Sanitary Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs), fish and shellfish irradiation 194 Saprophytic microorganisms 293 Seed germination, half-embryo test, detection methods 371 Sensory attributes See Color; Taste Shelf life See also Disinfestation fish and shellfish irradiation 194 finfish products 195 shellfish and crustaceans 197 food irradiation benefits 15 fruits and vegetable irradiation 215 meats and poultry irradiation 153 cured and processed meats 157 fresh meats 153 minimally processed foods 274 tuber and bulb crop irradiation 245 Shelf-stable meats and poultry irradiation 201 329 See also Meats and poultry irradiation This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 162 280 487 Index terms Links Shelf-stable meats and poultry irradiation (Continued) bacon 333 beef 331 chicken 335 fish 334 (See also Fish and shellfish irradiation) frankfurters 334 future prospects 339 ham 333 historical perspective 329 pork 332 production of 337 research supporting 330 South Africa 338 United States 337 Shellfish See Fish and shellfish irradiation Shewanella putrefaciens 196 Shigella spp 29 Sitophilus oryzae (rice weevil) 79 Sodium nitrate, meats and poultry sterilization 143 Soups, dried-food ingredients irradiation 300 203 See also Dried-food ingredients irradiation Sous-vide foods 282 See also Controlled atmospheres; Minimally processed foods irradiation; Vacuum packaging South Africa, shelf-stable meats and poultry irradiation Soviet Union 338 Spectroscopy See Electron spin resonance (ESR) Spectroscopy Spices See also Dried-food ingredients irradiation irradiation disinfestation 93 296 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 204 445 488 Index terms Links Spices (Continued) meats and poultry irradiation Sporobolomyces roseus 158 159 Sprouting (tuber and bulb crops): control of 245 402 significance of 243 Staphylococcus spp 149 199 Staphylococcus aureus 16 151 194 279 28 160 204 282 Stem-end rot 228 229 147 162 205 320 Sterilization: insects, disinfestation 83 meats and poultry irradiation 142 quarantine irradiation methods 124 Storage See also Disinfestation food irradiation benefits tuber and bulb crops 15 244 245 Streptobacterium 156 Streptococcus spp 195 198 199 Streptococcus faecalis 150 160 163 Streptococcus faecium 141 156 Subtropical fruits, irradiation effects 215 Sugar beet, dried-food irradiation 302 Survival and repair mechanisms, microorganisms 24 T Taeniarhynchus saginatus 31 Taenias 135 Taenia saginata 136 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 150 163 206 489 Index terms Taenia solium Links 17 136 Taste: fruits and vegetables irradiation 225 meats and poultry irradiation 168 tuber and bulb crop irradiation 253 Temperate fruits, irradiation effects 218 Temperature See also Freezing combined treatments disinfestation 316 87 fruits and vegetables irradiation 228 meats and poultry irradiation 143 158 microorganism radiation sensitivity 126 quarantine treatment 114 tuber and bulb crops 244 149 152 424 426 430 17 135 245 45 2-Tetradecylcyclobutanone (2-TCB), detection methods 361 Texturizing agents, dried-food ingredients irradiation 301 Thermoluminescence measurement (TL), detection methods 354 Thiamin, irradiation effects 224 Tobacco, irradiation disinfestation 144 159 31 quarantine irradiation methods water radiolysis 95 252 93 Tolerance stage, quarantine irradiation methods 122 Total processing costs 422 Totebox irradiator: concept 417 costs 423 Toxicology, wholesomeness proofs 13 Toxoplasma gondii 16 Traceability, process control and dosimetry 408 Trade, international, process control and dosimetry 410 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 490 Index terms Links Transportation studies, irradiation disinfestation and 100 Treatment change, process control and dosimetry 402 Treatment initiation, process control and dosimetry 401 Trichinella spiralis 17 31 320 Trichosporon cutaneum 159 Triglycerides See Lipids Tropical fruits, irradiation effects 215 Tuber and bulb crop irradiation 241 alternate methods of treatment 244 chlorophylls and glycoalkaloids 252 crop production 241 future prospects 259 nutrition effects 249 carbohydrates 249 proteins and amino acids 250 vitamins 251 postharvest loss causes 242 potato tuber moth 259 sprout control 245 biochemical mechanisms 245 efficacy of 246 sprouting significance 243 taste 253 technological properties 254 discoloration 256 processing qualities 258 wound healing and storage rot 254 U United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), pesticides 78 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 135 136 491 Index terms United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Links 319 food security 15 historical perspective 10 irradiation approval 445 statistics of 193 United States meats and poultry sterilization pesticides shelf-stable meats and poultry irradiation 15 142 78 337 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA): irradiation disinfestation 90 meats and poultry contamination 133 136 meats and poultry irradiation 145 147 152 444 145 147 United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA): historical perspective 10 irradiation disinfestation and 101 meats and poultry irradiation 136 333 142 regulatory approval 193 444 United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 142 Unit processing costs 422 V Vacuum, irradiation methods and 95 Vacuum packaging: fish and shellfish irradiation 197 meats and poultry irradiation 157 minimally processed foods irradiation 274 Validation procedure, process qualification 401 278 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 282 492 Index terms Links Vegetables: dried-food ingredients irradiation 300 (See also Dried-food ingredients irradiation) minimally processed foods irradiation 275 Vibrio spp 29 197 208 194 198 444 195 202 Vibrio cholerae 206 207 444 Vibrionaceae 196 198 202 Vibrio parahaemolyticus 199 207 204 205 206 Vibrio vulnificus 199 207 203 205 206 hepatitis A virus 30 203 hepatitis E virus 203 Norwalk viruses 17 203 radiation sensitivity of 27 30 Viruses: Viscosity measurement, detection methods 356 Vitamins: fruit and vegetable irradiation 220 minimally processed foods irradiation 281 radiation effects, generally tuber and bulb crop irradiation 63 251 W Water, irradiation chemistry 24 Water radiolysis, irradiation chemistry 43 Weeping, meats and poultry irradiation 169 Wholesomeness proofs, food irradiation, historical perspective 12 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 196 207 493 Index terms Links World Health Organization (WHO): food irradiation endorsement by 17 food security 15 historical perspective 10 World Trade Organization 11 Wound healing, tuber and bulb crop irradiation 319 445 436 438 254 X Xanthomonas spp 243 X rays: costs 420 dose distribution 397 facilities for, electron-beam and, process control and dosimetry irradiator description and design radiation sources 393 396 38 329 Yeasts, meats and poultry irradiation 157 158 Yersinia spp 153 Y Yams See Tuber and bulb crop irradiation Yersinia enterocolitica 29 136 149 202 203 274 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 150 ... Involving Food Irradiation 316 12.2.1 Irradiation and Heat 316 12.2.2 Irradiation and Low Temperatures 319 12.2.3 Irradiation and Modified-Atmosphere Packaging 320 12.2.4 Irradiation. .. Economic Benefits of Food Irradiation 14 1.1.2 1.2 1.2.1 Social and Economic Benefits of Food Irradiation in Relation to Food Security: Preventing Postharvest Food Losses and Extending the... Notes on Food Irradiation 1.1.1 Notes on the Development of the Food Irradiation Process and Applications Proving the Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods 12 Potential Social and Economic