Food Processing Principles and Applications Food Processing Principles and Applications Edited by J Scott Smith and Y H Hui ©2004 Blackwell Publishing All rights reserved Printed on acid-free paper in the United States of America Blackwell Publishing Professional 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014, USA First edition, 2004 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Orders: Office: Fax: Web site: 1-800-862-6657 1-515-292-0140 1-515-292-3348 www.blackwellprofessional.com Blackwell Publishing Ltd 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK Tel.: +44 (0)1865 776868 Blackwell Publishing Asia 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia Tel.: +61 (0)3 8359 1011 Food processing : principles and applications / edited by J Scott Smith and Y H Hui.—1st ed p cm Includes index ISBN 0-8138-1942-3 (acid-free paper) Food industry and trade I Smith, J Scott II Hui, Y H (Yiu H.) TP370.F626 2004 664—dc22 Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by Blackwell Publishing, provided that the base fee of $.10 per copy is paid directly to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 For those organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by CCC, a separate system of payments has been arranged The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is 0-8138-1942-3/2004 $.10 The last digit is the print number: 2004007256 Contents Contributors, vii Preface, xi Part I Principles Principles of Food Processing, Y H Hui, Miang-Hoog Lim, Wai-Kit Nip, J Scott Smith, P H F Yu Food Dehydration, 31 Robert Driscoll Fermented Product Manufacturing, 45 Wai-Kit Nip Fundamentals and Industrial Applications of Microwave and Radio Frequency in Food Processing, 79 Yi-Chung Fu Food Packaging, 101 Lisa J Mauer, Banu F Ozen Food Regulations in the United States, 133 Peggy Stanfield Food Plant Sanitation and Quality Assurance, 151 Y H Hui Part II Applications Bakery: Muffins, 165 Nanna Cross Bakery: Yeast-leavened Breads, 183 Ruthann B Swanson 10 Beverages: Nonalcoholic, Carbonated Beverages, 203 Daniel W Bena 11 Beverages: Alcoholic, Beer Making, 225 Sean Francis O’Keefe 12 Grain, Cereal: Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals, 239 Jeff D Culbertson 13 Grain, Paste Products: Pasta and Asian Noodles, 249 James E Dexter 14 Dairy: Cheese, 273 Samuel E Beattie 15 Dairy: Ice Cream, 287 Karen A Schmidt v vi 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Contents Dairy: Yogurt, 297 Ramesh C Chandan Dairy: Milk Powders, 319 Marijana Cari´c Fats: Mayonnaise, 329 Susan E Duncan Fats: Vegetable Shortening, 343 Lou Ann Carden, Laura K Basilo Fats: Edible Fat and Oil Processing, 353 Ingolf U Grün Fruits: Orange Juice Processing, 361 Y H Hui Meat: Hot Dogs and Bologna, 391 Ty Lawrence, Richard Mancini Meat: Fermented Meats, 399 Fidel Toldrá Poultry: Canned Turkey Ham, 417 Edith Ponce-Alquicira Poultry: Poultry Nuggets, 433 Alfonso Totosaus, Maria de Lourdes Pérez-Chabela Poultry: Poultry Pâté, 439 Maria de Lourdes Pérez-Chabela, Alfonso Totosaus Seafood: Frozen Aquatic Food Products, 447 Barbara A Rasco, Gleyn E Bledsoe Seafood: Processing, Basic Sanitation Practices, 459 Peggy Stanfield Vegetables: Tomato Processing, 473 Sheryl A Barringer Index, 491 Contributors Gleyn E Bledsoe, Ph.D., C.P.A (Chapter 27) Biological Systems Engineering Department Washington State University Pullman, WA 99164-6373 USA Phone: 509-335-8167 Fax: 509-335-2722 E-mail: gleyn@wsu.edu Sheryl A Barringer, Ph.D (Chapter 29) Ohio State University Department of Food Science and Technology Room 110 2015 Fyffe Road Columbus OH 43210-1007 USA Phone: 614-688-3642 Fax: 614-292-0218 Email: barringer.11@osu.edu Lou Ann Carden, Ph.D (Chapter 19) Nutrition and Dietetics Western Carolina University 126 Moore Hall Cullowhee, NC 28723 USA Phone: 828-227-3515 E-mail: lcarden@wcu.edu Laura K Basilio, M.S (Chapter 19) Sensory Evaluation Consultant 815 Josepi Drive Knoxville, TN 37918 USA Phone: 865-938-3017 E-mail: tbasilio2002@comcast.net Samuel E Beattie, Ph.D (Chapter 14) Extension Specialist Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition Iowa State University Ames, IA 50011-1120 USA Phone: 515-294-3357 Fax: 515-294-1040 E-mail: beatties@iastate.edu Marijana Cari´c, Ph.D., P.E (Chapter 17) Professor Faculty of Technology University of Novi Sad 21000 NOVI SAD, Bulevar Cara Lazara Serbia and Montenegro Phone: 381 21 450-712 Fax: 381 21 450-413 E-mail: caricom@uns.ns.ac.yu Daniel W Bena (Chapter 10) Senior Fellow PepsiCo International 700 Anderson Hill Road, 7/3-738 Purchase, NY 10577 USA Phone: 914-253-3012 E-mail: dan.bena@pepsi.com Ramesh C Chandan, Ph.D (Chapter 16) Consultant 1364, 126th Avenue NW Coon Rapids, MN 55448-4004 USA Phone: 763-862-4768 Fax: 763-862-5049 E-mail address: chandanrc1@msn.com vii viii Contributors Nanna Cross, Ph.D., R.D., L.D (Chapter 8) Consultant 1436 West Rosemont Avenue, Floor One Chicago, IL 60660 Phone: 773-764-7749 E-mail: n.cross@sbcglobal.net Jeff D Culbertson, Ph.D (Chapter 12) Professor: Food Science and Toxicology University of Idaho 202A Food Research Center Moscow, Idaho 83844-1056 USA Phone: 208-885-2572 Fax: 208-885-2567 E-mail: jeffc@uidaho.edu James E Dexter, Ph.D (Chapter 13) Canadian Grain Commission Grain Research Laboratory 1404-303 Main Street Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3C 3G8 Phone: 204-983-6054 Fax: 204-983-0724 E-mail: jdexter@grainscanada.gc.ca Robert Driscoll, Ph.D., P.E (Chapter 2) Department of Food Science and Technology University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia Phone: 0612-9385.4355 Fax: 0612-9385.5931 E-mail: R.Driscoll@unsw.edu.au Susan E Duncan, Ph.D., R.D (Chapter 18) Professor Department of Food Science and Technology Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA Phone: 540-231-8675 Fax: 540-231-9293 Email: duncans@vt.edu Yi-Chung Fu, Ph.D., P.E (Chapter 4) Department of Food Science National Chung Hsing University P.O Box 17-55, Taichung, Taiwan 40227, R.O.C Phone: 886-4-22853922 Fax: 886-4-22876211 E-mail: frank12@ms18.hinet.net Ingolf U Grün, Ph.D (Chapter 20) University of Missouri Department of Food Science 256 William C Stringer Wing Columbia, MO 65211-5160 USA Phone: 573-882-6746 Fax: 573-884-7964 Email: GruenI@missouri.edu Y H Hui, Ph.D (Chapters 1, 7, 21) President Science Technology System P.O Box 1374 West Sacramento, CA 95691 USA Phone: 916-372-2655 Fax: 916-372-2690 Email: yhhui@aol.com Ty Lawrence, Ph.D (Chapter 22) The Smithfield Packing Co 15855 Hwy 87 West Tar Heel, NC 28392 USA Phone: 910-862-7675 Fax: 910-862-5249 E-mail: tylawrence@smithfieldpacking.com or shannty007@yahoo.com Miang-Hoog Lim, Ph.D (Chapter 1) Univ of Otago Department of Food Science PO Box 56 Dunedin, 9015 New Zealand Phone: 64-3-4797953 Fax: 64-3-4797953 E-mail: miang.lim@stonebow.otago.ac.nz Maria de Lourdes Pérez-Chabela, Ph.D (Chapters 25, 26) Departamento de Biotecnologia Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana–Iztapalapa Apartado Postal 55-535, C.P 09340 Mexico D.F., Mexico Phone: 52 724-4717/4726 Fax: 52 724-47 12 E-mail: lpch@xanum.uam.mx Contributors Richard Mancini, M.S (Chapter 22) Department of Animal Sciences Kansas State University 216 Weber Hall Manhattan, KS 66502 USA Phone: 785-532-1269 Fax: 785-532-7059 E-mail: rmancini@oznet.ksu.edu Lisa J Mauer, Ph.D (Chapter 5) Assistant Professor Department of Food Science Purdue University 745 Agriculture Mall Drive West Lafayette, IN 47907-2009 USA Phone: 765-494-9111 Fax: 765-494-7953 E-mail: mauer@purdue.edu Wai-Kit Nip, Ph.D (Chapters 1, 3) Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources University of Hawaii at Manoa 1955 East-West Road Honolulu, HI 96822 USA Phone: 808-956-3852 Fax: 808-956-3542 E-mail: wknip@hawaii.edu Sean Francis O’Keefe, Ph.D (Chapter 11) Associate Professor Food Science and Technology Department Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg VA 24061 USA Phone: 540-231-4437 Fax: 540-231-9293 E-mail: okeefes@vt.edu Banu F Ozen, Ph.D (Chapter 5) Postdoctoral Associate Department of Food Science Purdue University 745 Agriculture Mall Drive West Lafayette, IN 47907-2009 USA ix Edith Ponce-Alquicira, Ph.D (Chapter 24) Departamento de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa Av San Rafael Atlixco 186, Col Vicentina, Apartado postal 55-535, C.P 09340 México D.F., México Phone: 5804-4717, 5804-4726 Fax: 5804-4712 Email: pae@xanum.uam.mx Barbara A Rasco, Ph.D., J.D (Chapter 27) Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition Washington State University Pullman, WA 99164-6376 USA Phone: 509-335-1858 Fax: 509-335-4815 E-mail: Rasco@wsu.edu Karen A Schmidt, Ph.D (Chapter 15) Professor Department of Animal Sciences and Industry Kansas State University Manhattan, KS 66506-1600 USA Phone: 785-532-5654 Fax: 785-532-5681 E-mail: kschmidt@oznet.ksu.edu J Scott Smith, Ph.D (Chapter 1) Professor Department of Animal Science and Industry Kansas State University Call Hall, Rm 208 Manhattan, KS 66506, USA Phone: 785-532-1219 Fax: 785-532-5681 E-mail: jsschem@ksu.edu Peggy Stanfield, M.S., R.D (Chapters 6, 28) President Dietetic Resources 167 Robbins Avenue W Twin Falls, ID 83301 USA Voice/Fax: 208-733-8662 Email: pstandfld@pmt.org x Ruthann B Swanson, Ph.D (Chapter 9) Associate Professor Department of Foods and Nutrition University of Georgia 174 Dawson Hall Athens, GA 30602 USA Phone: 706-542-4834 Fax: 706-542-5059 Email: rswanson@fcs.uga.edu Fidel Toldrá, Ph.D (Chapter 23) Research Professor Head of Laboratory of Meat Science Department of Food Science Instituto de Agroquimica y Tecnologia de Alimentos (CSIC) P.O Box 73 46100 Burjassot (Valencia) Spain Phone: 34 96 3900022 Fax: 34 96 3636301 E-mail: ftoldra@iata.csic.es Contributors Alfonso Totosaus, Ph.D (Chapters 25, 26) Food Science Lab Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Ecatepec Av Tecnológico y Av H González Ecatepec 55210, Edo México, México Phone: +52 55 5710 4560 ext 307 Fax: +52 55 5710 4560 ext 305 E-mail: totosaus@att.net.mx P H F Yu, Ph.D (Chapter 1) Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hung Hom, Kowloon Hong Kong Index recalls, 156 warning letters, 158 Enthalpy, 34, 43 conservation in dryers, 43 and wet bulb lines, 35 Entrainment of particles, 41 Enzymes, 274, 282, 284, 334 See also Chymosin; Plasmin endogeneous, 448, 450,452,455,456 microbial, 448, 450 Enzyme treatment, 389 Equilibrium moisture content, 33, 35 Equilibrium relative humidity, 33 Equipment, 141 Equipment costs, 159 Essence recovery, 380 water phase aroma and essence oil, 380 Essence recovery, 389 Evacuated chamber, 40 Evaporation, 33, 320, 321, 327 multiple effect, 321 plate evaporator, 321 tubular evaporator, 321 Evaporation and dehydration, 19 Evaporative cooling, 33, 79, 86–87, 90 Exchanger, 387 Exhaustion, 425, 430 Expeller pressing of soybeans, 344, 345 Extract, 207 Extraction, , 62, 385 Extrusion, 245 Eyes in cheese, 274, 281 F value, 442–443 advantages over Internal temperature, 442–443 Falling rate, 435 Falling rate period See Drying rate periods Falling-rate region, 90 FAO/WHO, 168, 178 Fat replacers, 166, 167, 171, 172, 178 Fat, 400–401, 404 content, 439, 440 dispersion, 439 Fatty acids, 403, 407, 411–412 flavor, 276, 283 levels in different milks, 276, 283 levels in cheeses, 283 metabolism, 283 FDA, 166, 168, 169, 178 FDA/CFSAN, 169, 178 FDA/ORA,178 Feed mill, 364 Feed mill operations, 383 Fermentation, 23, 401–403 Fermented cereal products (breads and related products), 50 See also specific product 497 functional ingredients, 50, 69 kinds of products, 50, 68 Fermented dairy products, 46–49 See also specific products cheeses, 46 fermented liquid milks, 46 ingredients, 46, 56 kinds of products, 46, 55 microorganisms, 46, 57, 58 starter cultures, 46, 57, 58 yogurt, 46 Fermented liquid milks, 48–49 See also specific products acidophilus milk, 49, 66 Kefir, 49, 66 sour milk, 49, 66 Fermented meat products, 49–50 See also specific products hams, 49 ingredients, 49, 67 types, 49 Fermented products application of biotechnology, 54 manufacturing, 45–78 process mechanization, 54 Fermented sausages, comminution, 404 flavor See Aroma; Taste mixing, 404 odor See Aroma origin, 399 processing stages, 404–408, 412–413 safety, 408–409 stuffing, 405 Fermented soy products, 51 See also specific products dou-chi (tou-chi), 52 dou-pan-chiang, 52 fermented soy paste, 52 fermented tofu, 52 fermented whole soybeans, 52 Hama-natto, 52 ingredients, 51, 72 kinds of products, 51 miso, 52 ordinary (Itohiki) natto, 52 soy sauce, 51–52 sticky tofu, 52 sufu (fermented soy cheese), 52 tempe (tempeh), 52–53 Fermented vegetables, 53 See also specific products basic process, 53 Chinese pickled vegetables, 54 ingredients, 53, 75 kimchi, 53 kinds of products, 53 pickles, 53 sauerkraut, 53 498 Feta cheese, 48 basic manufacturing steps, 48, 64 Fiber, 166, 172 Fiberoptic, 85, 90 Fick’s law, 37 Filling and sealing, 218 objectives of, 219 Finfish, 447,454 fillet blocks, 454,455 filleting, 455 gaping, 449 nitrogen metabolism, TMA/TMAO, 450,455 packaging, 453 postmortem changes, pH, 449 rigor, 449 storage life, refrigerated product, 451 water content, 448 Flaking, of grits, 239–240, 243 Flash dryer, 42 Flat (layered) bread basic steps in production, 51, 71 Flavones, 260 Flavor, 89, 94, 171–174, 176, 329, 332, 333, 334, 335, 339, 423 barrier, packaging, 246 development, 240–241 Flavor compounds, 274, 278, 279, 282 See also Fatty acids; Lactose; Proteins production during ripening 276, 280, 281 Flavoring, natural, 329, 336 Flour, 169, 177 Flour carbohydrates, 190 amylases and, 190 damage, 190 functional roles and, 190 gelatinization, 190, 199 gluten and, 190 hemicelluloses, 190 pentosans, 190 starch, 190 starch damage, 190 sugars, 190 yeast and, 190 Flour lipids, 190–191 flour nonpolar, 190 flour polar, 190 gluten structure and, 190–191 glycolipids, 190–191 phospholipids,190 triglycerides, 190 Flour proteins, 188–190 cohesive proteins, 188 bonding, 189 dough characteristics and, 188 enzymes and, 189 gliadin, 188, 199 gluten, 188–189, 199 Index glutenin, 188, 199 maturing agents and, 189 content, 188 extraction, 188 factors affecting breadmaking quality, 187, 188 factors affecting wheat protein quality, 188 water soluble proteins, 189 albumins, 188, 189 flour enzymes and, 189 globulins, 188–189 Flow charts, Fluidization, 41 Fluidized bed dryer, 41, 91 Foam, 287, 292, 293 Foaming, 218–219 Food additives, 19 Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO/WHO), 168, 178 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 92, 166, 168, 169, 178 Foodborne diseases, Food Code, 136, 147 applications of HACCP, 148 purpose, 148 Food packaging See Packaging Food plant quality assurance, 151 Food plant sanitation, 151 cleaning, 152 final product, 152 house keeping, 153 program, 151 raw ingredients, 152 Food processing principles, Food regulations, 133 Food spoilage, Food Standards Agency of the United Kingdom (FSA), 168, 178 Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ), 168, 178 Forces, 332 electrostatic, 332 steric, 332 van der Waals, 332 Forming, 14 Formula, 170, 172, 176, 178 Formula percent, 178 Formulation, 3, 7, 288, 289, 329, 332, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 397, 398 Fractionating, 319, 322 Frankfurter, 397 Free moisture, 36 Freeze dryer, 40 Freezing, 288, 292, 295, 448,455 advantages, 448 affect of temperature, 449 chemical activity of water, 448 dehydration, 449,453 Index glazing, 449,452,453,457 lipid oxidation, 449,450,453,455 processing methods, 451,452–453 rapid freezing, 451 sea processing, 449,452,454 storage life, 451,452,456 temperature fluctuations during storage, 455,457 thaw shortening, 450 tissue damage, 451 Fresh and frozen fish, 461 checklist, 462 controls, 462 manufacturing, 461 raw materials, 461 sanitation critical factors, 461 Frozen, 297, 302–306, 309, 311, 313, 315 Frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ) production, 362 Frozen dessert, 287, 288 See also Ice cream, Sherbet, Sorbet, Yogurt, hardening, 288, 294, 295 Fruit-flavored, 309, 311, 313 Fruit-for-yogurt, 304 Fruit-on-the-bottom, 309, 311 Fruit puree, 172 Fruit reception, 362 Frying, 91, 93–94, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437 microwave, 94 FSA, 168 FSANZ, 168 Functional foods, 166, 168, 178 Functionality, 331 Functional properties, 332, 333 Fungi, 282 Gas volume definition of, 205 Gaussian distribution of energies, 33 Gelatin, 303, 304, 309, 310, 317 Gelatinization, 171, 174, 175, 178, 259 in cooked corn grits, 241 Genetically Modified (GM), 169 Geometrical heating effects corner, 86–87 edge, 86–87, 96 focusing, 79, 85–86 Gliadin, 169, 170, 252 Globalization, 166 Glucoamylase, 231 Gluten, 169, 170, 252 Glutenin, 169, 170, 252 Gluten index, 252 Gluten protein complex, 188–190 breadmaking quality and, 188 flour proteins, 188 dough rheology and, 188 gliadin, 188 glutenin, 188 formation, 188 bonding and, 189 hydration and,188 mechanical manipulation and, 188 Glycolysis, 281, 403, 405–406, 410–412 Glycomacropeptide, 279 GM, 169, 178 Good manufacturing practice (GMP), 169, 178 Grainy, 307 Granular solid drying, 41 Grit cooking, 240 delumping, 243 drying, 243 flaking, 243 milling, 240 tempering, 243 Ground water, 209 See also Water Grounds, 138 HACCP, 397 Half-power depth, 83 Hama-natto, 52 basic steps in manufacturing, 52, 73 Hams, Chinese style, 49–50 basic steps in manufacturing, 49 Jinghua ham, 49–50 Yunan ham, 50 Hams, western-style, 49 basic steps in brine curing, 49, 67 basic steps in dry-curing, 49, 67 Hardening, 288, 294, 295 Harvest, 447,454 holding after harvest, 451,455 stress, 449,454 Hazards Analysis Critical Control Points Regulations (HACCPR), 136 advantages, 146 definition, 145 hazard analysis, 146 implementation, 147 necessity, 146 plans, 146, 147 sanitation, 147 Health Canada, 168 Health claims, 168 Heat high-temperature short-time (HTST), 320 transfer, 325, 326, 327 treatment, 320 Heat and mass transfer, 83, 94 in the bread baking process, 94 Heat application, 15 Heat pump dryers, 31 499 500 Heat recovery, 31 Heat removal, 16 Heat transfer, See Conductive heat transfer; Convective heat transfer Heat transfer coefficient, 35 Heat treatment, 277, 285, 386 effect on flavor, 276 effect on proteins, 278 milk affected by, 274, 275, 277 reason for, 274, 277 Heterofermentative, 277, 278, 281, 406 High fructose corn syrup, 212 manufacture of, 213 use of in the beverage plant, 217 High pressure, 26 High-pressure processing, 89 High-temperature drying of pasta, 255 High-temperature short-time, 290, 291, 295 See Pasteurization High voltage arc discharge, 27 Histamine See Amines Homogenization, 278, 285, 288– 291, 295, 322 blue cheese, 278 Hooping, 280, 285 Hops α-acid isomerization, 233 Cascades, 234 composition, 233 high α history of use, 232 types, 234 utilization, 233 Hot air, 90, 91, 93–96 Hot spots, 89, 91 House keeping, 153 HRS See Wheat classes, hard red spring HRW See Wheat classes, hard red winter HT See High-temperature drying Humectants, 32 Humulone, 233 Hybrid energy, 96 Hydration, 169, 171, 177 Hydraulic pressing of soybeans, 344 Hydrophobic effect, 275, 279 Hydroxymethyl furfual, 241, 244 Hygroscopic, 171 Hysteresis, 36 Ice cream, 287–295 Ideal gas, 34 Indirect heating, 39 Induction, 79–80 Inductive heating, 26 Infrared radiation, 88, 96 Ingredients, 183, 329, 330, 333, 334, 335, 336 crystallization inhibitors,329, 330 Index lecithin, 329 oxystearin, 329 polyglycerol esters of fatty acids, 329 economics, 333, 334 EDTA, 329 egg, 329, 330, 333, 336, 337, 339 performance testing, 333 solid content, 333 unpasteurized, 339 white, 329 whole, 329, 334 yolk, 329, 330, 332, 335, 337 essential, 183 salt, 183, 192 water, 183, 190–191 wheat flour,183, 188, 192 yeast, 183, 191–192 non-essential, 183 fat or shortening, 183, 192 milk and milk products, 183, 193 mold inhibitors, 183, 193 sugar, 183, 192 surfactants, 183, 192–193 yeast foods, 183, 192 Initial heating, 435 Instant characteristics, 325, 326, 327 Instantizer, 324, 327 Instantizing, 319, 324, 326 Instant noodles, 264–266 In-store dryer, 40 Internal temperature, 442–443 Invertebrates 447,450 see also mollusks, crustacea holothurians, sea cucumbers 447 Invert sugar, 214 use of in the beverage plant, 216 Iodine value (IV), 349 Ionic strength, 392, 398 Irish moss, 236 Isenthalpic, 43 Isoelectric point (pI), 278, 285 Isotherm, 36 Jinghua ham, current manufacturing process, 50, 68 Juice, lime, 329 Juice, lemon, 329 Kefir, 49 basic manufacturing steps, 49, 66 characteristics, 49, 66 Ketones, 410–412 Kiln dryer, 40 Kimchi, 53 basic steps in manufacture, 53, 76 ingredients, 53 Krausening, 236 Index L monocytogenes, 427 Labeling, 161, 394, 396, 398 Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), 274, 285 See also Heterofermentative; Lactococcus spp lactic acid production, 276 metabolism of lactose, 276 ripening, 278, 280 Lactic acid, 273, 401–403, 405–407 importance in curd formation, 276, 278 pH change, 278, 282 preservative effect, 278 Propionibacterium, 281 whey, 285 Lactococcus spp., 278 Lactose, 169, 174, 178, 276 curd, 274 fermentation, 277–279, 281 residual, 273 whey, 280 Lagering, 236 Lambert’s law, 79, 80, 82, 84–86, 93 Lambic beer, 234 Latent heat of evaporation, 34 Lautering, 231 Leavening agent, 172, 177 Lecithin, 331 Light, 303, 314 Limburger cheese, 274, 282, 283 Linking, 395, 398 Lipases, 276, 401, 407–408 fatty acids, 276, 283 importance in flavor, 276, 283 inactivation, 276 Lipid oxidation, 403, 409, 412, 423 Lipolysis, 402–403, 407–408, 411 Lipoxygenase, oxidation of yellow pigment in pasta, 251 Live and active, 297, 310, 311, 315 Liver Loading/unloading, 40 Loaf volume, 184 baking and, 196 oven-spring, 196 fats and, 192 flour proteins and, 188 non-fat dried milk and, 193 proofing, 195 starch gelatinization, 196 surfactants and, 192 yeast and, 194–196 baking, 196 CO2, 196 fermentation, 194, 196 proofing, 195 yeast foods and, 192 Long-term frozen storage, 374 Loss tangent, 82 Low acid, 311 501 Low fat, 300, 308, 311, 313, 317 Lupulone, 233 Lycopene, 473–474, 477–479, 482, 484–487 Magnetic field, 80, 82, 83, 85 Maillard browning (reaction), 171, 174, 175, 177, 178, 257, 428 cooking, 241 pathways, 241–242 toasting, 244 Malnutrition, 166 Malt barley chit malt, 228 kilning, 228 Munich malt, 228 steeping, 227 Vienna malt, 228 Malt syrup, 240 Manufacture, 160, 300–307, 310–314, 316, 318 Margarine, 331 Mashing decoction, 230 double, 230 enzymes, 231 infusion, 230 mash off, 231 step, 230 Mass transfer, 326, 327 Mass transfer coefficient, 35 Maturation See Ripening Maxwell’s equation, 81, 83–84 Mechanically separated tissue, 398 Mechanical vapor recompression (MVR), 321, 327 Mediterranean sausages, 399 Membrane methods See also Ultrafiltration (UF); Microfiltration (MF); Reverse osmosis (RO) asymmetric membranes, 322, 326 fouling, 322 Membrane treatment, 210 See also Reverse osmosis (RO) comparison of reverse osmosis, nano- and ultrafiltration, 211 Metal cans, 424–425 coating materials, 425 fabrication, 425 Metallic, 315 Methanethiol, 283 Methyl ketones, 283, 284 Micelles See Casein micelle Microbes, economics and health, 32 Microbiology, 334, 335, 338, 339, 448, 450 Clostridium perfringens, 339 histamine formation, 449,450 Salmonella, 334, 339 spoilage microflora, 450 Staphyloccocus aureus, 339 502 Microfiltration (MF), 322, 327 Microorganisms, 322, See also Starter cultures Candida See Yeasts Clostridium, 408 Debaryomices See yeasts Escherichia coli, 408 Kocuria varians, 402–403 Lactic acid bacteria, 402–403, 405–406 Lactobacillus, 402–403 Listeria, 408 Micrococcaceae, 402–403 Pediococcus, 402–403 Penicillium See molds Salmonella, 408 Staphylococcus, aureus, 408 carnosus, 402–403 xylosus, 402–403 Microwave, 25 Microwave bumping, 79, 87 Microwave heating, 79–80, 83–96 governing energy equation, 83 Microwave power, 79, 83–84, 86, 90, 92–93 Microwave processing, 79, 85–86, 89–96 baking, 93–95 drying and dehydration, 90–91 pasteurization and sterilization, 91–92 tempering and thawing, 92–93 Microwave reheating, 89 Milk, 273 droplet density, 325 droplet diameter, 325 evaporated, 320, 321composition, 275 heat treatment, 275 pre-treatment 277, 278 quality, 274 Milk and milk products, 183, 193 bread quality and, 193 dairy blends, 193 dairy substitutes, 193 non-fat dried milk, 193 high-heat, 193 low-heat, 193 medium-heat, 193 nutritive effects and, 193 production effects and, 193 Milk powder flowability, 327 hygroscopicity, 326 particle density, 326, 327 production, 320 sinkability, 327 solubility, 327 structure, 325, 327 Milk proteins, 439, 440 Milling, 185–187 air classification, 187 Index breaking, 185–186 cleaning, 185–186 clear flour and, 187, 199 extraction rate, 187, 199 middlings, 187, 199 millstream and, 187, 200 patent flour and, 187, 200 reduction, 186–187 straight flour and, 187, 200 tempering, 185–186 Miso, 52 Mixing, 14, 175, 177, 394, 395, 398 Mixograph, 252 Model of constant rate period, 39 Models of vapor adsorption, 36 Modified atmosphere packaging, 266 Moisture, content, 399–400 to protein ratio, 399 Moisture content, 31 cheese classification based on, 274 converting, 34 definition, 34 of different cheeses, 273–274 dry basis, 33 effect of handling on curd, 279 factors that affect curd, 279, 280, 282 syneresis, 279 wet basis, 33 Mold, 274, 277, 402 See also Penicillium spp Mold inhibitors, 193 calcium propionate, 193 sorbates, 193 Molecular mobility, 32 Mollusc, 447,450 freezing, 453 glycogen in oysters, 450 holding on ice, 451 packaging, 453 Monocalcium phosphate, 172, 174 Monolayer moisture, 36 Monosodium glutamate, 329, 330 Mouthfeel, 171, 172, 177 Mucor meihei, 277 Muffin method, 175 Multilayer adsorption, 36 Multi-stage dryers, 42 Muscle proteins, 420–421, 427 myofibrilar proteins, 420, 427 protein functionality, 420–422 sarcoplasmic proteins, 420, 427 stroma proteins, 421, 427 Mycotoxins, 402 Myofibrillar proteins, 433, 434 Myoglobin, 391, 393, 394, 396, 397, 398, 410, 420, 423–424 Myosin, 391, 392, 393, 394, 397, 398 Index Natural defects, 145 Neutralizing value (NV), 172, 178 New technology, 23 high pressure, 26 high voltage arc discharge, 27 inductive heating, 26 microwave, 25 ohmic heating, 26 oscillating magnetic fields, 27 pulsed electric fields, 26 pulsed x rays, 28 radio frequency, 25 ultrasound, 28 ultraviolet light, 27 NFC., reprocessing of, 375 Nip, See Roll gap Nitrate reductase, 402, 405, 407–408 Nitrate, 400–402, 404, 407–408, 410 See also Nitrite Nitric oxide myoglobin, 410 Nitric oxide, 423–424 Nitrite, 400–402, 404, 407–408, 410 Nitrosylhemocrhome, 423–424 NLEA, 166, 178 Non-enzymatic browning, 31 Nonfat, 299, 300, 301, 305, 308, 311, 314, 315, 317 Nonfat dry milk powder, 174 Nonmeat binders, 419 Non-reducing sugar, sucrose, 240, 243 Non-starter lactic acid bacteria, 280, 281 Northern sausages, 399 Not-from-concentrate juice (NFC) production, 362 Nucleotides, 410–411 Nuggets, 433–438 precooking, 434 texture, 433, 435 Nutraceuticals, 178 Nutrient profile, 297, 313 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA), 166 NV, 172, 178 Obesity, 165, 166 Ohmic heating, 26, 80, 89, 92, 95 Oil absortion, 434 air and moisture effect, 435 hydrolytic degradation, 434, 436 oxidative degradation, 434, 436 surface tension, 436 temperatures, 433–434 Oil reduction, 372 Oil, vegetable 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 336, 339 amount, 329, 331 cold test deodorized, 333 winterization amount, 333 corn, 333 503 cottonseed, 333 olive, 333 palm, 333 peanut, 333 safflower, 333 soybean, 333 sunflower, 333 Orange juice, non-frozen concentrate, production, 372 aseptic storage in bag-in-box bulk containers, 375 aseptic storage in tanks, 374 deaeration, 374 long-term frozen storage, 374 oil reduction, 372 primary pasteurization, 374 reprocessing of NFC, 375 Orange juice clarification , 370 blending, 372 centrifugal clarification, 371 paddle finishers, 371 screw-type finishers, 370 turbofilters, 372 Orange juice concentrate production, 376 alternative concentration methods, 380 centrifugal evaporator, 379 concentrate storage, 380 essence recovery, 380 plate evaporator systems, 378 Orange juice extraction, 366 fruit sizing, 366 reamer-type extractor 369 squeezer-type extractor 367 Orange juice processing, 361 Orange juice processing plant, basics, 362, See also under each topic clarification, 362 extraction, 62 feed mill, 364 frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ) production, 362 fruit reception, 362 not-from-concentrate juice (NFC) production, 362 peel oil recovery, 363 pulp production, 363 pulp wash, 363 Orange juice production steps processing stage 1: fruit reception, 364 processing stage 2: juice extraction, 366 processing stage 3: clarification, 370 processing stage 4: NFC production, 372 processing stage 5: concentrate production, 376 processing stage 6: peel oil recovery, 381 processing stage 7: feed mill operations, 383 processing stage 8: pulp production, 384 processing stage 9: Pulp wash production, 388 processing stage 10: essence recovery, 389 Orange peel oil recovery, 381 polishing, 382 504 Orange peel oil recovery (continued) straining and concentration step, 381 winterization process, 382 Oranges reception final fruit washing, 364 final grading, 364 fruit storage, 364 prewashing, destemming and pregrading, 364 sampling, 364 surge bin, 364 truck unloading, 364 Ordinary (Itohiki) natto, 52 basic steps in manufacture, 52, 73 Organic, 168, 178, 179 Organic Foods Production Act, 168, 178 Organoleptic effects of drying, 31 Oscillating Magnetic Fields, 27 Overrun 288, 293, 295 Overs, 240 Oxidation, 401, 404, 412 Oxidation-reduction potential, 273, 281, 283 Oxidative rancidity, 240, 242 Oxidized, 315 Oysters, 464 Package recycling, 128–129 See also Packaging chemical, 129 mechanical, 129 physical, 129 reuse, 129 Package testing, 126–128 See also Packaging destructive tests, 126–127 bubble test, 126–127 burst test, 127 dye test, 127 electrolytic test, 127 microbial challenge test, 127 distribution tests, 128 compression test, 128 free-fall drop test, 128 vibration test, 128 nondestructive tests, 127–128 acoustics, 128 capacitance test, 127 infrared thermography, 128 pressure difference, 127 ultrasonics, 128 visual inspection, 127 storage tests, 128 Packaging, 28, 101–131, 161, 176, 177, 293, 294, 338, 396, 442, 450,453,457, See also Casing active, 125 antimicrobial agents, 125 ethylene scavengers, 125 moisture regulators, 125 oxygen scavengers, 125 Index antioxidants, 246 aseptic, 123–124 cans, 105–106 See also Metal cans three-piece, 105, 106 two-piece, 105, 107 closures, 123 controlled atmosphere (CAP), 124–125 edible coatings and films, 125–126 filling, 122 functions, 102–103 communication, 102–103 containment, 102 convenience, 103 distribution, 102 identification, 102–103 preservation, 102 protection, 102 transportation, 102 glass, 108–109 characteristics of, 109 formation of, 108 types, 108 levels of, 103 materials, 245–246 metal, 105–108 characteristics of, 108 foils, 106, 108 formation of, 105–108 metallized films, 108 types, 105 modified atmosphere (MAP), 124–125 paper and paperboard, 103–105 characteristics of, 105 formation of, 104–105 types, 103–104 parison, 109 permeability See Plastics plastics, 109–122 See also Plastics blow molding, 110, 112 characteristics of, 112 formation of, 110, 112 mechanical properties, 114 permeability, 111, 114–119 See also Plastics structural properties, 113–114 types, 109–110 recycling, 128–129 See also Package recycling testing, 126–128 See also Package testing vacuum, 451 Packing in aseptic bag-in-box containers for chilled storage, 388 Packing in boxes/drums for frozen storage, 388 Paddle finishers, 371 Para-kappa casein, 279–280 Parmesan cheese, 274, 279, 281, 283 Partial pressure, 34 Pasta color effects of enzymes, 251 Index effects of drying temperature, 255, 257 Maillard reaction, 257 history of, 249–250 manufacturing drying, 255, 257 extrusion, 253, 255 hydration, 253 mixing, 253 packaging, 258 spreading, 255 vacuum, 253 texture dependence on drying temperature, 255, 257 dependence on gluten properties, 252 dependence on protein content, 252 starch modification during drying, 257 Pasteurization, 277, 285, 288–291, 295, 334, 441 impact on whey proteins, 278 Pâté fat level, 439 packaging, See Casing Pathogens, 408 Pectin, 478, 480, 482, 485–486 Peeling, 478–479, 481 Peel oil recovery, 363 Penetration depth, 84, 86, 92–93, 95 power, 82 Penicillium spp lipolytic enzymes, 283 P caseicolum, 274 P roquefortii, 274, 282–283 proteolytic enzymes, 282 Peptidases, 281–283 Peptides, 407–408, 410–411 See also Proteolysis Permanent hardness, 229 Permeate, 322, 327 Peroxidase enzymatic browning of pasta, 251 Peroxide value (PV), 349 Peroxide, 401, 403, 407–408 Personnel pH, 330, 334, 335, 339, 340, 391, 393, 397, 398, 401, 405–407 Phosphate, 393, 394, 397 Phospholipases See Lipases Phospholipids, 407 Physical characteristics, 331 spreadability, 331 moutnfeel, 331 emulsion stability, 331 Physical chemistry of air, 34 Physical factors, Pickles, 53 basic steps in manufacture, 53, 76 Plain, 297, 309, 310, 313, 314 Plant, 138 Plasmin, 281–282 Plasticity, 347 Plastics, 109–122 See also Packaging blow molding, 110, 112 characteristics of, 112 copolymers of ethylene, 120–121 ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH, EVAL), 120–121 formation of, 110, 112 blow molding, 110, 112 compression molding, 110 extrusion, 110 injection molding, 110 thermoforming, 110 laminates, 121–122 mechanical properties, 114 stress-strain curve, 114 nylons, 121 permeability, 112, 114–119 calculations, 116–119 chain-to-chain packing and, 115–116 crystallinity and, 115 Fick’s first law, 116–117 glass transition temperature (Tg) and, 116 polarity and, 115 pressure and, 116 temperature and, 116 polyamides, 121 polycarbonates, 121 polyesters, 121 polyethylene (PE), 120 high density polyethylene (HDPE), 120 linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE), 120 low density polyethylene (LDPE), 120 polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 111, 112, 121 polylactide resin (PLA), 112 polyolefins, 119,120 polypropylene (PP), 120 polystyrene, 121 polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 120 polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), 120 structural properties, 113–114 crystalline melting temperature, 113–114 degree of polymerization (DP), 113 glass transition temperature (Tg), 113–114 molecular weight, 113 substituted olefins, 119, 120 tensile properties, 114 thermoplastics, 119–121 copolymers of ethylene, 120–121 polyamides, 121 polycarbonates, 121 polyesters, 121 polyolefins, 119,120 polystyrene, 121 properties of, 111, 112 substituted olefins, 119, 120 types, 109–110 uses of, 119–122 505 506 Plate evaporator systems, 378 falling film cassette evaporator, 378 rising film cassette evaporator, 378 Plots of drying, 43 Poikilotherm, 448, 449,450 Polyphenol oxidase bleaching agents, 187 gluten structure and, 189 oxidants, 187 xanthophylls, 187 enrichment 187–188 requirements and, 188 enzymes, 189 amylases, 190, 197 lipooxygenases, 189 proteases, 189 factors affecting treatment levels, 197 legal limits and, 187 maturing agents, 187 acetone peroxide, 187 ascorbic acid, 187 azodicarbonamide, 187, 189 labeling requirements and, 189 potassium bromate, 187, 189 Poultry, 417–429 curing, 422–423 constituents, 418 consumption project, 419 functionality, 421–422 cohesivity, 422 emulsifying, 422 water holding capacity, 421, 423, 430 muscle proteins, 420 vacuum tumbling,423–424 world production, 418 Power density, 82–83, 85–86 Power distribution, 93 Poynting theorem, 83–83 Preblending, 394 Prenyl mercaptan, 234 Preservation techniques, 14 Pressing of curd, 280, 285 Press releases and talk papers, 155 Pre-treatment of milk, 277, 285 Primary pasteurization, 374 Principles of food processing,3 Processes, 142, 300, 310 Processing and preservation techniques, 14 cold preservation, 16 dehydration, 19 evaporation and dehydration, 19 fermentation, 23 food additives, 19 heat application, 15 heat removal, 16 new technology, 23 Processing, 331, 335 Processing principles, 412–413 See also Food processing principles Index batch, 335 continuous, 335 equipment colloid mill, 330, 335, 336 Dixie-Charlotte system, 335, 336 emulsification cylinder, 338 mixer, 335, 336 pump, 336 scrape surface heat exchanger, 338 steps filling, 330, 338 milling, 336 mixing, 336 packaging, 338 pumping, 336 temperature, 336, 338, 339 Product consistency, 159 Product quality, 333, 338, 339 creaming, 331, 332 microbial, 339 oxidation, 333, 339 tests, 333, 339 phase separation, 331, 338 stability, 332, 333 tests, 333, 338 Product Safety, 339 Product shells, 41 Propionate, 281 Propionibacteria, 281 Proteases, 281–283 Protein, 274–277, 282, 285, 332, 333, 334, 335, 439–440 See also Casein; Whey impact on pasta texture, 252 impact on Asian noodle texture, 259, 260 Protein coagulation, 177 Proteinases, 281–283, 403, 407 Proteolysis, 403, 407, 410 See also Chymosin; Plasmin; Rennet affect on casein micelle, 278–279 in coagulation, 278 contribution to flavor, 282–283 in ripening, 274, 282 PSE (pale, soft, and exudative), 398, 400, 421, 430 Psychrometrics and drying, 34 Puffing, 90–91 guns, 244–245 towers, 244 Pulp production, 363, 384 concentration (drying or final finisher), 387 concentration (primary finishers), 386 defect removal, 386 exchanger, 387 extraction, 385 heat treatment, 386 packing in aseptic bag-in-box containers for chilled storage, 387 packing in boxes/drums for frozen storage, 387 process steps in pulp production, 385 Index production factors that affect commercial pulp quality, 384 Pulp wash, 363 Pulp wash production, 388 debittering, 389 enzyme treatment, 389 regulations, 389 washed cells, 389 Pulsed electric fields, 26, 89 thermophysical properties, 92 Pulsed x rays, 28 Pumping, 14 Putrescine See Amines Pyrazines, 242 Pyruvate, 281 Quality milk, 319 powder, 326 Quality aspects of drying, 32 Quality assurance, 151, 158 cost versus benefit, 158 elements, 159, 160 employee training, 162 equipment costs, 159 labeling, 161 manufacturing, 160 packaging, 161 product consistency, 159 receiving, 160 sanitation, 161 shipping, 161 total quality control system, 162 Quality control, 219, 396, 397 See also Quality assurance testing categories in, 220 Rack oven, 175 Radio frequency, 25 Radio frequency heating, 79, 80, 95–96 See also Dielectric heating; Microwave heating Rancid, 300, 315 Rate of reaction (ROR), 171, 178 Raw ingredients and the final product, 152 Raw materials handling, 13 Raw noodles, 261–264 Reamer-type extractor 369 Recalls, 156 categories, 156 health hazard evaluation, 158 initiating a recall, 156 misunderstanding, 156 planning ahead, 158 strategy, 157 Receiving, 160 Recompression of vapor, 321 507 Reducing sugars, 171, 175, 240 Reductones, 241–242, 244 Reel oven, 170, 175, 178 Refrigeration or chilling, 297, 299, 302–304, 306, 307, 309, 310, 313–315, 448,451 cold shortening, 450 effect of temperature 449,451 histamine forming species 449,450 metabolic processes during, 448,450 processing methods, 451 refrigerated sea water, 451 superchilling, 451 types of ice 451 Regulations, pulp wash, 389 See also Food regulations Reinheitzegebot, 226 Relative humidity, 32, 35, 406 Rennet, 285 See also Chymosin effects on casein micelle, 278 effects on ripening, 282 sources 279 Rennet; Lipases, Proteases/proteinases; Microbial Retarded dough, 51 guidelines in manufacturing, 51, 71 Retentate, 322, 327 Retort, 480, 487 Retort processes, 92 Retrogradation, 245–246 Reverse osmosis (RO), 211, 322, 327 Rework, 392, 398 Ripening, 273–274, 280, 400, 406, 412 See also, Lipids; Proteins causes, 281 chemistry of, 281–28 initial milk, 278 Roller drying, 321, 323, 327 Roll gap, 243 Ropy, 308 ROR, 172 Rotary dryer, 40 Runaway heating, 93 S aureus, 427 S typhimurium, 427 Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 235 Saccharomyces uvarum, 235 Safety, 408–409 regulations, 92 Salad Dressing, 330 Salt, 192, 329, 330 332, 334, 335, 336, 339, 392, 394, 395, 397, 398, 400–401, 404, 410–411, 423 diffusion, 280 flavor effects, 192 gluten strength and, 189, 192 preservative effect, 279 salt in moisture, 280 soluble protein, 391, 392, 394, 395, 397, 398 yeast activity control, 192 508 Salting of curd, 279, 280 Sanitary controls, 140 Sanitary facilities, 140 Sanitary operations, 138 Sanitation, 151, 161 Saturation, 35 Saturation line, 37 Saturation of fatty acids, 346 Sauerkraut, 53 basic steps in manufacture, 54, 76 Sausages, 50 basic steps in dry (fermented) sausage manufacturing, 50, 68 Scaleup problem, 42 Scaling, 169, 170, 177, 178 Scallops, 466 processing, 467 raw materials 467 sanitation critical factors, 466, 467 Screw-type finishers, 370 Seafood consumption, 447 Seafood processing, 459 Semidry-fermented sausages See Fermented sausages Semolina definition of, 250 specifications for pasta, 251 Sensible heat, 34 Sensory, 332 Separating, 13 Sequestrant, 329, 330 Serum separation, 477, 483, 485, 487 Shear stress, 41 Shelf life, 31, 32, 89, 91, 94, 171, 172, 176, 178, 399 See also Mold inhibitors; Staling extrinsic factors, 442 intrinsic factors, 442 Shelf stable, 89 Sherbet, 287, 288 Shipping, 161 Shortening, 342, 347, 349 Shred, 244–245 Shrimp, 467 finished product, 469 plant sanitation, 468 processing, 469 raw materials, 468 sanitation critical factors, 467 standards, 470 Shrinkage, 32, 33 Sigmoidal isotherm curves, 36 Single term drying model, 38 Skim milk powder, 320 Skin depth, 82 Slicing, 394, 396 Smearing of fat, 405 S-methyl methionine, 234 Index Smoked fish, 470 laboratory controls, 471 overall sanitation, 472 plant sanitation and facilities, 470 processing, 471 raw materials, 470 sanitary critical factors, 470 storage and distribution, 471 Smoking, 395, 396, 405, 408 Sodium aluminum sulfate, 172, 178 Sodium bicarbonate, 172, 178 Sodium carbonate, 172 Sodium chloride, 174, 178 See Salt Sodium erytorbate, 422–423 Sodium nitrite, 393, 394, 395, 397, 398, 422–424 Soft drinks distribution by package type, 204 history of, 203 production of, 206 raw materials used in, 207–215 Softening, 33 Softness, 406, 410 Soft serve, 311 Solid fat index (SFI), 346, 347 Solubility milk powder, 327 Solvent extraction of soybean oil, 345 Sorbet, 287, 288 Sour milk, 49 basic manufacturing steps, 49, 66 Soy nuggets, 52, 73 Soy sauce, 52 generalized scheme for manufacture, 52, 73 Specific dry milk products, 319, 326, 327 Specific gravity, 235 Specific heat of air, 34 Spice, 329, 330, 332, 335, 336, 392, 393, 410 Garlic, 330 Mustard flour, 330, 334 Mustard oil, 334 Onion, 330 Paprika, 330, 335 Pepper, white, 330 Saffron, 329 Turmeric, 329 Sponge and dough process, 194 200 See also Bread production adding and mixing non-sponge ingredients, 188–194 dough characteristics, 195 dough development, 195 gluten development and, 195 hydration and, 195 dough makeup, 195–196 dough division, 195 dough rounding, 195 final proofing, 195, 199 conditions, 195 Index selection of proofing conditions, 195 intermediate proof, 195 conditions, 195 dough characteristics, 195 sheeting, molding and panning, 195 deposition into pans, 195 procedure, 195 sponge formation and fermentation, 191, 194, 199 consistency and, 194 fermentation conditions and, 194 ingredients and, 191, 194 Spouted bed dryer, 41 Spoilage See Food spoilage; Foodborne diseases Spray dryer, 41, 319, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326 advantages, 323, 325 atomizer designs, 323, 324, 325 drying chamber designs, 324 three stage drying, 324 Squeezer-type extractor 367 SRW See Wheat classes, soft red winter (SRW) Stability, 32 Staling, 196–197, 200 assessment of, 197 instrumental, 197 sensory,197 characteristics of, 196–197 factors affecting enzyme incorporation and sources, 197 fat incorporation, 192, 197 moisture content, 197 protein quality, 197 starch retrogradation, 197, 200 surfactants, 197 inhibitors, see surfactants and mold inhibitors Standardization, 320, 326 Standard of identity, 301, 309, 317 Starch, 330 heat treatment during drying of pasta, 257 impact on noodle texture, 259–260 pasting properties, 259 Starch gelatinization, 171, 177, 435–436, 401, 406 Starter cultures, 401, 406, See also Bacteria, starter; Lactic acid Starters, 297, 300, 304, 305 307, 316 Steam consumption,321 Steam distillation, 79, 85, 87 Steamed bread (Mantou), 51 basic steps in production, 51, 71 Sterilization, 79, 86, 90–92, 96, 425–427, 441 in-package, 96 microwave, 90, 92 Stinky tofu, 52 basic steps in manufacture, 52, 75 Stirred curd cheese, 274, 279 Storage, 320, 325, 326 Strecker degradation, 241–242, 244 Stuffing, 395, 397, 398, 405 509 Sublimation, 40 Sucrose (sugar), 212, 329, 330, 332, 334, 335, 336 comparison of beet and cane processing, 213 handling of at the beverage plant, 214, 216 Sufu (fermented soy cheese), 52 basic steps in manufacture, 52, 74 Sugar, 171, 192 color, 192 fermentation and, 191 flavor, 192 replacers, 166, 167, 171, 178 Sulfite, 169 Sunstruck odor, 234 Superheating effects, 87 Surface boiling, 435 Surface ripened cheeses, 274 Surface skin, 396, 398 Surface water, 209 See also Water Surface wetting, 33 Surfactants, 192–193, 200 Susceptors, 94 SW See Wheat classes, soft winter (SW) Sweeteners, 206; 212–224, 392, 394 Swiss cheese, 47 basic manufacturing steps, 47, 62 eye formation, 47 Swiss style cheeses, 274, 280–281 Syneresis, 279–280, 285, 330 See also, Curd; Moisture content; curd handling, 280 Taste, 407, 410 Tempe (tempeh), 52 basic steps in manufacture, 53, 75 Temperature effects in reactions, 32 Temperature sensor, 85 Tempering, 90, 92–93, 243–244, 246 Temporary hardness, 229 Texture, 171–176, 284, 331, 338, 406 Body, weak, 334 effect of curd handling, 280 effect of proteases, 281–282 Gel, 333, 334 Mouthfeel, 331, 336 Texture and flavor, 298 Texture effects in dried foods, 31 Thawing, 79, 92–93 See also Tempering Thermal destruction, 426–427 botulinum cook, 427 D value, 426, 429 Flavor changes, 427–428 TDT, 426, 430 Z value, 427, 430 Thermal treatment, 441–443 See also F value; Internal temperature; Pasteurization; Sterilization Thermal vapor recompression (TVR), 321, 327 510 Thin layer drying rate model, 39 Thin layer drying, 37 Time economy, Toasting oven, 244 Toasting, 243–244, 246 Tomatoes, 473–487 break: hot or cold, 476–477, 482, 485–487 color, 474, 476–477, 482–486 defects, 474, 479 diced, 474, 476, 480, 481 firmness, 474, 480, 481, 484, 485 grading, 474, 479, 482 juice, 474, 476–480, 482, 484, 485 paste, 474, 476–478, 485–486 sauce, 474, 476–478 solids, 473–474, 477, 482–485, 487 spoilage, 480, 483, 484 Total quality control system, elements, 159, 160, 162 Trans fat, 166, 171, 172, 178 Trans isomers, 346, 347 Tray dryer, 40 Triacylglycerols, 276, 283, 284 See also, Lipids fate of during ripening, 284 Tubular evaporator systems, 376 homogenization, 377 other tubular evaporation systems, 377 Tuna, canned, 463 Turbofilters, 372 Turkey meat, 420 MDT (mechanically beboned turkey), 420, 422, 430 turkey ham, Types of sausages, French saucisson, 400 German teewurst, 400 Hungarian salami, 400 Italian salami, 400 Lebanon bologna, 400 Pepperoni, 400 Spanish salchichón, 400 Summer sausage, 400 Tyramine See Amines Ultrafiltration (UF), 319,322, 327 See also Microfiltration; Reverse osmosis Ultra high temperature (UHT), 290, 291, 295 See also pasteurization Ultra-high temperature drying of pasta, 255 Ultrasound, 28 Ultraviolet Light, 27 Unavoidable defects, 145 Unbound moisture, 36 Uniformity of heating, 95–96 Uniformity of temperature distribution, 83 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 168, 179 Unit operation, 31 Index Units of operations, cleaning, 13 disintegrating, 14 forming, 14 mixing, 14 pumping, 14 raw materials handling, 13 separating, 13 USDA, 168, 179 Utensils, 141 Vacuum pressing, 280 Vacuum tumbling, 423–424 Vapor See also Drying; Evaporation recompression, 321 separator, 321 Vapor adsorption, 36 Vapor pressure, 32 Variety breads, 183–184 Vinegar, 329, 330, 334, 335, 336, 340 Viscosity, 32, 332, 333, 335, 336, 338, 339, 476, 477, 482, 483, 485 rheology, 332 viscoelastic, 332, 334 Vitamin A, 473, 484 Vitamin C, 473, 477, 484, 487 Vitamin stability, 239–241, 255–256 Volatile compounds See Flavor Volatiles, 40, 85, 87–88, 483, 485–486 flavor, 246 See also Flavor oxidative rancidity, 242 Volume, 172–174, 176, 177 Votator, 348 Warehousing, 144 Warmed-over flavor, 423 Warning letters, 158 Washed cells, 389 Washing curd, 274–275 bubbles, during frying, 435 ground vs surface supplies, 209 reasons for treatment, 208–209 types of treatment, 209–212 Water, 183, 190–91, 330, 336 bubbles, during frying, 435 ground vs surface supplies, 209 hard, and dough rheology, 191 hydration effects reasons for treatment, 208–209 salt and, 192 soft, and dough rheology, 191 types of treatment, 209–212 Water activity, 31, 171, 175–178, 330, 392, 398, 399–400, 406 Index definition, 32 and relative humidity, 32 Water diffusion, 325 Water-holding capacity, 392, 393, 398 Water-soluble protein, 394, 398 Water vapor migration, 88 Water vapor pressure, 88 Weak, 302, 308, 315, 318 Web, 245 Wet bulb temperature, 35 Wheat composition, 50, 68 Wheat classes, 184 hard red spring (HRS), 184, 199 hard red winter (HRW), 184, 199 soft red winter (SRW), 184, 200 soft white (SW), 184, 200 Wheat flour, 184–190 approximate composition, 188 functionality and selection, 188–190 carbohydrates, 190 lipids, 190 proteins, 188–190 kernel structure and, 184 milling, 185–187 clear flour, 187 extraction rate,187 patent flour, 187 straight flour, 187 species and, 184 Wheat kernel structure, 184–185 bran, 184 endosperm, 184 germ, 184 Wheat species, 184 Whey, 274, 278–281, 285 as by-product, 280 Whey powder, 328 Whey protein denaturation, 320 White-pan bread, 183–184 WHO (World Health Organization), 165, 178 Winterization See Product quality, tests World Health Organization (WH0), 165, 178 Wort boiling, 232 cold break, 232 hot break, 231 Yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 191, 402 dough maturation, 191–192 fermentation, 191 flavor, 192 forms, 191 gas production conditions, 191 loaf volume, 194, 195, 196 salt effects on activity, 192 Yeast foods, 189, 192 gluten strength and, 189 loaf quality and, 192 Yeast-leavened breads variety breads, 183–84 white-pan breads, 183–184 ingredients,183;198 production,193 quality criteria, 184, 194 shelflife See Staling staling, 196–197 See also Staling Yield as affected by cow, 275 as affected by heat treatment, 276 as affected by pH of curd, 276 effect of calcium, 278–279 Yogurt, 48, 64–65, 297 basic manufacturing steps, 48, 64 ingredients, 48, 64, 65, 299–300 standards, 48, 65 starters, 300, 304 511